Journal of Paleolimnology 26: 161179, 2001.

161
2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Lacustrine basin hydrocarbon exploration current thoughts

Barry Jay Katz

Texaco Group Inc., 4800 Fournace Place, Bellaire, TX 77401, USA (E-mail: katzbj@texaco.com)

Received 28 January 2000; accepted 29 July 2000

Key words: hydrocarbon source rocks, petroleum reservoirs, depositional models, organic productivity, organic
preservation, matrix dilution

Abstract

Although much of the worlds petroleum resource-base is associated with marine systems, regionally lacustrine
petroleum systems are important. Individual accumulations may exceed several billion barrels. In each of these
cases the oil is derived from a lacustrine source rock and may be produced from either nonmarine or marine res-
ervoir rocks. The purpose of this paper is to describe the factors that control lacustrine source rock development
and the nature of lacustrine reservoirs. Lacustrine oils display different physical and chemical characteristics than
their marine counterparts. These differences can be related to the nature of their precursor material. Although the
nature of the products are different, the geochemical threshold criteria for defining source rocks in both settings
are the same because of common expulsion requirements. Commercially significant lacustrine systems require the
presence of large, long-lived lakes. Such lake settings are tectonic in origin and restricted to climatic settings where
precipitation exceeds evaporation. Within these large lake systems three primary factors determine source rock
potential and quality. These factors are primary productivity level, organic preservation potential, and matrix sedi-
mentation rate, which controls the dilution of preserved organic matter. Source rock potential is maximized where
both productivity and preservation potential are maximized and sedimentation rate is minimized. To some degree
these factors can compensate for each other. Hydrocarbon reservoir potential within lacustrine basins is partially
impacted by overall tectonic setting. Within extensional settings, transport distances tend to be limited, with much
of the sediment being transported away from the basin. The sediments delivered to the lake are poorly sorted and
sedimentologically immature, commonly resulting in poor reservoirs due to both primary properties and their sus-
ceptibility to diagenesis. Within rifts better reservoirs tend to develop along platform or flexural margins. Stacking
of reservoirs is important in lacustrine systems but baffles and barriers are often present between individual sand
units. These barriers form as a result of lake level fluctuations. In compressional settings transport distances tend
to be longer, resulting in more mature, better sorted sediments leading to higher quality reservoirs. These reser-
voirs typically develop in fluvial-deltaic and wave-dominated shoreline settings. Lacustrine carbonate reservoirs
are locally important. These carbonates tend to develop during lake level lowstands and are dependent on diagenesis
(dissolution and karstification) for porosity and permeability development. Lacustrine reservoirs are often strat-
igraphically and areally limited and display low individual well production rates. Within pure lacustrine systems
exploration opportunities appear to be often restricted by either reservoir presence or quality (i.e., production rates).
The best exploration opportunities in lacustrine basins appear to be associated with hybrid systems where a lacustrine
source and marine reservoir exist.

This is one of a series of papers to be published in Journal of Paleolimnology that were collected from the 2nd International Congress of
Limnogeology held May, 1999, in Plouzane, France, and organized by Dr. Jean-Jacques Tiercelin.
162
Introduction
Much of the worlds petroleum resource-base is asso-
ciated with marine depositional settings. There are,
however, a number of geographic provinces including
Southeast Asia (e.g., Indonesia), China, and the con-
tinental margins of Brazil and West Africa (e.g., Ga-
bon and Angola), where either the source alone or the
source and reservoir developed within a lacustrine set-
ting. Lacustrine petroleum source rocks and organic-
rich sediments have been identified throughout the
stratigraphic record (Smith, 1990) ranging from the Pre-
cambrian (e.g., Nonesuch Shale, Keweenawan trough,
Michigan, USA) and Paleozoic (e.g., Dinantian Oil
Shale Group, Midland Valley, Scotland) through the
Mesozoic (e.g., Bucomazi Formation, Congo basin,
Angola) and the Tertiary (e.g., Shahejie Formation,
Bohai basin, China) into the Recent (Lake Tanganyika).
The locations of these deposits, as well as those of other
basins and deposits discussed in the text are presented
in Figure 1.
In some of these provinces lacustrine source rocks
may have generated more than 90% of the resource-
base (Katz, 1990). Furthermore, included within these
geographic provinces are many giant fields containing
more than 100 million barrels of recoverable oil. For
example, the Daqing Field of the Songliao basin, China,
will ultimately produce over 8 billion barrels of lac-
ustrine-derived oil from lacustrine reservoirs (Meyerhoff
& Willums, 1981). Minas and Duri fields of Central
Sumatra, Indonesia, contain 9 and 5 billion barrels of
oil, respectively, with an additional 28 fields in the
basin containing over 100 million barrels of lacustrine-
derived oils in largely near-shore marine reservoirs
(Katz & Dawson, 1997; Figure 2). And, Marlim field
in the Campos basin, offshore Brazil, is believed to
contain more than 8 billion barrels of lacustrine-derived
oil in deep-sea fan reservoirs (Guardado et al., 1989).
The oils contained within these lacustrine-derived
systems are geochemically and physically distinct from
their marine counterparts. Lacustrine oils tend to be
more paraffinic and waxier (i.e., greater abundance of
nC22 components; Tissot & Welte, 1984) than marine
oils (Figure 3). As a consequence of this higher wax
content, lacustrine oils tend to have higher pour points.
Lewan (1984) observed that lacustrine-derived oils
display higher nickel/vanadium ratios than marine-
derived oils. Lacustrine oil biomarker compositions are
also different from marine oils, although not uniform
(Mello et al., 1988). For example, present in some lac-
ustrine oils is the isoprenoid botryococcane (Figure 4),
which is derived from the fresh to brackish water al-
gae Botryococcus braunii (Brassell et al., 1986). Bot-
ryococcane is only present in living Botryococcus
during its resting state (Brown et al., 1969; Metzger et
al., 1985). Brassell et al. (1986) extended this obser-
vation from the modern to the ancient noting that bot-
ryococcane was not detected in several samples where
visual identification of Botryococcus colonies was
made. Other biomarker differences may be found in
their pristane/phytane and hopane/sterane ratios which
tend to be elevated relative to their marine counterparts,
as well as in their specific biomarker compositions.
Lacustrine oils derived from a single source rock
often display greater variability in composition than
marine oils derived from a single source. For example,
in marine oils stable carbon isotopic compositions typi-
cally vary within ~ 2, while in lacustrine oils this
variability may approach 10 (Katz & Metani, 1989;
Figure 5). This greater variability in isotopic compo-
sition tends to result from variations in surface produc-
tivity and the associated change in the carbon pool. In
a lacustrine setting because of the limited size of the
carbon pool as productivity levels increase and the
amount of carbon sequestered increases the carbon iso-
topic composition of the organic matter increases (i.e.,
the preserved organic matter becomes isotopically
heavier; Curiale & Gibling, 1994). This process is not
a significant factor in marine systems because of the
magnitude of the carbon pool. Other temporal and spa-
tial variations within a single lacustrine basin may re-
sult in variations in organic input and ultimately the
geochemical character of the generated oil.
Although the detailed chemistry of lacustrine oils
differs from their marine counterparts, their source
rocks do share similar threshold criteria. Potential and/
or effective petroleum source rocks contain a minimum
of 1% organic carbon and when pyrolyzed yield more
than 2.5 mg HC/g rock (Bissada, 1982). Lacustrine
source rocks do, however, display different hydrocar-
bon generation histories. The kinetics of hydrocarbon
generation by lacustrine source rocks differs from
marine source rocks (Huc, 1990). Typically the activa-
tion energy distribution of a marine kerogen tends to
be much broader than that of a lacustrine kerogen, in-
dicating that hydrocarbon generation occurs over a
much broader thermal maturity range in marine sys-
tems than in lacustrine systems (Sundararaman et al.,
1988; Figure 6). This may, in part, be a result of the
more limited diversity of lacustrine biosystems com-
pared to marine systems (Meyers & Ishiwatari, 1995).
Furthermore, the mean activation energies tend to dif-
Figure 1. Geographic index for basins and lakes discussed in the text.
163
164
Figure 2. Oil field size as a function of exploration maturity of the Central Sumatra basin.
fer with higher values commonly being associated with
lacustrine settings (Huc, 1990). This difference sug-
gests that oil generation from lacustrine settings tends
to require higher levels of thermal maturity than for
marine source rocks and is completed over a narrower
thermal maturity range.
There has also been a suggestion that in several Chi-
nese basins immature oil may form. This is thought to
occur as a result of the initially high lipid content as-
sociated with many lacustrine source rocks undergo-
ing defunctionalization (i.e., hydrocarbon generation
occurs without a kerogen precursor; Huang Difan,
1997). These immature lacustrine oils, therefore, dif-
fer from immature marine oils which are thought to
be derived from early generation through the cleavage
of weak bonds present in sulfur-rich kerogen (Baskin
& Peters, 1992).
The purpose of this paper is to examine the key fac-
tors unique to lacustrine petroleum systems. These in-
clude the development of lacustrine source rocks and
the nature of lacustrine reservoir rocks.
Controls on lake formation
Unlike marine depositional systems, lacustrine basins
are often geographically limited and short-lived. Con-
sequently, the volume of sediment in such basins tends
to be small, poorly represented in the stratigraphic record
and not important to the search for petroleum, even
when organic-rich. In order for these sediments to be
preserved in the stratigraphic record and to be of com-
mercial significance the lacustrine basin needs to be
areally large and long-lived.
An examination of modern lake basins suggests that
of the 11 primary lake basin forming mechanisms (Hut-
chinson, 1957) only those with a glacial and tectonic
origin appear to be areally extensive (Katz, 1995).
 165

Figure 3. Comparison of high-temperature gas chromatograms of a waxy lacustrine oil from Central Sumatra (A) and a non-waxy marine oil
from the Niger Delta (B).

Figure 4. Whole-oil gas chromatogram of Minas crude oil from Central Sumatra containing the isoprenoid botryococcane.
166

Figure 5. Comparison of whole-oil carbon isotope compositions of Kimmeridge Clay-derived oils (black bars) and Brown Shale-derived oils
(white bars).

These two mechanisms are responsible for the worlds
25 largest lakes (Herdendorf, 1990). A further exami-
nation of these great lakes reveals that the glacial lakes
are restricted to latitudes above 40 , whereas tectonic
lakes range from the equatorial to sub-polar regions
(Figure 7).
Not only does mode of basin formation influence
size, but it also appears to influence the longevity of
the lake. Meybeck (1995) observed that tectonic lakes
are the most long-lived with modern tectonic lakes
having ages that may exceed 25 million years. This
contrasts with glacial lakes that have ages less than
10,000 years. This analysis implies that only tectonic
lakes are of potential significance to the petroleum re-
source-base.
Tectonic lakes can form in either extensional (rifts
and pull-apart basins) or compressional (foreland) set-
tings. Physical characteristics of lakes formed in these

A
Figure 6. Comparison of activation energy distributions of hydrocarbon generation for the marine Schistes Carton (black bars) and the lacustrine
Green River Formation (white bars).

Figure 7. Latitudinal distribution of the 25 largest modern lakes. Black bars represent tectonic lakes. White bars represent glacial lakes.
structural regimes are different. Lakes that develop in
extensional settings tend to display lower width/depth
ratios (< 50) compared with those that have formed in
compressional settings. In a compressional setting the
width/depth ratio typically exceeds 100 and may ex-
ceed 2000 (Katz, 1995). This width/depth ratio is im-
portant in establishing a lakes mixing potential. A
lakes mixing potential plays a role in both nutrient re-
supply (productivity) and water column stratification
(preservation).
The presence of a tectonic depression does not by
itself insure the presence of a permanent water body.
A regular and consistent water supply must also be
available. Water may be supplied directly through rain-
fall, surface runoff via rivers and streams, or through
subsurface spring discharge. Street & Grove (1979)
suggest that lake maintenance is principally by surface
input and is, therefore, largely controlled by climate.
Permanent lake bodies are favored in regions where
precipitation exceeds evaporation. Currently this posi-
tive water balance is best developed in the tropics, 15
either side of the Equator, with the most positive water
balance being situated at approximately 5 S (Serruya
& Pollingher, 1983). The importance of water supply
is clearly apparent when the latitudinal distribution of
modern large lakes is examined. Large lakes are ab-
sent from the high-pressure subequatorial arid belts
(Figure 7).
The relative balance between evaporation and in-
flow also tends to influence salinity as well as sedi-
167
B
ment character. Lakes tend to be more saline as evapo-
ration increases relative to influx. Three end-member
situations relating evaporation and inflow were proposed
based on lake systems within the Newark Supergroup
of eastern North America (Olsen, 1990). In those situ-
ations where inflow and evaporation are in near-bal-
ance sediments tend to be fine-grained and lake volume
(or level) is very sensitive to subtle changes in pre-
cipitation (e.g., Newark basin). Where inflow exceeds
evaporation no desiccation features are observed and
the sedimentary record includes coals and deltaic de-
posits (e.g., Richmond basin). Where evaporation ex-
ceeds inflow shallow lakes and playas tend to dominate
(e.g., Fundy basin). Very often lakes in these more arid
settings owe their existence to groundwater discharge
through springs. Deposits in these often-ephemeral
lakes tend to be cyclic and sand-rich.
The latitudinal position and width of the humid belt
and its bounding arid regions have varied throughout
the geologic record in response to changes in atmos-
pheric circulation caused by both long and short term
factors. Long term factors, which include changes in
continental configuration and atmospheric CO2 content
(Barron, 1990), tend to determine the overall potential
for lake development. The higher frequency changes,
which may be driven by Milankovitch forcing factors
(Olsen, 1990), appear to control lake levels and vol-
ume. In a given lake basin the number of climatically
induced sedimentary cycles can be significant. For
example, over 220 sedimentary cycles have been docu-
168
mented between the Late Cretaceous and Oligocene in
the Jianghan basin (Katz & Liu Xingcai, 1998). Each
cycle in the Jianghan basin is composed of a saline
interval, composed largely of halite with some higher
salts, and a fresh episode composed of argillaceous
carbonates. Each sedimentary cycle ranges in thickness
between 1 and 50 m. As suggested by the changes in
mineralogy within the Jianghan basin, the magnitude
of short-term changes in lake level can be quite signifi-
cant. Scholz & Rosendahl (1988) noted that during the
Pleistocene lake level in Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi
have varied by more than 300 m.
Within any given climatic belt the general climatic
pattern may be altered by topographic and geographic
considerations (Barron, 1985). For example, during
Pangean time (Permian-Triassic) the presence of a sin-
gle mega-continent would result in precipitation being
generally restricted to the continents periphery (Hay
et al., 1990). Interior lakes, when present, would be
largely saline. On a smaller scale, topographic varia-
tions have been used to explain the wide-range of hu-
midity levels present within single rift systems. Such
a model has been used in the Triassic rift system of
eastern North America to explain the presence of both
coals, an indicator of humid conditions, and evaporites,
an indicator of arid conditions. It also explains the sa-
linity distribution of lakes in the Ethiopian rift system
where salinity decreases with elevation (Katz, 1995).
Geographic and topographic factors are probably a
partial explanation for the lack of synchronicity ob-
served in Pleistocene African lake level changes.
Geographic effects may be further amplified by
monsoonal wind patterns that may shift the prevailing
winds and result in very strong seasonal differences in
precipitation. Monsoonal effects have been used by
Moore et al. (1995) to aid in explaining the distribu-
tion of freshwater lakes within the South Atlantic Cre-
taceous rift system.
One additional factor that also needs to be taken into
consideration for lake development is the character of
the country rock. In regions where the country rock
tends to be more permeable, lake development tends
to be more restricted because of the loss of surface
waters (Meybeck, 1995).
Source rock development
Once the presence of a long-lived and volumetrically
significant lake basin is established the factors which
control lacustrine source development are generally
similar to those of marine systems although driving
mechanisms may differ. Three primary controlling fac-
tors of source rock development are the rate of primary
productivity, organic matter preservation, and the in-
organic or matrix sedimentation rate. Often these fac-
tors are interrelated and in some cases may be able to
partially compensate for each other.
Primary productivity
Primary productivity within lacustrine systems varies
significantly from less than 1 gC/m2/yr in some Alpine,
Antarctic, and Arctic lakes to over 2000 gC/m2/yr in
some nonpolluted tropical lakes (Likens, 1975). Con-
trolling the level or rate of productivity is the latitudi-
nal position, turbidity, and nutrient availability. Water
chemistry (ionic speciation and salinity) tends to con-
trol the nature of the biomass rather than its magnitude.
Latitudinal position influences the angle of incident
radiation, the length of the day and growing season.
The higher the latitude the lower the productivity.
Within a given latitudinal belt lake clarity and nutrient
availability appear to be the primary controlling fac-
tors on productivity. Turbidity results in the rapid at-
tenuation of light. This attenuation compresses the
photic zone and reduces the overall effectiveness of
the biosystem (i.e., the nutrient supply is not fully uti-
lized). In general, higher turbidity levels are associated
with elevated suspended loads which are, in turn, asso-
ciated with drainage basins dominated by fine-grained
clastic rocks and strong seasonality (Cecil, 1990).
With regard to the availability of nutrients, long-term
availability of nutrients appears to be much more im-
portant in controlling the level of productivity than any
instantaneous concentration. Therefore, the dynamics
of nutrient supply and renewal are key to establishing
and maintaining lacustrine productivity (Bloesch et al.,
1977). And, with the exception of youthful lacustrine
systems, the remineralization (decomposition) of organic
matter and nutrient recycling is probably of greater
significance than the introduction of nutrients through
an external source (Dean, 1981).
Bacterial processes such as denitrification largely
control remineralization or nutrient regeneration, and
mediate sulfate reduction and methanogenesis. These
processes occur in both oxic and anoxic settings and
within both the water and sedimentary columns. Bacte-
rial nutrient regeneration may be supplemented by the
activity of grazers, including zooplankton and the higher
trophic levels.

Once liberated these nutrients need to be reintro-
duced into the photic zone in order for productivity to
be maintained. This is accomplished through complete
or partial water column mixing which may either be
continuous or seasonal. In those situations where sea-
sonal mixing or overturn takes place there is often a
seasonal algal bloom. The frequency and magnitude of
mixing is a function of wind speed and persistence,
basin morphology, salinity, and temperature. Nutrient
recycling in shallow, broad, unprotected lakes (i.e.,
high mixing potential) tends to be more effective than
deep, narrow, protected lakes (i.e., low mixing poten-
tial). In those cases where the nutrients remain trapped
in the hypolimnion the lakes are commonly oligo-
trophic (productivity less than 30 gC/m2/yr).
Although the recycling of nutrients plays a dominant
role in mature lacustrine systems external nutrient sup-
plies are critical to the development of the nutrient pool
and may control productivity in immature lacustrine
systems and in those rare cases where runoff is nutri-
ent enriched (Bloesch et al., 1977; Dean, 1981). Nu-
trient input is commonly a function of drainage basin
geology (Kelts, 1988). For example, phosphorous in-
put tends to be greater when the drainage basin includes
sedimentary rocks in lowlands when compared to those
situations where the drainage basin is principally crys-
talline rocks in mountain regions, with some of the
highest levels associated with sedimentary phosphate
deposits (Hutchinson, 1957). Phosphorous is often con-
sidered the major limiting nutrient in lacustrine systems
(Kaliff, 1983).
An examination of the relationship between lake
salinity and productivity reveals no clear correlation
between the two (Hammer, 1981). Elevated salinity
does not necessarily result in a decrease in the level of
primary productivity it does, however, result in a de-
crease in the diversity of biomass (Warren, 1986).
Within saline and hypersaline lakes the algal popula-
tion is often dominated by Dunaliella sp., with halo-
philic and halotolerant bacteria also present (Post,
1977).
Ionic speciation appears to control the nature of the
algal population, including its diversity (Talling &
Talling, 1965). Differences in ionic character can be
ascribed principally to variations in country rock and
differences in evaporation (Talling & Talling, 1965;
Stumm & Baccini, 1978). In fact, in large lakes dif-
ferences in water chemistry may exist within a single
water body.
Differences in algal and bacterial populations are a
primary control on the geochemical character of the oil
169
that they ultimately generate and may aid in explain-
ing the wide diversity in the geochemical character of
lacustrine oils. For example, differences in water chem-
istry are thought to explain many of the differences in
the oils within Central Sumatra (Katz & Mertani, 1989).
These differences in oil geochemistry include the pres-
ence of extended tricyclics in two oil fields (Pudu and
Pematang Bow Fields, Figure 8A) from a geographi-
cally restricted part of the Central Sumatra basin. Ex-
tended tricyclics are thought to be indicative of alkaline
lake conditions (Kruge et al., 1990). The oils from else-
where within the basin appear to have been derived
from a non-alkaline lake system (Figure 8B).
Organic matter preservation
The extent of organic matter preservation controls both
the quantity and quality of material preserved in the
sedimentary record (Demaison et al., 1984). And, as
with productivity there are several factors that control
organic matter preservation. These factors include the
availability of oxidizers, rate of remineralization, ex-
posure time, and the availability and initial character
of the organic matter.
There are a number of potential oxidizing agents that
may act on available organic matter. These include free
oxygen, nitrate, and sulfate. The role of free oxygen is
well documented in the East African rift lakes (Katz,
1990). In those lakes with similar levels of primary
productivity higher levels of organic enrichment and
more oil-prone organic matter is present when depos-
ited within an anoxic hypolimnion compared to that
from lakes with a well-mixed water column.
The availability of oxygen is controlled by its initial
solubility and renewal (resupply) rate. Oxygen solubil-
ity decreases with increasing temperature (Mortimer,
1956) and salinity (Kinsman et al., 1974). Mixing or
overturn largely controls oxygen renewal or re-supply
(Demaison & Moore, 1980). As noted above, mixing
is also a means of re-supplying nutrients to the photic
zone. The potential for stratification (i.e., reduced mix-
ing or overturn) is generally lowest at low latitudes
because of reduced seasonal temperature differences,
which limits seasonal variations in surface water den-
sity, and reduced water density contrasts at higher tem-
peratures.
Stratification may also be controlled through salinity
contrasts. Salinity contrasts develop through subsurface
spring discharges (hydrothermal and nonhydrothermal;
e.g., Green Lake, New York; Takahashi et al., 1968) or
170
Figure 8. M/z 191 ion chromatograms of an alkaline lake-derived crude oil from Pudu field (A) and a non-alkaline lake-derived crude oil
from Pematang field (B).
through climatic changes, where freshwater caps dev-
elop on a preexisting saline water body (e.g., Black
Sea).
Winds often provide the necessary energy for the
disruption of thermal and/or salinity stratification and
therefore act as a primary driving mechanism for oxy-
gen renewal. Mixing tends to be favored with greater
wind speeds, longer duration winds, and greater fetch
area. Complete mixing of the water column tends to be
favored in lakes with a high width/depth ratio (or mix-
ing potential). Partial mixing tends to be more typical
when the width/depth ratio is low as in Lake Tanganyika
where there is only seasonal erosion of the hypolimnion
(Beadle, 1981).
It should also be noted that the efficiency of other
oxidizers might equal or exceed that of free oxygen. For
example, sulfate reduction in saline lake bodies may
result in losses of organic matter comparable to that
associated with highly oxic conditions (Kelts, 1988)
and can extend into the sedimentary column. Jrgensen
& Cohen (1977) has shown that sulfate reduction within
the upper 8 cm of the sedimentary column may con-
sume more than 98% of the organic matter originally
deposited.
The rate of remineralization is strongly temperature
dependent. Abiologic remineralization processes in-
crease with increasing temperature. Biologic processes
also tend to increase with increasing temperature, with
maximum bacterial rates being achieved at tempera-
tures of approximately 40 C.
Exposure time is the period that the organic matter
is subject to attack by the various available oxidizing

agents. In the case of an oxic water column, exposure
time includes the entire settling period, as well as the
initial burial phase. It is dependent on the settling rate,
water depth, and the rates of bioturbation. In a partially
stratified water column, exposure time is generally
thought to be limited to the time within the oxygenated
epilimnion.
Within saline lakes water density also plays an im-
portant role in determining exposure time. In some
saline lakes, such as Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA), the
water density can be equal to or greater than the den-
sity of the organic matter produced in or delivered to
the lake (Post, 1977). In such cases the settling time is
prolonged and often requires either the formation of
pellets incorporating mineral matter (Porter & Robbins,
1981) or the freshening of the lakes water reducing its
density (Katz et al., 1987).
The availability and type of organic matter also plays
a role in overall preservation efficiency. The presence
of large quantities of labile (i.e., hydrogen enriched
algal) material reduces the available oxidizers through
consumption resulting in more efficient preservation.
The introduction of hydrogen-poor, vitrinitic and in-
tertinitic material tends to place less oxygen demand
on the system than liptinitic material (Waples, 1983).
In part, the introduction of large quantities of auto-
chthonous organic matter can compensate for the pres-
ence of other conditions that may favor organic matter
destruction. It is such a mechanism that permits the
preservation of significant quantities of organic mat-
ter in some shallow, well-oxygenated lakes that exhibit
high levels of productivity. An excellent example of
such compensation can be found in Lake Victoria,
where lake waters are typically oxygenated (Hecky et
al., 1994), yet hydrogen enriched organic matter may
be quite abundant, with organic carbon contents ex-
ceeding 15% (Talbot, 1988).
The efficiency of organic matter preservation is fur-
ther enhanced through the introduction of other reduced
species, such as methane or hydrogen sulfide, into the
water column. These compounds, which may be gen-
erated diagenetically within the shallow portion of the
sedimentary column, consume free oxygen ahead of the
organic matter thus resulting in enhanced organic mat-
ter preservation.
In addition to controlling the quantity of organic
matter preserved, the quality of the organic matter is
controlled by preservation efficiency. Higher preserva-
tion efficiencies tend to result in higher levels of hydro-
gen enrichment and a greater degree of oil-proneness.
Koyama et al. (1973) noted that organic matter prefer-
171
entially losses organic hydrogen and nitrogen and that
organic carbon is the most stable component in recently
sedimented organic matter. Therefore, hydrogen en-
riched algal organic matter may through poor initial
preservation become largely gas-prone, or under ex-
treme circumstances inert (Demaison et al., 1994).
Sedimentation rate
The previously noted source rock threshold values exist
as a result of expulsion requirements. Effective source
rocks require that the organic matter is concentrated in
order for petroleum expulsion to proceed. At low sed-
imentation rates (less than 1.0 mm/yr), under oxic
conditions, there appears to be a positive correlation
between sedimentation rate and organic matter quan-
tity and quality (Kelts, 1988; Canfield, 1992). This is
largely a result of the reduction in exposure time through
a reduction in the time spent at the sediment-water in-
terface as well as the time exposed to different micro-
bial processes which may be acting on the available
organic matter (Coleman et al., 1979). At higher sedi-
mentation rates, however, there appears to be an inverse
correlation between sedimentation rate and organic
carbon content (Ibach, 1982). This is thought to be a
result of dilution by the sedimentary matrix (Kelts,
1988), and appears to be a partial explanation for the
generally low levels of organic enrichment typical of
many deltaic (Laplante, 1974) and evaporitic (Katz et
al., 1987) settings.
Under anoxic and sub-oxic conditions the slower the
matrix accumulation rate the higher the organic carbon
content because of the lack of inorganic dilution (Kelts,
1988). This is consistent with the concept of improved
source rock quality associated with some condensed
sedimentary sequences (Kirk, 1994). Condensed sedi-
mentary sequences under oxic conditions typically are
organic-poor and the organic matter present is often
gas-prone or inert. Matrix dilution appears to be a par-
tial explanation for the highly variable organic carbon
contents within the anoxic portions of Lake Malawi and
Tanganyika. Within Lake Tanganyika those portions of
the basin strongly influenced by the high rates of sedi-
mentation associated with deltaic deposition tend to
display organic carbon contents of less than 2%, in
contrast to the 6+ % associated with the more sheltered
portions of the lake basin where sedimentation rates are
low (Huc et al., 1990). Similar patterns have been ob-
served in Lake Malawi, where C. Scholz (personal com-
munication) has shown that the lowest levels of organic
172
enrichment and least oil-prone material are associated
with the more proximal deltaic settings and the organic-
richest and most oil-prone material being present in the
hemi-pelagic settings.
As a consequence of the role of matrix dilution the
distribution of oil-prone source material often appears
to be related to the distance from sediment source. Oil-
prone rocks appear largely restricted to more distal
settings. In more proximal settings the hydrocarbon
source rock potential is highly variable. Typically,
such a setting contains rocks with little, if any oil source
rock potential. There are, however, zones where sig-
nificant gas generation potential exists. Such a regu-
lar facies distribution is very well developed in the
Qingshankou Formation (Lower Cretaceous), Songliao
basin, China (Li Deshing et al., 1995) where a bulls-
eye organic facies pattern exists. In the central por-
tion of the basin the higher average levels of organic
carbon are observed and the organic matter is more
oil-prone.
It should also be noted that in addition to matrix di-
lution, allochthonous organic matter may be introduced
into the lacustrine system. Although this material re-
sults in an increase in organic carbon content it very
often results in a degradation of source quality. This
degradation in source quality is a partial explanation
for the apparent differences in source rock quality be-
tween clastic and carbonate source rock systems (Katz,
1988).
Yet one other way of examining the impact of the
relative sedimentation rate on source rock develop-
ment is by comparing it to the rate of development of
accommodation space (Carroll & Bohacs, 1999). Three
end-member cases have been proposed. The first sce-
nario is where sedimentation exceeds subsidence. Un-
der such conditions, the basin undergoes in-filling,
shallow lakes may be present, but marshes and swamps
dominate. Within these settings much of the organic
matter is contained within coaly sediments. The sec-
ond scenario is where sedimentation rate equals sub-
sidence. Under these conditions, alluvial and fluvial
deposition tends to dominate. Organic matter tends to
be in low concentrations, typically less than 1.5%, and
poorly preserved, principally type III. The third sce-
nario is where subsidence exceeds sedimentation. These
circumstances provide the greatest likelihood for deep
lake development. And, if suboxic to anoxic condi-
tions are present excellent petroleum source rocks
may develop. Organic matter content within these
sediments may exceed 10% with the organic matter
being either type I or II.
Temporal and lateral source rock variability
Even where oil-prone source rocks have developed
their stratigraphic distribution is not uniform. Oil-prone
rocks appear best developed in the upper portion of the
lacustrine sequence, prior to the final in-filling phase
(Figure 9). The generalized pattern has been recognized
in portions of Central Sumatra (Katz et al., 1998), along
the West African margin (Moore et al., 1995), and in
western China (Carroll, 1998). The transition from a
more gas-prone to a more oil-prone interval appears to
be gradational. This transition is probably a reflection
of several factors, including increasing biologic matu-
rity of the lacustrine system, subsidence trends, and
basin tectonics. Watson et al. (1987), Lambiase (1990)
and Yang Jiaming et al. (1995) suggested that this
stratigraphic pattern is strongly influenced by varying
subsidence rates during basin evolution. This general
pattern can be interrupted and repeated as a result of
tectonic re-activation, climate changes, and/or changes
in sedimentation rate (Lambiase, 1990).
In addition to temporal or stratigraphic variations
there are also spatial variations in source rock quality
within individual basins. As noted above, some of these
spatial differences may be the result of variations in
both inorganic and organic allochthonous input as in
the Songliao basin. Elsewhere these differences may
reflect variations in the subsidence and in-filling his-
tories of different sub-basins within a larger basin.
This has been used (Williams et al., 1985; Katz &
Mertani, 1989) to explain the differences in source
rock quality within the various sub-basins in Central
Sumatra. These differences can be quite significant and
economically important. For example, over 70% of
the Central Sumatran reserves are associated with the
Aman sub-basin which displayed the most favorable
subsidence history for oil source rock development. In
contrast less than 1% of the basins reserves are present
in the Kiri sub-basin which had a much less favorable
subsidence history and is largely gas-prone.
Lacustrine reservoirs
Historically there has been considerable emphasis placed
on lacustrine source rocks. In many lacustrine basins
the primary reservoir system is also lacustrine (e.g.,
Songliao basin). The presence of potential reservoir
rocks does not appear to be as much of a problem as
producibility, reservoir continuity, and heterogeneity.
For example, within the Daqing Field as many as 24

Figure 9. Representative total organic carbon (A) and hydrogen index (B) logs for the Aman Trough, Central Sumatra.
separate producing zones are present. The typical well,
however, produces on the average only ~ 320 bbl/day
(Meyerhoff & Willums, 1981) even though in some of
the reservoir sandstones average porosities are greater
than 25% and average permeabilities are greater than
500md (Li Desheng, 1995). In order to compensate for
these low production rates large numbers of wells are
often required, as in Daqing where more than 10,000
173
wells have been drilled and more than 3000 are actively
producing.
Within rift lake settings sandy facies are associated
with nearshore, deltaic, subaqueous fans and turbidite
environments. Cohen (1990) notes that the axial del-
tas typically result in the largest lacustrine sand bod-
ies. Even these deltas are, however, areally small in
comparison to major marine deltas (Wells et al., 1994).
174
Fan deltas building from the escarpment margins are
smaller and do not coalesce because of their limited
drainage basin and dominance by small river systems
with limited carrying capacity. Although areally lim-
ited these deltas tend to contain stacked sand bodies
because of the high rates of subsidence associated
with the border fault margin. In general, stacking in
lacustrine basins is important because most individual
reservoir sand units are thin and often below seismic
resolution. Flexural margin or platform deltas also dis-
play favorable reservoir development (e.g., Ilhas Forma-
tion-Neocomian, Recncavo basin, Brazil) particularly
during the early phases of rifting (Scholz, 1995). In
fact, Scholz (1995) suggests that low stand deltas along
the flexural margin may represent the most attractive
reservoir facies containing the largest volume of well-
sorted sand. The better reservoir facies development on
the platform margin occurs because of shallow-wa-
ter depths, slower subsidence rates, lower topographic
relief relative to the fault-bounded escarpment margins
leading to large volumes of concentrated, clean, well-
sorted sands (Bracken, 1994), their higher preservation
potential, and their limited disruption by faults.
Shallow-water, lacustrine, rift sandstones can display
good to excellent reservoir properties, largely as a re-
sult of reworking and the winnowing of fines. For ex-
ample in the Lucula Sandstone (Neocomian, Congo
basin, Cabinda, Angola) porosities can exceed 20% and
permeabilities can exceed 200 md (Figure 10). In gen-
eral, the shallow water facies are much better than the
deeper water facies. Lacustrine turbidites can, however,
display good reservoir characteristics (e.g., Candeias
Formation-Neocomian, Recncavo basin; Magnavita
& da Silva, 1995; and the Lucina and Formations-
Neocomian to Barremian, Gabon basin; Smith, 1995).
Border fault deposits, typically alluvial fans and fan
deltas, may also contain significant amounts of coarse-
grained sediments. These deposits are normally poorly
sorted and usually do not make high quality reser-
voirs. Better quality reservoirs may develop down-
slope through the reworking of fine to medium grained
sands as part of sublacustrine turbidites or distal fan
deltas. Furthermore, these better quality, distal sands
tend to extend further basinward during the early stages
of basin development (Magnavita & da Silva, 1995),
but are usually limited in areal extent.
Within compressional settings the best sandstone
reservoirs develop within fluvial-deltaic and wave-
dominated shoreline deposits (Castle, 1990). Among
the key controls on shoreline sand distribution are sand
input, shoreline stability, and the nature of the wave
interaction with the shoreline. In the Douglas Creek
Member of the Green River Formation (USA), the
barrier-beach sands (311 m) tend to be thicker than
the channel sandstones (1.53 m; Castle, 1990).
With many of the sandstones in both extensional and
compressional settings having developed in shallow
water and in near shore settings their areal distribution
is highly dependent on lake level and lake stability. The
limits of the more sand-rich settings can shift tens of
kilometers as a result of climatically induced lake level
fluctuations (Johnson & Nganga, 1990). These shifts
in lake level may also result in the reworking and ero-
sion of the more up-dip sands deposited during lake
level highstands.
In addition to the limited areal extent of many of
these sand bodies in rift lakes reservoir quality is of-
ten poor, in part, as a result of the very limited trans-
port distances. Material delivered to the lakes is often
poorly sorted, mud-rich, and sedimentologically imma-
ture, making it highly susceptible to diagenesis. Often
this results in lacustrine sandstones that display high
porosities but low permeabilities. The low permeab-
ilities result from unfavorable diagenetic histories in-
cluding the development of authigenic clays and zeolites.
These low permeabilities often result in relatively lim-
ited production rates from vertical wells. Better reser-
voirs may develop in compressional settings where
transport distances are commonly longer and sediments
are both more mature mineralogically and better sorted.
Further reducing the quality of the entire reservoir
package is the intermittent tectonism within rift settings
and the rapid climatically induced changes in lake level
in both tectonic settings. As a result of both tectonic
reactivation and changes in lake level lacustrine sand-
stones often display internal heterogeneity with the
potential for the development of numerous intra-res-
ervoir flow barriers and baffles (Bracken, 1994). In the
Oligocene of the Bohai basin (China) these interven-
ing mudstone baffles can achieve thicknesses in excess
of 20 m (Katz & Liu Xingcai, 1998).
Lacustrine carbonate reservoirs are locally impor-
tant. For example, in the Jianghan basin (China) the
most prolific oil reservoirs are fractured carbonates,
where single-well production may exceed 7000 bbl/day
(Katz & Liu Xingcai, 1998). Lacustrine carbonates of
the Lagoa Feia Formation (Barremian, Campos basin,
Brazil) and the Toca Formation (Congo basin, Cabinda,
Angola) are also important producing reservoirs. For
example, in the Campos basin the Linguado Field has
recoverable reserves of 108 million barrels (Horchutz
et al., 1992) and offshore Cabinda, the Malongo West

Figure 10. Comparison of porosity and permeability in shallow water (I) and deep water facies (L) of the Lucula Sandstone (from Bracken,
1994)
Field has Toca reservoirs containing ~ 240 million bar-
rels (Harris, in press).
Not all of the lacustrine carbonate facies prove to be
effective reservoirs. For example, within the Lagoa
Feia Formation only the pelecypod coquinas prove to
be productive reservoirs (Abraho & Warme, 1990).
The Lagoa Feia coquina displays highly variable res-
ervoir quality with porosities typically averaging about
12% but ranging up to 20%. Hydrocarbons are pro-
duced from the Lagoa Feia displaying porosities of
between 4 and 6%. Individual producing zones within
the Lagoa Feia can reach ~ 20 m.
Lacustrine carbonate deposition is thought to be
largely controlled by water depth, initiated during falls
in lake level and terminated by rises (Harris et al.,
1994). In deep freshwater lakes lacustrine carbonates
typically develop on perched platforms and ramps in
regions isolated from clastic input. These carbonate
bodies tend to be isolated and lateral continuity is lim-
175
ited (McHague, 1990). In these deep lakes there is also
the potential for the transportation of shelf deposits into
deep waters through turbidite flows. Porosity within
these potential reservoirs develops as a result of kar-
stification during lake-level lowstands or as a result of
fracturing. In contrast, in shallow saline lakes potential
carbonate reservoir facies develop as ooid shoals and
biohermal deposits around the lake margin, thus result-
ing in potentially more continuous reservoir bodies.
Exploration significance
An analysis of the previously presented information
suggests that the risks associated with exploration in
lacustrine basins are somewhat greater than those of
marine basins. In addition to questions of presence or
absence of the various petroleum system components
(i.e., source, reservoir, seal, trap, and the necessary
176
overburden for hydrocarbon generation) common to
both marine and lacustrine systems, the risks associ-
ated with spatial relationships among these components
and the quality and quantity of the individual compo-
nents tends to be higher in lacustrine basins.
Common causes for economic failure in pure lac-
ustrine systems appear to be the limited communica-
tion between source and reservoir and limited reservoir
potential, including reservoir capacity and producing
capabilities. The better source rocks develop within the
more distal settings while the better reservoirs tend to
develop in the more proximal settings. Fluid commu-
nication between these two settings is often restricted.
There are examples, such as in the Wind River basin,
Wyoming, USA, (Katz & Liro, 1993), where hydrocar-
bons generated within the lacustrine shale (Waltman
Shale, Paleocene) have remained trapped within the
shales resulting in both over-pressure and anomalously
high concentrations of free hydrocarbons within the
shales. Within these basins although sands may exist
around the basin periphery they are largely void of
commercial quantities of hydrocarbons because of the
overall inefficiency of the hydrocarbon migration net-
work.
Even in those cases where communication does ex-
ist between source and reservoir and the volume of
hydrocarbons generated and migrated does not appear
to be a limiting factor, reservoir volume may be lim-
ited. Commercial quantities of hydrocarbons often rely
upon the presence of stacked sand bodies. Both sand-
stone and carbonate reservoirs are often isolated both
stratigraphically and laterally. Poor reservoir quality
also results in low production rates from individual
vertical wells. These basins often require either hori-
zontal wells or large number of vertical wells for their
development.
More effective exploration in lacustrine basins ap-
pears to be associated with hybrid systems where the
source is lacustrine and the reservoir is marine. Such
systems include the Pematang-Sihapas (Oligocene-
Miocene) system of Central Sumatra (Indonesia) and
the Wenchang-Zhujang (Eocene-Miocene) system of
the Pearl River Mouth basin (China). In these systems
the high generation potential associated with lacustrine
kerogens is combined with the potentially excellent
reservoirs of marine systems. For example, within
Central Sumatra fluvial-lacustrine sandstones of the
Pematang Group display generally marginal reservoir
attributes, porosity values ranging from 1.017.5%,
with permeabilities of between 0.01122 md (Williams
& Eubank, 1995). This contrasts with the marine sands
of the Sihapas Group which display average porosities
between 2125% and permeabilities ranging from 400
4500 md, and typically averaging ~ 1500 md (Williams
& Eubank, 1995).
Although lacustrine systems are often thought to
generate waxy crude oils with low gas/oil ratios, such
as in Central Sumatra, there are several examples where
significant gas accumulations are present. These gas-
rich basins include the Qaidam, Bohai, and Songliao
basins of China. Much of the gas within these basins
is thermally derived from coaly facies or pre-lake
sedimentary facies at elevated levels of thermal matu-
rity rather than from the lake facies proper. There are,
however, examples such as in the southern Bohai ba-
sin where the lacustrine facies proper has achieved suf-
ficient levels of thermal maturity for gas generation.
There are also examples of significant biogenic gas
accumulations within some of these lake basins, such
as in the eastern Qaidam basin. These biogenic gas
accumulations develop as a result of very rapid sedi-
mentation rates and virtually penecontemporaneous
trap development.
Summary and conclusions
Regionally lacustrine petroleum systems are important
contributors to the hydrocarbon resource-base. The
regions with important lacustrine contributions include
Brazil, China, Indonesia, and West Africa. The oils
present in these lacustrine systems are geochemically
distinct from their marine counterparts. In general,
lacustrine oils are waxier and display greater variabil-
ity, even when derived from a single source rock.
From a petroleum exploration viewpoint only tec-
tonic lake basins are important. These basins may be
large and long-lived, providing sufficient sediment
volume for commercial significance.
Lacustrine source rocks form through the same proc-
esses as those of marine systems. The primary differ-
ence is the need for a long-lived lake system. No source
potential develops when productivity and preservation
potential are low. Little source rock potential develops
when productivity is high and preservation potential is
poor. Low to moderate source rock potential develops
when productivity is low and preservation potential is
good. Good to excellent source rocks develop when
productivity is high and preservation potential is good.
Gas-prone lacustrine systems also exist. Very often
the sources for the gas are the coaly and pre-lake
facies. There are a limited number of examples where

post-mature lacustrine source rocks are responsible for
the gas and similarly there are a few examples where
commercial accumulation of biogenic gas can be attrib-
uted to the lacustrine sequence.
Lacustrine reservoirs develop in both extensional
and compressional settings. In rift basins the better
reservoirs appear to have developed within platform or
flexural margin deltas. Although not the largest deltas
they often contain the largest volume of well-sorted
sand and are best preserved. Although shallow water
facies tend to display better reservoir characteristics,
lacustrine turbidites can also display good reservoir
characteristics. Within rifts the immaturity of the sands,
making them subject to diagenetic alteration including
the development of authigenic clays and zeolites, of-
ten results in reduced reservoir quality. In compres-
sional settings, reservoirs develop within fluvial-deltaic
and wave-dominated shoreline settings. Lateral and
vertical continuity of reservoirs is usually limited and
strongly influenced by changes in lake level. Lacustrine
carbonate reservoirs also are present. These carbonate
reservoirs develop principally during low lakestands
and are highly dependent on a favorable diagenetic
history for reservoir development.
Reservoir presence and quality often appear to be a
major limiting factor in pure lacustrine basin explo-
ration. Oil-prone source facies are, however, not ubiq-
uitous and develop under a unique set of circumstances.
Production rates from individual wells are often low and
individual reservoir compartments are stratigraphically
and areally limited. Baffles and barriers are often pre-
sent requiring a large number of wells for field develop-
ment. Better exploration opportunities in lacustrine
basins are associated with hybrid petroleum systems
where the source is lacustrine and the reservoir is ma-
rine.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Texaco Inc. for permis-
sion to publish this work. This paper was originally
presented as a keynote at the Second International Con-
ference on Limnogeology (LENNOU), Brest, France.
This manuscript was improved by the comments of A.-
Y. Huc, W. M. Last, and an anonymous reviewer. The
author would also like to thank Dr. Jean-Jacques Tier-
celin for his invitation to make the original presenta-
tion and to the Conference for their financial support
of his travel to the conference.
177
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