CHAPTER 3

Biogeochemical Cycles

Water is Earth's "proud setter up and puller down of kings."28

3.1 NUTRIENT CYCLES

TREAMS and rivers are complex ecosystems that take part in the physical and
S chemical cycles (biogeochemical cycles) that shape our planet and allow life
to exist.29A biogeochemical cycle is composed of bioelements (chemical ele-
ments that cycle through living organisms), and it occurs when there is interac-
tion between the biological and physical exchanges of bioelements.

J Note: Contrary to an incorrect assumption, energy does not cycle through an

ecosystem-chemicals do. The inorganic nutrients cycle through more than
the organisms; however, they also enter the oceans, atmosphere, and even
rocks. Because these chemicals cycle through both the biological and the
geological worlds, we call the overall cycles biogeochemical cycles.

Each chemical has a unique cycle, but all cycles have some things in com-
mon. Reservoirs are those parts of the cycle where the chemical is held in large
quantities for long periods of times (e.g., the oceans for water and rocks for
phosphorous). In exchange pools, on the other hand, the chemical is held for
only a short time (e.g., the atmosphere; a cloud). The length of time a chemical
is held in an exchange pool or a reservoir is termed its residence time. The biotic
community includes all living organisms. This community may serve as an ex-
change pool (although for some chemicals like carbon that can be bound in cer-
tain tree species for a thousand years, it may seem more like a reservoir), and it

**~hakes~eare's description of Richard-the Kingmaker during the Wars of the Roses.

, Stream Ecology. http:l/home.netcom.com/-cristi,
2 9 ~ a v eC., p. 1, 1998.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 26 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

also may serve to move chemicals (bioelements) from one stage of the cycle to
another. For instance, the trees of the tropical rain forest bring water up from the
forest floor to be transpired into the atmosphere. Likewise, coral organisms
take carbon from the water and turn it into limestone rock. The energy for most
of the transportation of chemicals is provided either by the sun or by the heat re-
leased from the mantle and core of the earth.
In the case of chemical elements that cycle through living things, the follow-
ing can be stated:30

All bioelements reside in compartments or defined spaces in nature.

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A compartment contains a certain quantity, or pool, of bioelements.

Compartments exchange bioelements. The rate of movement of
bioelements between two compartments is called the flux rate.
The average length of time a bioelement remains in a compartment is
called the mean residence time (MRT).
The flux rate and pools of bioelements together define the nutrient cycle
in an ecosystem.
Ecosystems are not isolated from one another, and bioelements come
into an ecosystem through meteorological, geological, or biological
transport mechanisms:
-meteorological (e.g., deposition in rain and snow, atmospheric gases)
-geological (e.g., surface and subsurface drainage)
-biological (e.g., movement of organisms between ecosystems)

As a result, biogeochemical cycles can be local or global.

Smith categorizes biogeochemical cycles into two types, the gaseous and
the sedimentary. Gaseous cycles include carbon and nitrogen cycles. The main
pool (or sink) of nutrients in the gaseous cycle is the atmosphere and the ocean.
The sedimentary cycles include sulfur and phosphorous cycles. The main sink
for sedimentary cycles is soil and rocks of the earth's crust.31
Between 20 to 40 of the earth's 92 naturally occurring elements are ingredi-
ents that make up living organisms. The chemical elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus are critical in maintaining life. Odum points
out that of the elements needed by living organisms to survive, oxygen, hydro-
gen, carbon, and nitrogen are needed in larger quantities than some of the other
elements.32These elements exhibit definite biogeochemical cycles, which will
be discussed in detail later.
The elements needed to sustain life are products of the global environment
that consists of three main subdivisions (see Figure 3.1):

30~romBiogeochernical Cycles 11: The Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles. Yahoo.com internet access, pp. 1-2,
2000.
31~mith,R. L., Ecology and Field Biology New York: Harper & Row, p. 49, 1974.
320dum, E. P., Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, p. 30, 1971.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 Nutrient Cycles
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Figure 3.1 The global environment.

(1) Hydrosphere-includes all components formed of water bodies on the

earth's surface.
(2) Lithosphere-comprises the solid components on the earth's surface such as
rocks.
(3) Atmosphere-is the gaseous mantle that envelops the hydrosphere and the
lithosphere.
To survive, organisms require inorganic metabolites from all three parts of
the biosphere. For example, the hydrosphere supplies water as the exclusive
source of needed hydrogen. Essential elements such as calcium, sulfur, and
phosphorus are provided by the lithosphere. Finally, oxygen, nitrogen, and car-
bon dioxide are provided by the atmosphere.
Within the biogeochemical cycles, all the essential elements circulate from
the environment to organisms and back to the environment. Because of the crit-
ical importance of elements in sustaining life, it may be easily understood why
biogeochemical cycles are readily and realistically labeled nutrient cycles.
Through these biogeochemical or nutrient cycles, nature processes and
reprocesses the critical life-sustaining elements in definite inorganic-organic
cycles. In some cycles, such as carbon, there is no loss of material for long peri-
ods of time. One point to keep in mind is that energy (to be explained later)
flows "through an ecosystem, but nutrients are cycled and recycled.
Humans need most of these recycled elements to survive. Because of this,

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 28 BIOGEOCHEMICALCYCLES

we have speeded up the movement of many materials so that the cycles tend to
become imperfect, or what Odum calls acyclic. Odum goes on to explain that
our environmental impact on phosphorus demonstrates one example of a some-
what imperfect cycle.
We mine and process phosphate rock with such careless abandon that severe lo-
cal pollution results near mines and phosphate mills. Then, with equally acute
myopia we increase the input of phosphate fertilizers in agricultural systems
without controlling in any way the inevitable increase in run-off output that se-
verely stresses our waterways and reduces water quality through
e~tro~hication.~~
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As related above, in agricultural ecosystems, we often supply necessary nu-

trients in the form of fertilizer to increase plant growth and yield. In natural eco-
systems, however, these nutrients are recycled naturally through each trophic
level. For example, the elemental forms are taken up by plants. The consumers
ingest these elements in the form of organic plant material. Eventually, the nu-
trients are degraded to the inorganic form again. The following pages present
and discuss the nutrient cycles for carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

3.2 CARBON CYCLE

Carbon, which is an essential ingredient of all living things, is the basic

building block of the large organic molecules necessary for life. Carbon is cy-
cled into food chains from the atmosphere, as shown in Figure 3.2.
The carbon cycle (see Figure 3.2) is based on carbon dioxide, which makes
up only a small percentage of the atmosphere. From Figure 3.2, it can be seen
that green plants obtain carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and, through photo-
synthesis, described by Asimov as the "most important chemical process on
Earth," it produces the food and oxygen on which all organisms live.34Part of
the carbon produced remains in living matter, and the other part is released as
CO2in cellular respiration. Miller points out that the carbon dioxide released by
cellular respiration in all living organisms is returned to the a t r n ~ s p h e r e . ~ ~

J Note: About a tenth of the estimated 700 billion tons of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is fixed annually by photosynthetic plants. A further trillion tons
are dissolved in the ocean, more than half in the photosynthetic layer.

Some carbon is contained in buried dead animal and plant materials. Much
of these buried plant and animal materials were transformed into fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) contain large amounts of carbon. When

330dum, E. P., Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, p. 87, 1971.
34~simov, I., How Did We Find Out About Photosynthesis? New York: Walker & Company, p. 20, 1989.
3 5 ~ l l e rG.
, T., Environmental Science: An Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 43, 1988.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 Nitrogen Cycle 29
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Figure 3.2 Carbon cycle.

fossil fuels are burned, stored carbon combines with oxygen in the air to form
carbon dioxide, which enters the a t r n ~ s p h e r e . ~ ~
In the atmosphere, carbon dioxide acts as a beneficial heat screen as it does
not allow the heat generated by earth's radiant energy to be emitted into space.
This balance is important. The problem is that as more carbon dioxide from
burning is released into the atmosphere, balance can and is being altered. Odum
warns that recent increase in consumption of fossil fuels "coupled with the de-
crease in the 'removal capacity' of the green belt is beginning to exceed the del-
icate balance."37 Increased releases of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere tend
to increase the possibility of global warming. The consequences of global
warming "would be catastrophic. . . and the resulting climatic change would be
irre~ersible."~~

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is important to all life. Nitrogen in the atmosphere or in the soil can
go through many complex chemical and biological changes, be combined into
living and nonliving material, and return to the soil or air in a continuing cycle.
This is called the nitrogen cycle.39
The atmosphere contains 78% by volume of nitrogen. Moreover, as stated

3 6 ~ o r a nJ., M,, Morgan, M. D., and Wiersma, J. H., Introduction to EnvironmentalScience. New York:W.H.Free-
man and Company, p. 67,1986.
370dum,E. P., Basic Ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, p. 202, 1983.
38~brahamson,D. E. (ed.). The Challenge of Global Warming. Washington, DC: Island Press, p. 4, 1988.
39~illpack, S. C. and Buchholz, D., Nitrogen in the Environment: Nitrogen. Missouri: University of Missouri-CO-
lumbia, p. 1, 1993.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 30 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

previously, nitrogen is an essential element for all living matter and constitutes
1-3% dry weight of cells, yet nitrogen is not a common element on earth. Al-
though it is an essential ingredient for plant growth, it is chemically very inac-
tive, and before it can be incorporated by the vast majority of the biomass, it
must be fixed.40
Price describes the nitrogen cycle as an example "of a largely complete
chemical cycle in ecosystems with little leaching out of the system."41From the
waterlwastewater specialist's point of view, nitrogen and phosphorous are both
commonly considered limiting factors for productivity. Of the two, nitrogen is
harder to control but is found in smaller quantities in wastewater.
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As stated earlier, nitrogen gas makes up about 78% of the volume of the
earth's atmosphere. As such, it is useless to most plants and animals. Fortu-
nately, nitrogen gas is converted into compounds containing nitrate ions, which
are taken up by plant roots as part of the nitrogen cycle, shown in simplified
form in Figure 3.3.
Aerial nitrogen is converted into nitrates mainly by microorganisms, bacte-
ria, and blue-green algae. Lightning also converts some aerial nitrogen gas into
forms that return to the earth as nitrate ions in rainfall and other types of precipi-
tation. From Figure 3.3, it can be seen that ammonia plays a major role in the ni-
trogen cycle. Excretion by animals and anaerobic decomposition of dead or-
ganic matter by bacteria produce ammonia. Ammonia, in turn, is converted by
nitrification bacteria into nitrites and then into nitrates. This process is known
as nitrification. Nitrification bacteria are aerobic. Bacteria that convert ammo-
nia into nitrites are known as nitrite bacteria (Nitrosococcus and
Nitrosomonas); they convert nitrites into nitrates and nitrate bacteria
(Nitrobacter). In wastewater treatment, ammonia is produced in the sludge
digester and nitrates are produced in the aerobic sewage treatment process.
In Wastewater Engineering, several pages are devoted to describing the ni-
trogen cycle and its impact on the wastewater treatment process. They point out
that nitrogen is found in wastewater in the form of urea. During wastewater
treatment, the urea is transformed into ammonia nitrogen. Because ammonia
exerts a BOD and chlorine demand, high quantities of ammonia in wastewater
effluents are undesirable. The process of nitrification is utilized to convert am-
monia to nitrates. Nitrification is a biological process that involves the addition
of oxygen to the wastewater. If further treatment is necessary, another biologi-
cal process called denitrification is used.42In this process, nitrate is converted
into nitrogen gas, which is lost to the atmosphere, as can be seen in Figure 3.3.
When attempting to address the important and complex factors that make up

40~orteous,A., Dictionary of Environmental Science and Technology New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 83,
1992.
41~rice,P. W., Insect Ecology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 1 1 , 1984.
42~etcalf& Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
pp. 85-87,1991.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 Nitrogen Cycle

Dissolution

Organic Nitrogen
as Amino Acids
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Animal 'N'

++
Nitrites Excretion

Loss to Deep I
Sediments

Ammonia

Figure 3.3 Nitrogen cycle.

the topic of stream ecology and self-purification, it is important to understand

the impact that the nitrogen cycle can have on effluent that is dumped
(outfalled) into receiving streams. At the same time, one should remember that
the nitrogen cycle that occurs in the wastewater stream is not the source of the
nitrogen contamination of surface water bodies. As a case in point, Price uses
the example of large inputs of nitrogen fertilizer from agricultural systems,
which "may result in considerable leaching and unidirection flow of nitrogen
into aquatic systems which become polluted with excessive nitrogen . . . ."43

J Note: Nitrogen becomes a concern to stream ecology (quality) when nitro-

gen in the soil is converted to nitrate (NO?) form. Nitrate is very mobile and
moves with water in the soil. The concern of nitrates and water quality is gen-
erally directed at groundwater. However, nitrates can also enter surface wa-
ters such as ponds, streams, and rivers. Nitrates in drinking water can lead to
nitrate poisoning in infant humans and animals, causing serious health prob-
lems and even death. This occurs because of a bacteria commonly found in
the intestinal tract of infants that can convert nitrate to high toxic nitrites
(NO,). Nitrite can replace oxygen in the bloodstream and result in oxygen
starvation that causes a bluish discoloration of the infant ("blue baby" syn-
drome).

43~rice,P. W., Insect Ecology New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 11, 1984.
44~pellman, F. R., The Science of Water: Concepts & Applications. Lancaster, PA: Technornic Publishing Com-
pany, Inc., pp. 175-176, 1998.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 32 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

3.4 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Phosphorus is another element that is common in the structure of living or-

ganisms. However, of all the elements recycled in the biosphere, phosphorus is
the scarcest and, therefore, the one most limiting in any given ecological sys-
tem. It is indispensable to life, being intimately involved in energy transfer and
in the passage of genetic information in the DNA of all cells.
The ultimate source of phosphorus is rock, from which it is released by
weathering, leaching, and mining. Phosphorus occurs as phosphate or other
minerals formed in past geological ages. These massive deposits are gradually
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eroding to provide phosphorus to ecosystems. A large amount of eroded phos-

phorus ends up in deep sediments in the oceans and lesser amounts in shallow
sediments. Part of the phosphorus comes to land when marine animals are
brought out. Birds also play a role in the recovery of phosphorus. The great
guano deposit, bird excreta, of the Peruvian coast is an example. Man has has-
tened the rate of loss of phosphorus through mining activities and the subse-
quent production of fertilizers. Even with the increase in human activities,
however, there is no immediate cause for concern, because the known reserves
of phosphate are quite large. Figure 3.4 shows the phosphorus cycle.

I
Protoplasm synthesis

\/ Erosion / /

Marine birds
and fish

*
Loss to deep sedirnents

Figure 3.4 The phosphorus cycle.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 Sulfur Cycle 33

Phosphorous has become very important in water quality studies, because it

is often found to be a limiting factor (i.e., limiting plant nutrient). Control of
phosphorus compounds that enter surface waters and contribute to growth of al-
gal blooms is of much interest to stream ecologists. Phosphates, upon entering a
stream, act as fertilizer, which promotes the growth of undesirable algae popu-
lation~or algal blooms. As the organic matter decays, dissolved oxygen levels
decrease, and fish and other aquatic species die.
While it is true that phosphorus discharged into streams is a contributing fac-
tor to stream pollution (and causes eutrophication), it is also true that phospho-
rus is not the lone factor. Odum warns against what he calls the one-factor con-
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trol hypothesis, i.e., the one-problemlone-solution syndrome. He goes on to

point out that environmentalists in the past have focused on one or two items,
like phosphorous contamination, and "have failed to understand that the strat-
egy for pollution control must involve reducing the input of all enriching and
toxic material^."^^

J Note: Because of its high reactivity, phosphorus exists in combined form

with other elements. Microorganisms produce acids that form soluble phos-
phate from insoluble phosphorus compounds. The phosphates are utilized by
algae and terrestrial green plants, which in turn pass into the bodies of animal
consumers. Upon death and decay of organisms, phosphates are released for
recycling.46

3.5 SULFUR CYCLE

Sulfur, like nitrogen and carbon, is characteristic of organic compounds.

However, an important distinction between cycling of sulfur and cycling of ni-
trogen and carbon is that sulfur is "already fixed." That is, plenty of sulfate an-
ions are available for living organisms to utilize. By contrast, the major biologi-
cal reservoirs of nitrogen atoms (Nz)and carbon atoms (CO2) are gases that
must be pulled out of the atmosphere.
The sulfur cycle (see Figure 3.5) is both sedimentary and gaseous.
Tchobanoglous and Schroeder note that "the principal forms of sulfur that are
of special significance in water quality management are organic sulfur, hydro-
gen sulfide, elemental sulfur and s ~ l f a t e . " ~ ~
Bacteria play a major role in the conversion of sulfur from one form to an-
other. In an anaerobic environment, bacteria break down organic matter pro-

450dum, E. P,, Ecology The Link Between the Natural and the Social Sciences. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., p. 110, 1975.
46~hosphorusCycle. Britannica.comInc., p. 1,2000.
47~chobanoglous,G. and Schroeder, E. D., Water Qualiq. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,p. 184, 1985.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 BIOGEOCHEMICALCYCLES

Bacterial photosynthesis Oxidation by bacterium

Bacterial Reduction
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\
Digestion \ / Sulfur Dioxide,
SO,
Plant proteins
Animal proteins
Figure 3.5 The sulfur cycle.

ducing hydrogen sulfide with its characteristic rotten egg odor. A bacteria
called Beggiatoa converts hydrogen sulfide into elemental sulfur. An aerobic
sulfur bacterium, Thiobacillus thiooxidans, converts sulfur into sulfates. Other
sulfates are contributed by the dissolving of rocks and some sulfur dioxide. Sul-
fur is incorporated by plants into proteins. Some of these plants are then con-
sumed by organisms. Sulfur from proteins is liberated by many heterotrophic
anaerobic bacteria, as hydrogen sulfide.

3.6 SUMMARY OF KEY TERMS

Hydrosphere-is the water covering the earth's surface of which 80% is

salt, 19% is groundwater and, obviously, the other 1%is unsalted fresh
surface water (rivers, lakes, streams, etc.).
Lithosphere-is comprised of the solid components of the earth's sur-
face such as rocks and weathered soil.
Atmosphere-is the gaseous mantle enveloping the hydrosphere and
lithosphere, which is 78% nitrogen by volume.
Organisms-require 20-40 elements for survival.
Carbon-is an essential part of all organic compounds; photosynthesis
is a source of carbon.
Photosynthesis-is the chemical process by which solar energy is stored
as chemical energy.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 Chapter Review Questions 35

Nitrogen-is required for the construction of proteins and nucleic acids;

the major source is the atmosphere.
Phosphorus cycle-is a very inefficient cycle; the greatest source is the
lithosphere. Humans have greatly speeded this cycle through mining.
Sulfur cycle-is a cycle in which elementary sulfur of the lithosphere
which is not available to plants and animals unless converted to sulfates,
is converted.

3.7 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

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3.1 Define biogeochemical cycle.

3.2 are those parts of the cycle where the chemical is held in large
quantities for long periods of time.

3.3 The length of time a chemical is held in an exchange pool or a reservoir is

termed its

3.4 The average length of time a bioelement remains in a compartment is

called the

3.5 Name the three transport mechanisms.

3.6 Biochemical cycles can be andor

3.7 Name the two types of biogeochemical cycles.

3.8 The three main subdivisions of the global environment are:

3.9 The carbon cycle is based on

3.10 "The most important chemical process on earth:

3.1 1 In the atmosphere, acts as a heat screen.

3.12 The atmosphere contains 78% by volume of

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

 36 BIOGEOCHEMICALCYCLES

3.13 Aerial nitrogen is converted into mainly by microorganisms,

bacteria, and blue-green algae.

3.14 Excretion by animals and anaerobic decomposition of dead organic matter

by bacteria produce

3.15 The process whereby ammonia converted by nitrification bacteria into ni-
trites and then into nitrates is known as

3.16 The process whereby nitrate is converted into nitrogen gas is known as
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3.17 The ultimate source of phosphorus is

3.18 Phosphate, upon entering a stream, acts as , which promotes

the growth of

3.19 Explain the "one-factor control hypothesis."

3.20 The cycle is both sedimentary and gaseous.

Copyright 2001 by Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.