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Sample Chapters
AGRICULTURE
Table of contents
A note about this sample content booklet ..................................................... 3
How to subscribe for Evolution Distance Learning Programme ...................... 4
Sample Chapters ............................................................................................ 7
Chapter 1 [From Farm Management] Types and Systems of Farming.............................. 8
Chapter 2 [Weed Management] Weed Management ................................................... 13
Chapter 3 [Soil Science] Soil Forming Processes ........................................................... 23
Chapter 4 [From Plant Breeding] Use of Polyploidy in Plant Breeding ........................... 30
Chapter 5 [From Entomology] Storage Pests & their Management ............................... 34
Chapter 6 [From Horticulture] Propagation of Horticultural Crops ................................ 46
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Whereas, when farms in a group are quite similar in the kinds and productions of the
crops and livestock that are produced and the methods and practices followed in
production, the group is described as type of farming. It includes specialized, diversified,
mixed and ranching.
I. Types of Farming
Advantages:
i. Better use of land: It is more profitable to grow a crop on a land best suited to it.
E.g. Jute cultivation on a swampy land
ii. Better Marketing: Specialization allows for better assembling, grading, processing,
storing, transporting and financing of the produce.
iii. Better Management: As there are fewer enterprises, wastage can easily be detected
and they can be better managed.
vi. Efficiency and skills are increased: Specialization allows a man to be more
efficient and expert at doing a few things.
Disadvantages:
i. There is a greater risk - failure of crop and market together may ruin the farmer.
ii. Productive resources land, labour and capital are not fully utilized.
iii. Fertility of soil cannot be properly maintained due to lack of suitable rotations.
v. Farm returns in cash are not generally received more than once in a year, i.e.,
there is no regular farm return.
B) Diversified Farming: A Farm on which no single or source of income yields 50 per cent
of the total receipt is called a diversified farm. More enterprises are taken up on the farm
and no single enterprise is relatively much more important.
Advantages:
i. Better use of land, labour and capital: Better use of land through adoption
of crop rotations, steady employment generation and more efficient use of
equipment are obtained.
iii. Regular and quicker returns are obtained from various enterprises.
Disadvantages:
ii. Better equipping of the farm is not possible because it is not economical to
have extensive implements and machinery for each enterprise.
C) Mixed Farming: Mixed farming is a type of farming under which crop production is
combined with livestock rearing. The livestock enterprise is complementary to crop
production programme so as to provide a balanced and productive system of farming. In
mixed farming, the contribution of livestock activities to gross farm income should be a
minimum of 10 per cent and a maximum of 49 per cent.
Advantage:
D) Ranching
A ranch differs from other type of crop and livestock farming in that the livestock graze
the natural vegetation. Ranch land is not utilized by tilling or raising crops. The ranchers
3) Social Factors: The kind of people in the community and the provision of
protection of crops against the hazards of bird and animal ravages may influence
the farming community to change the pattern of cropping. The co-operative spirit
in providing security to crops, benefits resulting from low transport costs through
collective sale and better marketing facilities permit farmers to expand some
enterprises like fruit farming, dairying or poultry rearing.
System of Farming
The system of farming refers to the organizational set up under which farm is being run. It
involves questions like who is the owner of land, whether resources are used jointly or
individually and who makes managerial decisions. Systems of farming, which are based
on different organizational set up, may be classified into five broad categories:
The advantages of such farming are good supervision, strong organizational set up,
sufficient resources etc. Their weaknesses are that it creates socio-economic
imbalances and the actual cultivator is not the owner of the farm.
Collective farming has come into much prominence and has been adopted by some
countries notably by the Russia and China. The worst thing with this system is
that the individual has no voice. Farming is done generally on large scale and
thereby is mostly mechanized. This system is not prevalent in our country.
The biggest advantage of this system is that the farmers himself is the owner and
therefore free to take all types of decisions. A general weakness of this system is
that the resources with the individual are less. Another difficulty is because of the
law of inheritance. An individual holding goes on reducing as all the members in
the family have equal rights in that land.
Eradication: It is complete removal of all live plant parts and seeds of the weed from an area. It
may be a field/farm/village/geographical region depending upon the need.
In general eradication of common weed seeds is not practiced as these weeds harbor crop
pests or secretes soil nematodicides. They may be useful to hold the soil nutrients against
leaching losses during fallow period. However weed eradication is justified against weeds
like Striga, Cuscuta, and Lantana to prevent their dispersal to new areas of useful land and
water bodies. Weed eradication programme should begin when the weed growth is
limited. If the weed occupied large and continuous areas eradication is not economical. It
should be carried out more than one year. It requires intensive initial efforts to destroy all
plant parts and followed by many years of vigilance to prevent the new weed seedlings
from establishing into adult plants.
Control: Weed infestations are reduced but not necessarily eliminated. Weed control methods
includes:
1. Proper crop stand and early seedling vigor: Lack of adequate plant
population is prone to heavy weed infestation, which becomes, difficult to
control later. Therefore practices like a). Selection of most adopted crops
and crop varieties b. Use of high viable seeds c. Pre plant seed and soil
treatment with pesticides, dormancy breaking chemicals and germination
boosters d. Adequate seed rates are very important to obtain proper and
uniform crop stand capable of offering competition to the weeds.
2. Selective crop simulation: In crop weed competition, competitive
advantage is in favor of can be achieved by selective simulation of crop
growth. Vigorous crop plants compete better with weeds as they close the
ground very quickly. Selective simulation can be achieved by a) application
of soil amendments like gypsum or lime may correct the soil conditions in
favour of crop growth) addition of FYM or synthetic soil conditioners to
very light or heavy soils may improve the soil structure and maintaining
better air water relationships and ultimately it improving the crop growth
c) manures and fertilizers application of proper kind in adequate quantities
improve the crop growth. D) Inoculation of crop seeds with suitable
nitrogen fixing and phosphorous solubilizing organisms may help in
selective simulation of some crops. Eg: Legume crop and non-legume
weed. Selective simulation in wide row crops like maize, sugarcane, cotton
can be achieved by foliar application of nutrients.
3. Proper planting method: Any planting method that leaves the soil surface
rough and dry will discourage early growth. Plough planting (minimum
tillage) methods proved to be very useful to reduce early weed growth. In
summer, furrow planting of crops reduce the weed problems. Because in
this method irrigation water restricted initially to the furrow only. In
transplanted crops farmers get opportunity to prepare weed free main
field.
4. Planting time: Peak period of germination of seasonal weeds coincides
with crop plants. So, little earlier or later than normal time of sowing is
beneficial by reducing early crop weed competition. Eg: Using photo
insensitive varieties we can make adjustments with regarding to time of
planting.
5. Crop rotation: Growing of different crops in recurrent succession on the
same land is called as crop rotation. Monocropping favors persistence and
association of some weeds. Crop rotation is effective in controlling of crop
Advantages
1. These methods are efficient, cheaper, safer, to crop and no harmful effect to crop
and user.
Disadvantages
2. Its success depends on its timely operations when the weeds still young
Mechanical/Cultural Methods
1. Hand weeding: Removal of weeds either manually or by using tools like khurpi or
sickle, when weeds grown upto some extent. Its effective against annuals and
biennials and controls only upper portion of the perennial. Higher labour is
required and is tire some.
2. Hand hoeing: Hoe has been the most appropriate and widely used weeding tool for
centuries. The weeds are taken out with the help of khurpi or hand hoes. Hoeing
by cutting the crown part gives proper control. Annuals and biennials can be
effectively controlled. Convolvulus arvensis which has shallow root system can be
controlled.
4. Sickling: Sickling is also done by hand with the help of sickle to remove the top
growth of weeds to prevent seed production and to starve the underground parts.
These methods are useful for control of tall growing grasses. Especially sickling is
useful in irrigation channels, drainage channels and where undulating
topography is present.
6. Mowing: It is cutting of uniform growth from the entire area up to the ground
level. It is useful more in non-cropped areas than cropped areas. Mowing
improves aesthetic value of an area. It is effective against erect and herbaceous
weeds.
7. Cutting: Cutting is the topping/cutting of the weeds little above ground level. It is
done with help of axes and saws. It is mostly practiced against brushes and trees.
In aquatics under water weed cutters are used.
8. Dredging: This is used to control aquatic weeds growing in shallow ditches. Its a
mechanical method of pulling of aquatic weeds along with their roots & rhizomes
from the mud.
9. Chaining: Very big & heavy chain is pulled over the bottom of a ditch with tractors
along with embankments of ditch. With rubbing action of chain weeds can be
fragmented & collected by nets and hooks.
11. Flaming: It is the momentary exposure of green weeds to as high as 1000oC from
flame throwers to control in row weeds. Eg. Flaming is used in western countries
for selective weed control in crops like cotton, onion, soybean and fruit orchards.
Dodder is also controlled by flaming in lucern.
12. Searing: Repeated application of flame to above ground parts destroyed the root
system and plant dies.
13. Soil Solarization: It is also called solar soil heating. It is effective against weeds
which are produced from seeds. It doesnt involve any tillage of the field. It can be
achieved by covering the soil with transparent, very thin plastic sheets of 20-
25mm polyethylene (PE) film during hottest part of summer months for 2-4
weeks. This increases the temperature by 10-12 0 C over the unfilmed control
fields. Then weeds seeds are desiccated which are present at top 5 cm soil depth.
Eg: Phaliris minor, Avena and broad leaved weeds controlled by Solarization.
Whereas Melilotus sp. possess hard seed coat is resistant to Solarization treatment.
14. Chiseling: An implement called chisel (spade like implement with very long
handle) with which weeds & soil can be racked up. Generally, it is practiced in tea
plantations.
15. Tillage: Tillage is done for preparing good seedbed, conservation of soil moisture
& weed control. Tillage removes weeds from the soil resulting in their death. It
may weaken plants through injury of root and stem pruning, reducing their
competitiveness or regenerative capacity: Pre-plant tillage helps in burying the
17. Flooding: Flood kills weeds by excluding oxygen from their environment. Flooding
is a worldwide crop husbandry method of controlling weeds in rice fields.
Introduced weeds are best targets for biological control. Bio-control started in the year
1900.The control of Opuntia spp (prickly pear) in Australia and Lantana in Hawaii with
certain insect bioagents are two spectacular examples of early period biological control of
weeds.
Merits
Demerits
1) Multiplication is costlier
2) Control is very slow
3) Success of control is very limited
4) Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present
5)
Main objective of classical biological weed control is restoring balance between target
alien weed and its natural enemies in the ecosystem by introduction of suitable, exotic
bio-agent. Successful bio-agent reduce the weed population first then the Bio-agent
population due to starvation of food. After some time the bio-agent population may
recover. This process continues in cyclic fashion till the bio-agent and weed population
gets established at a low level. This method is a slow operating and currently used in
non-cropped areas. In crop fields, the bio-agent will not get opportunity to work on host
weed due to frequent use of insecticides and fungicides in modern agriculture. Otherwise
Cyperus rotundus can be controlled in crop fields with moth Bactra verutana and selective
bio control of Ludwigia parviflora (water purslane) by Haltica cyanea (steel blue beetle) in
rice fields.
i. Host-specific: Bio-agents should be host specific and they should not attack other
economic plant spp. They should pass starvation test i.e. they prefer to starve to death
rather feed upon other than host weeds. Lantana was controlled by Teleonemia
scrupulosa insect bio-agent. But in India it is likely to damage teak (Tectona grandis) and
sesame (Sesamum indicum). Zygogramma bicolarata is an effective leaf eating bio-agent
against Parthenium (carrot grass). But it is found to attack sunflower in India.
ii. Bio-agent hardiness: Bio-agent should free from its own parasites and predators. Bio-
agent should withstand starvation for short or long periods of food shortage when the
target weed population is brought to low level. But carp cant survive even a short period
of starvation.
iii. Feeding habit: Bio-agents are more efficient in controlling weeds if they attack either
flowers or seeds of the weed or bore into the stems than root and leaf feeders. But root-
feeding insects are more effective in controlling perennial weeds.
iv. Ease of multiplication: Bio-agent should have high rate and ease of natural
reproduction. It is very important for insects, pathogens, snails and competitive plants.
But it is not desirable with carp as its increased population compete with natural fish.
Bio agent may be either specific or nonspecific. Specific bio agent attack only one or two
specific weeds, while nonspecific bio agent feed upon a variety of vegetation. Specific bio
agents are insects, plant pathogens and competitive plants. Nonspecific bio agents are
Carp fish, snails, and mites.
Six kinds of Bio-agents were used to control weeds. They are Insects, Carp fish, Fungi,
Competitive plants, Snails and mites
2. Carp fish: Certain fresh water Carp fish consume large quantities of aquatic weeds.
Whiteamur (Chines grass carp) Ctenopharyngodon idella is promising spp for
aquatic weed control. This can grow more than its body weight i.e. 5 kg/year and
attaining up to 50kg at its full size. Herbivorous fish are not food specific. Whereas
the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) a non-herbivorous fish used to control
submerged aquatic weeds.
3. Plant pathogen: Many fungi attack specific weed spp. For instance, Acacia glauca
controlled by spore suspension of Cephalosporium zonatum. Skeleton weed
(Chondrilla juncia) controlled by rust causing fungi Puccinia chondrillana.
5. Snails: The large tropical fresh water snail Marisa cornuarietis feed on aquatic
weeds. Marisa feed on roots of water hyacinth, water lettuce and leaves of
Salvinia.
6. Mite: The mite Tetranychus desertorum controls prickly pear Opuntia dellini
Lantana Camera: Lantana was the first weed controlled successfully with certain
insect bioagents in Hawaii. Of this Crocidosema lantana, a moth was found to be
promising in destroying flowers and seeds of lantana. In Australia, three
successful insect biocontrol agents are hispine beetles (Octotoma scabripennis and
Uroplata girardi) and tingid /lantana bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa).
The bio-herbicide philosophy differs from the classical bio-control philosophy referred to earlier,
in certain ways as follows:
Bio herbicide remains active only on the current weed population, without any chance of
cyclic perpetuation of the weed (or of the bio gent); each new flush of the weed thus
requiring retreatment with it. Bio herbicide can be developed for selective control of
weeds in a crop just like any other selective herbicide, which is not the case with the
classical philosophy bio agents. The development of bio herbicides is of great interest to
industrialists since it involves every season requirement of the product for field use. In
variance with it, the classical biological control approach has no incentive to the private,
profit-oriented organizations; it must depend solely upon public sector support.
The Pedogenic/Soil forming processes are extremely complex and dynamic involving
many chemical and biological reactions, and usually operate simultaneously in a given
area. One process may counteract another, or two other processes may work
simultaneously to achieve the same result.
The relationship between pedogenic processes and genetic factors contributes in some
manner or another, to the pedogenic development of each mature soil. All the genetic
factors contribute to the development of each soil, but no single soil is influenced by all
pedogenic processes.
Rock ->Weathering ->Regolith ->Soil forming factors and processes ->True soil
Gains or additions of water (mostly as rainfall) organic and mineral matter to the
soil.
Translocation or movement of soil materials from one point to another with in the
soil. It is usually divided into
ii) Movement in suspension (eluviation) of clay, organic matter and hydrous oxides.
In contrast, the major changes that retard horizon differentiation are due to:
Creep (by shifting old and its replacement by new materials); and
I. Humification
The decomposition of organic matter takes place in two phases: mineralization and
humification. Mineralization is a biochemical breakdown of dead plant tissues by soil
microorganisms to produce simple structured soluble organic substances, mineral
compounds, metal cations and gases (CO2). During the second phase, that is
humification; soluble organic substances regroup themselves in to large molecules by
polymerization and become poorly soluble. They form major part of soil humus and
provide site for retention of cations. The other part of humus is the polysaccharides
gummy products of microbial excretions, which help in soil aggregation.
Mor: It refers to surface soil horizon developed under acid litter and humus from
coniferous and healthy vegetation, where fungi activity predominates.
Mull: Designated as forest soil horizon (A1) is of intimately mixed mineral matter
and amorphous humus. It is slightly acid and is best developed under base rich
litter, where bacterial activity predominates.
II. Eluviation
Mechanical movement of clay and iron oxides from A horizon without undergoing
chemical alteration is called Lessivage. Leaching refers to the movement and removal of
material in solution from the soil. It connotes the removal of the dissolved material from
the entire solum.
Elemental mobility
Ca2+ Na+ > K+, Mg2+ >>>> Fe2+ >> Si4+ >> Al3+
III. Illuvation
The process of deposition of soil materials (removed from the eluvial horizon E) in the
lower layer (or horizon of gains having the property of stabilizing translocated clay
materials) is termed as illuviation. The horizons formed by this process are termed as
illuvial horizons (B-horizon especially Bt).
All these basic pedogenic processes, combine to result in a number of wide ranging soils
that are observed on surface of the earth.
The basic pedogenic processes provide a frame work for later operation of more specific
processes.
The illuviated horizon of CaCO3 is designated as calcic horizon. Whenever high carbon
dioxide is produced in soils, it combines with water and forms into carbonic acid. This
dissolves the calcium carbonate in soils into soluble calcium bicarbonate, which moves
along the percolating water. Again wherever a situation of high temperature and low
carbon dioxide prevails, there calcium carbonate precipitates.
Temp
CO2
Acid loving vegetation, such as coniferous pines (Pinus roxburghii), hemlock (Tsuga
Canadensis) and heath ( Calluna vulgaris) are essential for this process.
Under calcium free, acidic environment (pH <5.0), fungi plays active role in
organic matter decomposition
Less microbial activity declines the polysaccharide production and keeps the
soluble organic products in soluble form.
The soluble organic acids react with sesquioxides and the remaining clay minerals,
forming organic - sesquioxide and organic - clay complexes, which are soluble
and move with the percolating water to the lower horizons.
Alluminium ions in solution hydrolyse and make the soil solution very acidic.
As the materials move out, it gives a bleached appearance (E-horizon) below the surface.
The eluviated materials deposit in B horizon as dark coloured Bh (precipitated humus),
reddish brown Bs (deposition of sesquioxides) and a yellowishish brown (silicate clay)
layer which gradually merges with parent material. Hence a mature podzol has well
developed horizonation. Podzols are highly acidic, low in fertility and used for forestry or
pastures. Rarely crops like oats. Potato and clover can be cultivated.
4. Laterization: The term laterite is derived from the word later means brick or
tile. In tropics, certain soils are massively impregnated with sesquioxides to the extent
of 70 to 80% of the total mass, and forms a cemented horizon, which when dried
Warm and humid (tropical) climate with 2000 to 2500 mm rainfall and continuous
high temperature (+25C) throughout the year. Rapid decomposition of parent
material and organic matter, and intensive leaching are very likely in this climate.
The rain forests of tropical areas are the suitable vegetation for this process. Under
this vegetation organic additions are low but organic matter decomposition is at
very high rate.
The iron released during weathering is oxidized to form FeO, Fe2O3 and coats clay, silt or
sand particles imparting characteristic red color to soils. The Al-oxides /hydroxides
impart grey coatings to the soil particles.
The high temperature, intense leaching and basic kind of parent material all favor the
removal of silica (de-silication) and accumulation of sesquioxides. The soluble basic
cations are quickly released during weathering, moves freely in the soil profile and shoots
up the pH to neutrality. Under this basic environment silica liberated from parent
material is solubilized and leached. The solubility of quartz and amorphous silica
increases with increased temperature.
The sesquioxides are left behind as these are more stable under these conditions. As the
alkaline bases are removed from the seat of their formation, the residual soil is acidic in
reaction. Though considerable eluviation takes place, there is no marked horizonsiation
as the eluviated materials are not re-deposited in the lower layers.
Laterite soils are non-plastic, non-cohesive and have granular structure. They are low in
cation exchange capacity and fertility. Phosphorus fixation is high in these soils.
Plantation crops are usually grown on these soils.
5. Gleization: Glei means blue, grey or green clay. The gleization is a process of soil
formation resulting in the development of a glei (or gley) horizon in the lower part of the
profile above the parent material due to poor drainage conditions or water logged
conditions. Such soils are called hydromorphic soils. This process is not particularly
dependant on climate (high rainfall as in humid regions) but often on drainage
conditions. Poor drainage may be due to lower topographic position, impervious soil
parent material and lack of aeration.
Under anaerobic conditions, iron compounds are reduced to soluble ferrous forms. The
reduction of iron is primarily biological and requires both organic matter and the
microorganisms capable of respiring anaerobically. Iron exists as Fe 2+ organo-compexes
in solution or as a mixed precipitate of ferric and ferrous hydroxides, which is responsible
Arid or semi-arid climatic conditions, associated with shallow and brackish (high
amounts of sulphates and chlorides) ground waters.
The ground water containing high salts moves in an upward direction by capillary action.
The water on evaporation leaves the salts behind, which accumulate at the surface or at
some depth depending upon the capillary fringe. Surface accumulation of salts gives
white appearance to soils .Hence the soils are called as white alkali soils. These soils can
be managed by leaching of salts followed by provision of sub-surface drainage.
The calcium and magnesium in soil solution will precipitate as corresponding carbonates
or bicarbonate whenever the ionic product of solution exceeds the solubility products of
respective carbonates. This reduces the concentration of Ca and Mg in soil solution, there
by releasing them from exchange complex. As this process continues the sodium
concentration on exchangeable complex increases. When the ESP in soils exceeds 15 %,
the soil is designated as alkali soil with a high pH of >8.5, which results in less nutrient
availability.
The high pH in soils results in dissolution of humus, which moves upward along the
capillary water giving black colour to soils. Hence the soils are called black alkali soils.
High sodium on clay minerals results in dispersion of soil aggregates leading to physical
problems like poor aeration, low infiltration and percolation of water.
9. Pedoturbation: It is the process of mixing of the soils. Mixing to some extent takes
place in all soils.
Floral pedoturbation: Mixing by plants, as in tree tipping that forms pits and
mounds.
A monoploid, on the other hand, has the basic chromosome number, x. In a diploid
species, n=x; one x constitutes a genome or chromosome complement. The different
chromosomes of a single genome are distinct from each other in morphology and or gene
content and homology; members of a single genome do not show a tendency of pairing
with each other.
Thus a diploid species has two, a triploid has 3 and a tetraploid has 4 genomes and so on.
When all the genomes present in a polyploidy species are identical, it is known as
autopolyploid and the situation is termed as auto polyploidy.
In the case of allopolyploids, two or more distinct genomes arepresent. Euploids may
have 3 (triploid), 4 (tetraploid), 5 (pentaploid), or more genomes making up their somatic
chromosome number.
Breeding Autopolyploids
5. Colchicine treatment: Colchicine treatment is the most effective and the most
widely used treatment for chromosome doubling. Chromosome doubling reduces
the risk of meiotic complications, and thus increases chances of fertile
autopolyploids.
1. Polyploids have larger cell size than diploids. Guard cells of stomata are larger the
number of stomata per unit area is less in polyploids than diploids.
2. Pollen grains of polyploids are generally larger than those of the corresponding
diploids.
4. Polyploids usually have larger and thicker leaves, and larger flowers and fruits
which are usually less in number than in diploids.
7. Different species have different levels of optimum ploidy. For sugar beet the
optimum level is 3x, sweet potato 6x while for timothy grass it is between 8-10x.
Triploids
Triploids are produced by hybridization between tetraploid and diploid strains. They are
generally highly sterile, except in a few cases. This feature is useful in the production of
seedless watermelons. In certain species, they may be more vigorous than the normal
diploids, e.g., in sugar beets.
Seedless watermelons are produced by crossing tetraploid (4x, used as female) and
diploid (2x, used as male) lines, since the reciprocal cross (2x x 4x) is not successful. The
triploid plants do not produce true seeds; almost all the seeds are small, white
rudimentary structures like cucumber (Cucumissativus) seeds. There are several problem
1. Triploid Sugar beets: Among root crops triploid sugar beets apparently represent the
optimum level of polyploidy because 3n plants have longer roots than diploid and also
yield more sugar per unit area.
2. Tetraploid Rye: The advantage of tetraploid over its diploid counterpart are large
kernel size, superior ability to emerge under adverse condition and higher protein
content. Tetraploid rye varieties have been released for cultivation e.g. Double steel, Tetra
petkus.
Limitations of autoployploidy
1. Larger size autopolyploids generally contain more water (gigas effect) and produce less
dry matter content than diploids.
Allopolyploidy
Allopolyploids have genomes from two or more species production of allopolyploids has
attracted considerable attention; the aim almost always was creation of new species.
Some success has been evident from the emergence of triticale, Raphanobrassica and
allopolyploids of forage grasses.
3. The chromosome pairing in the new species depends upon the similarities
between the chromosomes of the parental species. Chromosomes with such
similarities are known as homeologous chromosomes. After chromosome
doubling, the allopolyploid would have two homeologous chromosomes for each
chromosome present in the F1 hybrid, comparable to the diploid species. Such
allopolyploid is referred as amphidiploid or Allotetraploid.
2. Widening the genetic base of existing Allopolyploids: The genetic base of some
natural allopolyploids may be narrow, and it may be useful to introduce variability
in such cases by producing the allopolyploids afresh from their parental species.
Limitations of Allopolyploidy
2. Newly synthesized allopolyploids have many defects, e.g., low fertility, cytogenetic
and genetic instability, other undesirable features etc.
Aneuploidy
o Stored grain pests cause loss in quality and quantity of food grains. Nearly 5-10%
of grains are lost in storage due to insects and mites, especially beetles and moths.
o They also contaminate food, lower its nutritive value, and create conditions
favorable for mould growth.
o Secondary pests tend to feed on the grains that have already been damaged. e. g.
red and confused flour beetles, Indian meal moth, Mediterranean flour moth, and
the saw-toothed grain beetle.
I. Storage Beetles
o Egg: elongate, oval, whitish, 400-450 eggs on grains, period 4-12 days
o Damage: grub, cavity made, round exit holes, cigar shaped eggs
o Egg: laid singly, several on one grain, translucent, smooth, shiny, later greyish
white, period 4-5 days
o Adult: light brown, humped appearance, elytra with minute hairs, antenna
uniform thickness
o Attacks tobacco, ginger, wheat, peanut, bean, coriander, chilli, turmeric, dried
fruits.
Damage: circular pin head size hole made on turmeric, coriander, ginger, etc.
o Larvae: not hairy, pale white, fleshy with abdomen terminating in 2 dark horny
points, period- 10-20 days
o Adult: yellowish brown, flat, antennae 10 segmented, eye with anterior and
posterior projections, 2.5-3mm
o Pupa: yellowish white, thorax concealing the head, period 3-7 days
o Larva: cigar like, yellowish white, 2 reddish brown spots at anal segment, period-
21 days
o Biggest beetle, 1/4 length, white fleshy body, 2 hard processes at posterior end,
prefers moist places
o Infest whole grains of cereals, millets, processed items like flour, maida
o Grey or buff colored moth, nocturnal in habit, 5-10 mm, fore wings with darker
spots, apex of hind wings fringed with hairs, short lived (5-10 days)
o Larva yellowish white in color with dark head; enters the grain through crack or
split in the husk and closes the hole with silken web
o Feeds on the grain kernels and the grain gets filled with refuse
o Pupates inside the grain spinning a silken cocoon; pupal period 7-10 days
o When more than 16 larvae develop in 250g of rice, the grain color changes with an
unpleasant odour.
o Adults nocturnal, pale greyish moths, fore wings uniform in color, hind wings
creamy white with fringe
o 10-320 eggs laid in crevices of stores; white in color, oval in out line; incubation
period: 5-7 days
o Larva varying in color from whitish to grey; live inside a tough silken tunnel;
larval period : 5-6 weeks
o Pupa dark brown; pupal period 7-10 days inside a silken coon
o Infests a variety of food: stored grains, flours, corns, nuts, powdered milk
o Larvae web together the milled products that become dirty silken masses
containing the excreta of larvae.
o Adults have peculiar markings on the forewings, i. e. reddish brown with a copper
luster on the outer two-thirds but whitish grey on the inner or body ends
o Grown up larvae (1-2 cm) are whitish, greenish or pinkish in color and they spin
the webs
o The female may lay 200-300 eggs over or near the product
o Larvae are mobile over the products and they produce silk
III. Rodents
Two species of rodents, the Norway rat Rattus norvegicus and the house mouse Mus
musculus infest large storage godowns. They feed and contaminate even more of the
stored material with their droppings, urine, and hair.
o The cheese mite, known to cause dermatitis, is larger than both the grain mite and
the mold mite.
o The dried fruit mite infests dried fruits, jams, and products containing lactic,
acetic, or succinic acids. It has been also found in honeycombs, fruit drink residue,
senna confections, rotting potatoes, flour, dried-milk powder, and caramel used
in manufacturing sweets.
o The grocer's itch mite is found in flour, wheat, linseed, tobacco, sugar, cheese,
and bee frames, in bees' and birds' nests.
Bin Storage
Treat empty bins prior to filling. After cleaning bins thoroughly, spray walls,
floors and ceilings to the "point of runoff". Apply the insecticide 2-3 weeks before
harvest.
Before storing the grain, sweep the bin to remove all dead insects.
Moisture condensation and subsequent mold and insect problems are more likely
to develop in mounded grain.
Surface Treatments
Surface treatments are applied to prevent insects such as moths from entering
the grain from the outside.
This should be done as soon as the bins are filled and the surface leveled.
Treatments can be repeated if necessary with 57 % malathion EC, 1% malathion
dust, or Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel).
Fumigation
Fumigation is needed when no other pesticide or control method can reach the
insect infestation.
If the insects are already inside the grain mass, no spray or dust can reach them.
o Clean the store room or go-down before stocking the grains fresh.
o Provide wire meshes on windows, ventilators, gutters, drains, etc. to prevent the
entry of rats.
o Fill crevices, cracks, rat holes, etc. found on the walls and floor.
o The seeds or grains have to be dried in sun thoroughly and repeatedly to bring
down the moisture content below 10 13 %.
o All the bags, bins, etc. which were used previously should be dried in the sun
repeatedly to kill the insect bio-stages harboured in them.
o Seeds should be sieved and all broken grains removed before bagging since broken
grains favour the pest build up.
The walls, ceiling and floor or empty store rooms or go-downs should be treated with any one of
the following chemicals before stocking the bags:
o DDVP 76 % SC 7 ml/litre of water and 3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq. m
o The dunnage materials have to be treated with one of the above chemicals
suggested for surface treatment.
o The bags should be arranged over the dunnage in a crisscross pattern, i.e. arrange
one layer of bags length-wise and the next layer of bags breath-wise.
o The bags have to be stored in such a way that they do not lean or touch the walls.
o A gangway or alley of 0.75 to 1.0 meter has to be left around and at convenient
intervals for inspection, aeration, prevention of moisture seepage and for
fumigation and chemical spraying, if necessary.
o Adequate space has to be left between the roof and the top layer of the bags.
o Bags containing different seeds or grains should be stacked separately and they
should not be mixed.
o If the produce is meant for seed purpose, mix 1 kg or activated kaolin or malathion
5% D with every 100 kg of seed and packed in gunny or polythene lined bags.
o If the produce of cereals is meant for grain purpose, mix 1 kg of activated kaolin to
every 100kg of grain and store. To protect the pulses grains, activated kaolin is
mixed at the above dosage or any one of the edible oils at 1 kg for every 100 kg or 1
kg of neem seed kernel for every 100 kg of cereal or pulse grain and stored.
o One of the following pesticides has to be applied at the specified dosage over the bags:
Malathion 50% EC 10 ml/ litre of water (3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq. m)
o No synthetic insecticide should be mixed with the grains which are meant for
consumption.
o Alleys or gang ways have to be treated with one of the following chemicals:
Apply one litre of spray solution for every 270 cu.m or 10,000 cu. ft.
o The chemicals have to be sprayed on the walls and floors and the treatment
repeated based on the extent of flying and crawling insects.
Up to 2 insects Mild
o Decide the need for shed fumigation (entire store house or go-down) or cover
fumigation (only selected blocks of bags).
o Choose the fumigant and work out the requirement on the following guidelines:
Aluminium phosphide
o In case of cover fumigation clay or red earth with water is mixed and made
into a paste and kept ready for plastering all around the fumigation cover,
or sand snakes are kept ready.
o The edges of cover all around are to be plastered with wet red earth or clay
plaster or weighed down with sand snakes to make leak proof.
o The bags are kept airtight for a period of 5 or 7 days under fumigation
based on the fumigant chosen.
o The mud plaster is to be removed after specified fumigation period and the
cover lifted in a corner to allow the residual gas to escape.
o Aeration has to be allowed and the cover lifted after a few hours.
o Fumigants are used for curative treatments and they have no residual
action on new immigrant insects which can infest grains.
o Trim the branches of trees or plants hanging over the store house or go-
down.
o The doors should closed tightly without gaps. Do not give clearance of
more than 0.5 cm between floor and door.
o Remove the wooden stairs in front of go-downs as soon as the work is over
and they should never be allowed to remain at nights.
o All rat holes should be plugged with cement after filling with glass pieces.
o Check for the rodent infestation periodically. If rodents are noticed, they
may be baited with multi-dose or chronic anticoagulant rodenticides. In
case of dry concentrated food, the bait may be prepared as follows:
o Mix the ingredients thoroughly and keep it in small cups on the rat runs, dark
places, etc. where the rats frequently move. Replace the consumed bait daily. The
rats which begin dying should be collected after 5 or 6 days and buried.
o If needed, the single dose or acute poison bait may be prepared as follows:
The ingredients are mixed thoroughly and kept in cups in the places frequented by rats.
o Before providing the poisoned zinc phosphide bait the plain or non poisoned
bait are provided for two or three days to make the rats to accept the bait.
o The same material stored in the vicinity has to be used for preparing baits to make
the rats accept and eat them without suspicion.
o Once the rat population has been contained, discontinue the baiting by removing
all the baited food and destroyed.
Asexual propagation is the method of multiplication of a plant from a tissue other than
zygote which is formed by the combination of male and female gametes. The cellular
basis for this method of multiplication is mitosis viz., regeneration of a daughter plant
from the somatic tissue. The different methods of asexual propagation are:
A) Cuttings
2. Stem cuttings
B) Layering
a) Ground layering
C) Grafting
3) Top grafting:
b) Notch graft
c) Bark graft
d) Side graft
f) Veneer grafting
D) Budding
2. It is necessary to grow cultivars that produce non viable seeds, eg. Bananas, fig
and grape
3. Propagation of some species may not be easier through seeds . For eg.
Cotoneaster seed it has complex dormancy condition but it is easily propagated
through cuttings
6. To induce disease and pest resistance. Troyer citrange is used as a rootstock for
citrus. It is resistant to tristeza virus.
3. Most of the virus disease are not seed borne. When propagated vegetatively the
virus are carried to the next generation eg. Katte disease of cardamom.
Gene/chromosome change
The plants with normal and mutated cells are called Chimeras
Kinds of Chimeras
1) Sectorial Chimeras- Growing point of the stem is found with two types of tissues.
2) Periclinal - The mutated tissue occurs as a thin skin with several cell
layers
- Relatively stable
Budsport
Budsport is one where a branch of a tree alone is found with genetic change from the
rest of the part
Eg. Apple varieties star kind and Richa Red ar ebudsports from Delicious apple
Apomixis
Plants that produce only apomictic embryos are known as obligate apomicts, (Eg.
Mangosteen) those that produce both apomictic and sexual embryos are facultative
apomicts eg. Acid lime
Type of apomixes
Recurrent apomixes: Here, embryo develops from the egg mother cell which doesnt under
go any meiosis. So., egg has normal diploid number of chromosome, the same as in the
mother plant. The embryo subsequently develops directly from the egg nucleus without
fertilization. In some cases, the embryo develops with stimulus of pollination (eg Allium)
and in some cases, without stimulus of pollination (eg. Malus)
Adventitious or Nucellar embryony: Here, embryo will rise from a cell or group of cells
either in the nucellus or in integuments. Here, embryo develops outside the embryo sac
in addition to the regular embryos. Eg. Citrus
Non-recurrent apomixes: Here embryo arises from the egg nucleus without
fertilization. Since the egg is haploid, the resulting embryo will also he haploid. The case
is very rare.
Vegetative apomixes: In some cases, vegetative buds or bulbils are produced in the
inflorescence in place of flowers eg. Agave and grass species
Polyembryony: The phenomenon in which two or more embryos are present within a
single seed is called polyembryony (Nucellar embryony)
Significance of apomixes
1. Apomictic seedlings are true to its mother and apomictic cultivar can be
considered as a clone
3. Virus diseases are not seed borne. So, it is the best method to rejuvenate virus
affected plant crops.
Cuttings are vegetative plant portions such as stems, leaves and roots taken from plants
to produce new independent plant which, in most ca cases,
ses, will be identical with the parent
plant. This is one of the least expensive and easiest methods of vegetative propagation.
Cuttings are taken from 1) stem 2) leaf 3) leaf bud and 4) root
2. Semi-hard
hard wood cutting
cutting-summer April, may
4. Herbaceous cuttings-Winter
WinterSeptember,
September, October, November, December & January
Hardwood cutting
Deciduous Hardwood
The cuttings are fully matured with more reserve food and anatomically, the maximum of
sclerenchyma can be seen. The cuttings are prepared during dormant season (late fall,
winter or early spring) from wood of previous seasons growth. In some species, such as
fig, olive and certain plum varieties, two year old wood can be used. Fruits propagated
through hard wood cuttings are fig, olive, mulberry, grape, gooseberry, pomegranate,
some plums and rose
At least, two nodes are included in the cutting. The basal cut is usually just below a node
and a top cut to 1 above a node. After preparing cuttings, bundles of cuttings may be
buried out of doors in sandy soil or stored in a refrigerated room before planting in
spring.
While planting, cuttings should be planted 3 or 4 apart and deeply enough (1/3 of its
length
gth placed inside the soil)
Evergreen hardwood
Stem cuttings of trees and shrubs that are taken from current season shoots, which are
partly matured are known as semi-hard wood. They have lesser reserve food compared
to hard wood and similarly, the formation of sclerenchyma in the anatomical
development is also comparatively less. Length of cuttings ranges from 3 to 6 inches.
Here we can retain one or two terminal leaves.
Cuttings of 3-6 length prepared from soft, succulent and new growth may be called as
soft wood cuttings eg. Vernonia
Herbaceous cuttings
This type of cuttings made from succulent herbaceous plants just near the terminal buds
is called herbaceous cuttings (Geranium, Coleus, Alternanthra and Sweet potato) Length
of cuttings is 3-5 with leaves
Leaf cuttings
Leaf blades are utilized in starting a new plant. Adventitious roots and an adventitious
shoot form at the base of leaf. (eg.) Sansevieria, Begonia & Bryophyllum
They consist of a leaf blade, petiole and a very short piece of stem with attached axillary
bud.
This type of cuttings will be very useful in species which have a tendency to produce root
from the leaf, stem or petiole but do not produce a shoot system out of any one of the
three parts. In this case, the axillary bud serves as a source for new shoot system.
Eg.Lemon, Rhododendron.
Root cuttings
Root piece of 2-4 length are planted horizontally at 1 to 2 depth. Eg: Bread fruit, Crab
apple, Black berry, Rasp berry
The formation of adventitious roots in cuttings or layering can be divided into two
phases. One is initiation which is characterized by cell division and the differentiation of
certain cells into root initials and then into recognizable root primordia. The second
phase is the growth and emergence of new roots, by a combination of cell division and
cell elongation including rupturing of other stem tissues and formation of vascular
connections with the conducting tissue of the cutting
In some plants, adventitious root initials form during early stage of intact stem
development and are already present at the time of preparation of cuttings.
cu These are
termed preformed of latent root initials. These generally lie dormant until the stems
are made into cuttings and placed under environmental conditions favourable for further
development and emergence of the primordial as adventitious roots. Willow, Hydrangea,
Poplar, jasmines, Citrons are some of the species which produce preformed root initials.
The position of origin of these preformed root initials is same as that of other
adventitious roots. After elaborate studies with easy and difficult to root plants, some
insight into the physiological basis of rooting has been established. The important aspects
are summarized below:
3. Few organic compounds interact with auxin to affect rooting and they are called
rooting co-factors
Types of layering
b) Ground layering
1) Simple layering
2) Compound layering
Air layering
2. The stem should be girdled for about a length of 1cm to 1 to induce adventitious
root formation above the cut. It should be given at 12-15
15 from the tip of the
branch
3. A ball of slightly damp sphagnum moss is placed around the girdled stem.
4. A wrap of polythene film is placed around the sphagnum moss and tied airtight on
both ends.
Time of removal
Ground layering
1. Simple layering: Branches that have formed roots in one area only are called simple
layers. Such layers are made by bending the branches to the ground and covering the
portion with soil.
This should be done in early spring for temperate species before growth has started. For
other tropical species an actively growing period is selected. The tip of the shoot is left
exposed
posed to carry out normal process of the plant.
Procedure
1. A healthy shoot of pencil thickness from a lower branch near the ground level has
to be selected.
4. The usual time for layering depends on species eg. for temperate species, it is
done in early spring and for this, dormant, one year old shoots are used.
2. Small group of cells, the root initials, continue dividing, forming groups of many
small cells which develop into root primordial (it looks like root tip)
3. A vascular system develops in the new root and becomes connected with adjacent
vascular bundle
Initiation of roots in woody plants: Origin is in the young secondary phloem, sometimes
from vascular rays or cambium. The time at which root initials develop after cuttings are
placed in the propagating bed varies widely
Callus: After stem cuttings have been made and placed under favourable environmental
conditions, callus will usually develop at the basal end of cuttings. This is an irregular
mass of undifferentiated parenchyma cells. It was believed that callus formation would
It is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant into another or placing it
upon another in such a way that an union will be formed and the combination will
continue to grow as one plant. The part of graft combination which is to become the
upper portion if termed as the scion (ion) and the part which is to become the lower
portion or root is termed as root stock or understock or the stock Rootstocks are
commonly grown from seeds, cuttings or layers. All methods of joining plants are
popularly termed as grafting but when the scion part is only a small piece of bark (and
sometimes wood) containing a single bud, the operation is termed as budding.
2. Plants propagated on their own roots may be weak, susceptible to pests and
diseases, or to any adverse environmental conditions may not adaptable to a
particular soil or climate. For many plant species, rootstocks are available which
tolerate all the above cases and hence they may be exploited as a rootstock
through grafting or budding.
5. For fancy purposes, different types of scion may be grafted in the same plant
6. To modify the growth of the plant as dwarf one by employing suitable dwarfing
rootstocks
7. Occasionally the roots, truck or large limbs of trees are severely damaged by
winter injury, cultivation implements, certain diseases or rodent. But use of
bridge grafting or in arching such damage can be repaired and the tree saved.
One of the requirements for a successful graft union is the close matching of the callus-
producing tissues near the cambial layers. Grafting is generally confined to dicotyledons.
These plants have a vascular cambial layer existing as a continuous tissue between the
xylem and phloem. For grafting, it should be borne in mind that the plants to be
combined are capable of uniting. Generally, the more closely the plants to be grafted are
1. Intra-varietal grafting: When a scion can be grafted back on the same plant or a
scion from a plant of a given clone can be grafted to any other plant of the same
clone eg. Elberta peach on Elberta peach
3. Inter-specific grafting: In this case, grafting between the species of the same
genus is done. But this is usually difficult but widely used between species in the
genus citrus. Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is grafted commercially on peach
(Prunus persica)
Stock-scion relationships
A grafted or budded plant can produce unusual growth patterns which may be different
from what would have occurred if each component part of a graftage viz., rootstock and
scion was grown separately or when it is grafted or budded in other types of rootstocks.
Some of these have major horticultural value. this varying aspect of rootstocks in the
performance of a scion cultivar or vice versa is known as stock-scion relationship
1. Size and growth habit: In apple, rootstocks, can be classified as dwarf, semi-
dwarf, vigorous and very vigorous rootstocks based on their effect on a scion
cultivar. If a scion is grafted on dwarf rootstocks eg. Malling IX, the scion grows
less vigorously and remain dwarf only. On the other hand if the same scion is
grafted on a very vigorous rootstock eg. Malling II the scion grows very
vigorously,. In citrus, trifoliate orange is considered to be the most dwarfing
rootstock for grapefruit and sweet oranges. On the other hand, in mango, all
plants of a given variety are known to have the same characteristic canopy shape
of the variety despite the rootstocks being of seedling origin. But recently,
rootstocks of Kalapade, Olour have been found to impart dwarfness in the scion
cultivars of mango. Guava cultivars grafted on Psidium pumilum are found to be
dwarf in stature.
3. Fruitset and yield: The rootstocks directly influence on the production of flower
and setting fruits in oriental Persimmon (Diospyrous kaki cv. Hichiya). When it is
grafted on D.lotus, it produces more flowers but few only mature but when D.kaki
is used as the rootstock, the fruitset is more. the influence of rootstock on the
yield performance of cultivar has been well documented in many fruit crops. Acid
limes budded on rough lemon register nearly 70 percent increased yield than
those budded on troyer citrange, Rangpur lime or its own rootstock. Sweet
orange var. Sathugudi budded on Kichili rootstock gave higher yield that on
Jambhari or on its own seedling.
5. Nutrient status of scion: Roost stocks do influence the nutrient status of scion
also. Sathugudi orange trees have a better nutrient status of alnutrients in the
leaves when it is budded on C.volkarimariana rootstock than on its own rootstock
or Cleopatra mandarin stocks
6. Winter hardiness: Young grape fruit trees on Rangpur lime withstand winter
injury better than on rough lemon or sour orange. Sweet oranges and mandarins
on trifoliate stocks were more cold hardy.
8. Ability to resist soil adverse conditions: Among the citrus rootstocks, trifoliate
orange exhibits poor ability, while sweet oranges, sour orange, Rangpur lime
rootstocks exhibit moderate ability to resist excess salts in the soil. Im pome
fruits, similarly, ariation exists among rootstocks to resist excess soil moisture or
excess boron in the soilyrobolan plum rootstocks generally tolerate excess boron
and moisture than Mananna plum root or other rootstocks viz., peach, apricot or
almond.
1. Vigour of the rootstocks: In apple, it has been found that if apple seedlings were
budded with the Red Astrochan apple. The rootstock produced a very fibrous
root system with few tap roots. On the other hand, if scion Golden burg was
budded on the seedlings, they produced two or three pronged deep roots without
fibrous root system. In citrus, if the scion cultivar is less vigorous than the
rootstock cultivar the rate of growth and the ultimate size of the tree is more
determined by the scion rather than the rootstocks.
2. Cold hardiness of the rootstock: Cold hardiness of citrus roots is affected by the
scion cultivar. Sour orange seedlings budded to Eureka lemon suffered much
more from winter injury than the unbudded seedlings.
Certain plants posses specialized vegetative structure whose primary functions are
storage of food and vegetative reproduction. If such structures are naturally detachable
for propagation, this procedure is termed as separation On the other hand such
structure are to be can into sections for ht purpose of propagation, then this process is
called as division the following specialized vegetative structure are used in propagation
2. Corm: A corm is the swollen base of a stem axis enclosed by the dry, scale-like leaves.
It is solid stem structure with distinct nodes and internodes. the propagation of cormous
plants is principally by the natural increase of new corms. the development of miniature
corms between the old and the new corms is termed cormels.
3. Tuber: A tuber is modified stem structure which develops below ground as a result of th
swelling of the subapical portion of a stolon and sub-sequent accumulation of reserve
materials. A tuber has all the parts of a typical stem. Certain plants produce aerial tubers
in the axils of leaves which are known as tubercles.
4. Tuberous roots and stem: In certain plants, the adventitious roots become thickened and
they do have external and internal structures of roots nodes and internodes. These are
known as tuberous roots. In other plants such as tuberous Begonia, Cyclamen or
Gloxinia, they have thickened structures which have arisen from enlarged hypocotyls
5. Rhizome: It refers to a specialized stem structure in which the main axis of the plant
grows horizontally at or just below the ground surface. A rhizome consists of nodes and
internodes having leaf scars on the node. In determinate types of rhizomes each clump
ends in a flowering stalk and growth continues only from lateral branches.
6. Runner: Runner is a specialized stem which develops from the axis of a leaf at the
crown of a plant and grows horizontally along the ground and forms a new plant at one
of the nodes
7. Offset: It refers to special types of lateral shoot or branch which develops from the main
stem in certain plants and is characterized by shortened, thickened stem of rosette-like
appearance. Offsets which produce sufficient roots can be removed by cutting them close
to the main stem with a sharp knife and used for propagation
8. Suckers: A sucker is a shoot which arises on a plant from below ground usually from an
adventitious bud on a root. Suckers are further known as root suckers, ground suckers
and shoot suckers if they arise respectively from root, near the ground and stem of the
plant
9. Crown: The term crown designates that part of a plant at the surface of the ground from
which new shoots are produced. This kind of crown is observed in herbaceous perennials
like strawberry, pyrethrum, Gerbera or African violet wherein the stem is a short and
thickened structure from which the leaves are produced in a rosette like arrangement
Certain plants do have one or more of the above mentioned specialized structures useful
for propagation. But particular structure is preferred for commercial propagation for
obvious reasons. Strawberry can be propagated both by runners and splits from crown.
8. Nitrogen fixation
4. Culture medium A medium consists of mineral salts, carbon and energy source,
vitamins, plant growth regulators and other organic components
1. Collection of explant: The small piece of plant used to begin a culture is referred
to as an explant. The size, age and type of explant affect the success of in vitro
propagation.
1. Callus culture: A piece of sterile plant tissue with living cells is transferred to a
culture medium to induce callus proliferation. Subculturing is then done onto a
medium with or without altered growth regulator concentration, ultimately
resulting in the induction of adventitious organs or embryos.
2. Cell culture: Cells are maintained in suspension cultures so as to produce free cells
and are then subcultured to regenerate complete plants from single cells. This
technique is now useful to induce variability in plant cells and slowly exposed to
select desirable cell variants and regenerate complete plants from these variants.
4. Embryo culture: involves aseptic excision of the embryo and its transfer to a
suitable medium for development under optimum culture conditions. After the
embryo has grown into a plantlet in vitro, it is transferred to sterile soild or
vermiculite and grown to maturity in a green house
5. Protoplast culture: From different sources, protoplasts, the plant cells without any
rigid cellulose wall but with plasma membrane only, is allowed to fuse to form a
somatic hybrid. These are cultured in suitable media to regenerate the cell wall
and are again cultured in suitable medium for differentiation and morphogenesis.
Hardening
The plant lets developed in the culture tubes are acclimatized to a specific environment
having a high humidity, a low light level and a constant temperature. Besides, the roots
developed in vitro are hairless and hence delicate, requiring care during transfer from
culture medium. To have better survival rate, the plantlets may be transferred to
container kept in mist chamber where relative humidity is maintained at higher order.
Once new growth is seen, the plants may be slowly transferred to outside by exposing to
increased light intensity in stages.
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