GEOLOGIC and

GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS

Freddie E. Bien, MSCE, M.ASEP

Structural Engineer
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Overview
This presentation will seek to Characterize
the various Damage that can be sustained
during an Earthquake.
It is intended to classify these into various
categories in order to provide for a Unified
understanding and approach in the
assessment of Damage due to Earthquakes
and thus identify priorities during an event.

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Introduction
Due to the High Seismicity in this part of the world, it
would be necessary to live with the constant threat of
Earthquakes.
As the prime Engineering Discipline involved in the
effects of Earthquake on structures, infrastructures and
land development, it would be necessary for us Civil
Engineers to build-up our body of knowledge on the
hazards and damage associated with Earthquakes in order
to be able to respond more intelligently to emergency
situations.
The knowledge gained can also be employed
preemptively when we design Structures that could resist
severe earthquake loads without collapse or loss of life.
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Objectives
It is intended to show examples of various Earthquake
related Geotechnical and Geologic Hazards.
By these examples and through discussions, participants
will be able to identify such hazards, characterize them
and also perhaps respond appropriately to similar
situations in the future.
Fundamental aspects of Earthquake related behavior of
Soils and the Substructure shall be explained.
Soil/Structure interaction will also be highlighted to show
what has worked and what has failed in so far as Design
and construction methodologies are involved.

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Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale
The seismicity scale widely used in North America is the Modified Mercalli (MM)
Scale, established in 1931. This scale is graded with division into 12
categories.

I. Not felt except by a few under especially favorable conditions.

II. Felt only by persons at rest in places such as upper floors of buildings.
Delicately suspended objects may swing.

III. Felt by many persons in places such as upper floors of buildings but of a
degree that most persons do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing
automobiles may rock slightly as if from vibration caused by passing truck.
Duration may be measured.

IV. In daytime, felt by many indoors but by only a few outdoors. Dishes, windows,
doors disturbed, and wall creak. Sensation like a heavy truck striking a
building. Standing automobiles rocked considerably.

V. Felt by all, many awakened. Some dishes and window glasses broken, wall
plaster may crack. Unstable objects overturned. Disturbance of telephone
poles, trees, and other tall objects sometimes noticed. Pendulum clocks
stopped.
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VI. People are frightened and run outdoors. Heavy furniture may be moved; some instances
of fallen plaster and toppling of chimneys. Slight damage.

VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and
construction, slight to moderate in ordinary structures, and considerable in poorly built or
badly designed structures. Chimneys broken. Felt in moving automobiles.

VIII. Some damage even in buildings of good design and construction. Considerable damage
in ordinary buildings, with some collapsing. Great damage in poorly constructed buildings.
Panel walls thrown out of frame structures. Falling of houses and factory chimneys, columns,
monuments and walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Sand and mud ejected in small amounts.
Changes in well water. Hinders driving of automobiles.

IX. Damage considerable in buildings of good design and construction. Structures thrown
out of alignment with foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously. Underground pipes
damages.

X. Wooden houses of good design and construction collapse. Most masonry and frame
structures destroyed together with foundations. Ground cracked causing damage. Rails bent.
Slopes and embankments slide. Water surface rises.

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XI. Almost all masonry structures collapse. Bridges destroyed. Fissures over entire
surface of ground. Underground pipelines completely out of service. Earth slumps and
land slips in soft ground. Rails bent prominently.

XII. Damage total. Waves seen transmitted at ground surface. Topography changed.
Objects thrown into air.

Damage due to Ground Failure:

Direct Effects:
Ground Failures Or Instabilities due to Ground Failures:
Ground Cracking
Liquefaction
Differential Settlement
Lateral Spreading
Landslides
Vibrations transmitted from the Ground to the Structure
Indirect Effects (or Consequential Phenomena):
Tsunamis
Landslides
Floods
Fires

We shall concentrate on Direct Effects of Earthquakes related to Ground

Failure. (ref: NISEE )

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Landslides

Cracks Appear
Trees Lean

Water seeps

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Landslides
Slide Nomenclature

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Landslides

Landslides can and have been induced by Earthquakes. Numerous

natural and even man-made slopes have marginal stability when
earthquake Forces are factored into the slope stability analyses.
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 Landslides

As Civil Engineers, we have to be able to determine based on

manifestations what would be a critical or dangerous slope and
what are the remediation measures that need to be employed
before such slopes can be declared safe.
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Landslides
Debris Flow
Corollary to
landslides are what
is known as Debris
flows coming from
Detrital materials
along slopes or
highly fractured
and weak rocks that
could be mobilized
by Ground shaking
and Dislodged
from the precarious
locations.

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Landslides
Debris Flow Debris flows can be a threat to
life and property and could totally
block the lifelines and commerce
in the Area. Such is what is
happening to portions of Kennon
and Marcos Highway in addition
to Landslides.
One way to protect the public is
by the construction of Rock
Fences and Protective Tunnels or
totally avoiding these hazards.
These are essentially what is
being done along critical portions
of Marcos Highway.

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Soil LIQUEFACTION ?
Liquefaction is the Sudden loss
of Ground support due to the the
sudden increase in Pore water
pressures causing the individual
grains of Soil to be Buoyed up
and behave as a Fluid with very
little or no shear strength.
This phenomenon is generally
considered only in Sandy soils.

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Factors Affecting Liquefaction
Grain size affects the behavior of sand masses. Fine and uniform
granulometry are more prone to liquefaction.
Initial relative density-the looser the soil, the more it is susceptible to
liquefaction.
Vibration characteristics-shock loadings cause almost instantaneous
liquefaction as compared to steady vibration.
Drainage and deposits-deep pervious layers induce the soil to behave as an
undrained soil during earthquake loading. Drainage on the other hand will
stabilize a potentially liquefiable sand as it will readily allow the pore
pressure to dissipate.
Magnitude and nature of loading-high initial effective stresses reduce the
possibility of liquefaction.
Period of loading-sand deposits that have remained undisturbed for long
periods of time under loading tend to cement or weld together.
Previous strain history-if a sol has been previously subjected to stress, the
stresses required to cause liquefaction are considerably increased.
Trapped air-if air is entrapped in the voids, it helps to dissipate excess pore
pressure and thus reduce the possibility of liquefaction.

From www.cen.bris.ac.uk
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LIQUEFACTION
Toppling or Subsidence
The picture below is the most
graphic example and perhaps
the most well known pictorial
record of Liquefaction induced
damage to Buildings.
This is in Niigata, Japan.
The Damage consist of:
Toppling

Most of these buildings were supported on Short Subsidence

Friction Piles. When the surrounding ground
liquefied, the piles lost frictional support. Leaning
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 LIQUEFACTION
Sand Boils
Sand Boils are one of the clearest
manifestations of a Liquefaction
event particularly in undeveloped
areas where structural Distress is
not evident.
Sand boils occur when excess pore
water breaks out through weak
seams or pipes in the ground
bringing with it fine sand that has
liquefied

Ejected Sand

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LIQUEFACTION
Sand Boils

Sand Boils act as pore pressure relief

Vents or fuses which could
accelerate the Ground Subsidence
after the initial shock.

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 LIQUEFACTION
Spreading and Subsidence
Also associated with
liquefaction is the
lateral spreading of
weak or unsupported
slopes causing
subsidence and
significant lateral
movements .

Turnagain Heights, Alaska

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LIQUEFACTION
Sand boils

Sand ejecta are very evident

in this picture.

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LIQUEFACTION
Sand Boils and Rise of Water Water Mark

In this particular development,

Liquefaction damage was minimized
as the the project area was stabilized
or densified beyond the critical
liquefiable condition. The structures
were undamaged. However, along
the boundary areas where
liquefaction occurred in adjacent
unstabilized soils, Sand boils and
Portopialand Resort, Kobe , rise of Groundwater were clearly
Japan evident. This clearly points the way
to prevent or mitigate Liquefaction
induced damage=> By Densification
of the loose sands.

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE

As the name implies, Lifeline structures are critical structures

necessary to the sustainment of life and survivability of a community
or a facility.
Lifelines need to survive severe earthquakes without totally
impairing their service or Function. Most lifelines are necessary
during the few critical hours of rescue operations or are needed to
restore the function of a facility immediately .
These are therefore assigned higher design Safety factors when
subjected to various loadings such as earthquake, wind, flooding and
fire.

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 Damage to Structures

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES
Examples:

Roads and highways

Railways and Light Rail Systems
Water Distribution Systems (pipes,
reservoirs,treatment plants etc)
Critical Irrigation Facilities
Fuel Pipelines (Depots, storage, dispensing etc)
Transportation Facilities:
Ports
Wharves
Airports
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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE
Port facility Cranes

This Crane toppled because the

wharf was displaced and
damaged by lateral spreading
and slumping due to
Liquefaction.
Kobe Port, Japan

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE

Ports and Wharves

SECTION

The Cause of the Damage. PLAN

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Soil / Foundation Interaction
Improved Ground
Settlements and
cracks in the
unstabilized South
Boundary areas.

Portopialand Amusement Park in Kobe, Japan.

The whole development was stabilized using vibro rod
densification which increased the density and prevented
liquefaction.
Note that in the boundary zones where adjacent properties have not
been densified, Damage has occurred.
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Soil / Foundation Interaction

Improved Ground

Floodwater mark

Portopialand Amusement Park, Kobe, Japan

This resort development showed the value of ground densification as
a means to counteract Liquefaction. The Ground was densified
beyond the Critical N-value that could trigger liquefaction induced
damage.
No structural damage was sustained by the Structures on densified
land.
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Soil / Foundation Interaction
Piled Foundations
Kobe, Japan
This school Gymnasium was supported
on end bearing piles and did not suffer
any damage due to Liquefaction.
However, the surrounding area shows
massive ground subsidence after
Liquefaction.
Lower Picture shows the interior of the
Gymnasium.

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Mitigating Harmful Effects of Liquefaction.

Liquefaction induced Damage to structures can

be minimized or eliminated by the following
methods:
Avoidance
Effective bypassing of the liquefiable layers by piling
to hard formation.
Ground Densification
Vibro compaction
Dynamic Compaction
Stone columns
Sand piles
Rammed Aggregate Piers
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Soil / Foundation Interaction
Piled Foundations

Piled foundations would eliminate dangers due to poor Ground

in an Earthquake.
However, Attention to details and proper design are still very
necessary as the pictures will show:
Left Picture-Columns did not give way but because of
their flexibility under severe Earthquake loading, the
Deck structure collapsed
Right Picture-Most of the Columns/piers
survived but due to poor detailing at the
pile/column interface, the column tore out and caused
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collapse.

LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE

Tanks for water and fuel Storage
This elevated tank toppled due to poor
Ground and liquefaction underneath the
foundations.

This at ground tank did not suffer any

damage as it was supported on
Densified or stabilized soils.

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE
Drainage Pipes and Water Pipes

Reinforced Concrete Pipes are highly

susceptible to damage at the joints
particularly under severe ground
shaking or when the pipelines have to
cross fault lines.

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE

Viaducts

The viaducts in
Kobe Japan
suffered major
collapse Due to
Large ground
movements,
Liquefaction and
poor detailing or
construction.

Viaduct Collapse in LA County.

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE
Water Canals

This water canal suffered damage on the

concrete lining due to large ground
movements.

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE

Bridges

Collapsed spans of various bridges

Niigata, Japan
Major Bridge collapse due to
liquefaction of soil
underneath the bridge pier
Foundations.

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LIFELINE STRUCTURES DAMAGE
Railways

Railroads are vital lifelines that

are most often disrupted by
Earthquakes because of their
linear extent that are traversed by
faults or ground movements.

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Where to Get More Information

Web Resources
nisee-National Information Service for
Earthquake Engineering-
www.nisee.berkeley.edu
Liquefaction-www.cen.bris.ac.uk/civil
USGS- United States Geological Survey
http//geohazards.cr.usgs.gov
Earthquake Preparedness-ABAG-
Association of Bay Area Governments
www.abag.ca.gov
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The End

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