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Distance Learning Course

Sample Chapters

AGRICULTURE
Table of contents
A note about this sample content booklet ..................................................... 3
How to subscribe for Evolution Distance Learning Programme ...................... 4
Sample Chapters ............................................................................................ 7
Chapter 1 [From Farm Management] Types and Systems of Farming.............................. 8
Chapter 2 [Weed Management] Weed Management ................................................... 13
Chapter 3 [Soil Science] Soil Forming Processes ........................................................... 23
Chapter 4 [From Plant Breeding] Use of Polyploidy in Plant Breeding ........................... 30
Chapter 5 [From Entomology] Storage Pests & their Management ............................... 34
Chapter 6 [From Horticulture] Propagation of Horticultural Crops ................................ 46

Distance Learning Course Enrolment form ................................................... 62

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A note about this
sample content booklet
Dear student,

Thank you very much for requesting this Sample Content Booklet for Botany Distance
Learning Course. Please allow us to introduce you to this booklet.

This booklet of sample content contains six chapters from our Distance Learning Course
of Botany.

Each sample chapter has been picked from a different area of the syllabus to give you an
idea of how we have prepared our study material in various parts.

In preparing our Botany distance learning course, we have consulted a large number of
Indian and international textbooks. We have taken due care to process the material
according to the UPSCs Civil Service Examination and Indian Forest Service (IFS)
Examination.

Our full course will offer you the following.

Coverage of the prescribed syllabus for the Civil Services Examination and the IFS
Examination in a highly focused manner as per the pattern established by the last
ten years examination papers.
In-depth coverage of topics in a manner suitable to the demands of the IAS & IFS
Examinations.
100% same material as provided with our highly sought after classroom
programmes.
Experience and expertise of our senior faculty members drawn from DU, JNU,
IARI, FRI & other premier universities who have prepared this material.
Useful content from hundreds of books, journals, magazines and web-resources
which we referenced while preparing the material

The singular purpose of our Distance Learning Courses is to empower you to prepare for
and clear the UPSCs Civil Service Examination and Indian Forest Service (IFS)
Examination with confidence. And, we have put every ingredient in our Distance Learning
Courses. You will realize this while going through these sample chapters.

Please go through these sample chapters carefully and if you feel this course is going to
help you in your preparation, order the full course immediately. It will be one of the most
fruitful decisions to make if you want to crack IAS or IFS challenge without any delay.

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How to subscribe for
Evolution Distance
Learning Programme
Please follow any one the two processes outlined below.

Payment option by online transfer into Evolutions Account


Step 1. Find our Admission Form after the end of this sample booklet.
Step 2. Take a print out of the Admission Form, fill it up completely, affix a copy of a
recently taken photograph (passport size) of yours in the space provided and
sign on the last page of the Admission Form.
Step 3. Make an electronic transfer of the applicable course fee in the Account of of
Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. Our Account detail is provided below.

A/c Name: Evolution Educare Pvt.Ltd.

A/C No: 4988002100000930

Bank: Punjab National Bank

Branch: Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, Delhi 110009

IFSC Code: PUNB0498800

Step 4. Once you have transferred the amount, please call our office at 011-47092329
(Monday to Saturday; 9 AM 5 PM) to inform the same and provide us your
postal address to send the course materials.
Step 5. Once we receive fund transfer confirmation from our bank, we shall start your
study material dispatch immediately.
Step 6. The fully filled up Admission Form with a copy of a recently taken photograph
(passport size) of yours is to be submitted either in person or by Registered Post
/Speed Post at our office address Evolution, B11, 2nd Floor, Commercial
Complex, Next to Bank of Maharashtra, Main Road, Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, DELHI
09. Please note that while we send the first set of course material just after successful
online transfer of fee amount, the second lot will be sent only when we have received the
fully filled up Admission Form from your side.

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Payment option by Demand Draft
Step 1. Find our Admission Form after the end of this sample booklet.
Step 2. Take a print out of the Admission Form, fill it up completely, affix a copy of a
recently taken photograph (passport size) of yours in the space provided and
sign on the last page of the Admission Form.
Step 3. Get a Demand Draft made in favour of Evolution Educare Pvt. Ltd. for the
applicable course fee. The Demand Draft can be made from any bank. It needs to
be payable in Delhi / New Delhi. Course fees table is provided below.
Step 4. The fully filled up Admission Form along with the Demand Draft for the
prescribed fee is to be submitted either in person or by Registered Post /Speed
Post at our office address Evolution, B11, 2nd Floor, Commercial Complex,
Next to Bank of Maharashtra, Main Road, Dr. Mukherjee Nagar, DELHI 09.
Step 5. Once we receive the fully filled up Admission Form along with the Demand Draft
for the prescribed fee the Dispatch will commence.

The details of fee and dispatch


The details of fee and dispatch are provided in the table below.

Distance Learning Course Number of Course Fee Including


Dispatch Delivery Charge of Rs.
packets 500/-

GS Prelims (IAS & IFoS) 3 Rs. 8,500

GS For IAS Main All 4 papers 4 Rs. 14,500

GK For IFoS Main 3 Rs. 8,500

ENGLISH For IFoS Main 1 Rs. 4,500

BOTANY For IAS or IFoS Main 1 Rs. 12,500

ZOOLOGY For IAS or IFoS Main 1 Rs. 12,500

AGRICULTURE For IAS or IFoS 1 Rs. 12,500


Main

FORESTRY For IFoS Main 1 Rs. 12,500

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Mode of Dispatch
Evolution will be delivering the Distance Learning Programme study materials to its
subscribers directly at doorstep by Speed Post / Registered Parcel / a reliable Courier
Service (such as Blue Dart, DTDC etc.). These modes of dispatch are widely regarded as
secure and swift.

While Delhi and NCR based aspirants can expect to receive their copies on the working
day next to dispatch, candidates residing elsewhere in India can expect their copies to be
delivered in 2 7 days depending on their location.

Kindly note that the Distance Learning Programme study material is not sold across the
counter from Evolution office.

The dispatches of the study material will be in 1 4 packets as shown in the table above.
If there are more than 1 packet, the gap between packets will be about by 30 days each.

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Sample Chapters

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Chapter 1 [From Farm Management]
Types and Systems of Farming
The combinations of products on a given farm and the methods or practices that are used
in the production of these products based on the ways of economic and social functioning
in farming are known as system of farming. It is concerned with the organizational setup
under which the farm is being run. Systems mainly deal with questions like who is the
owner of the land, whether the resources are pooled or used individually, and who makes
the managerial decisions. It is classified into five groups, namely, peasant, co-operative,
state, capitalistic and collective farming.

Whereas, when farms in a group are quite similar in the kinds and productions of the
crops and livestock that are produced and the methods and practices followed in
production, the group is described as type of farming. It includes specialized, diversified,
mixed and ranching.

I. Types of Farming

A) Specialized Farming: Specialization means that the farmers specialize in one


enterprise such as crop, dairying, poultry or tea estate etc. The major enterprise
contributes more than 50% of the total farm income. Examples are sugarcane farm,
cotton farm, poultry farm, dairy farm, wheat farm etc.

Advantages:
i. Better use of land: It is more profitable to grow a crop on a land best suited to it.
E.g. Jute cultivation on a swampy land

ii. Better Marketing: Specialization allows for better assembling, grading, processing,
storing, transporting and financing of the produce.

iii. Better Management: As there are fewer enterprises, wastage can easily be detected
and they can be better managed.

iv. Less equipment and labour are needed.

v. Costly and efficient machinery can be used.

vi. Efficiency and skills are increased: Specialization allows a man to be more
efficient and expert at doing a few things.

Disadvantages:
i. There is a greater risk - failure of crop and market together may ruin the farmer.

ii. Productive resources land, labour and capital are not fully utilized.

iii. Fertility of soil cannot be properly maintained due to lack of suitable rotations.

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iv. By products of the farm cannot be fully utilized due to lack of sufficient livestock
on the farm.

v. Farm returns in cash are not generally received more than once in a year, i.e.,
there is no regular farm return.

B) Diversified Farming: A Farm on which no single or source of income yields 50 per cent
of the total receipt is called a diversified farm. More enterprises are taken up on the farm
and no single enterprise is relatively much more important.

 Advantages:

i. Better use of land, labour and capital: Better use of land through adoption
of crop rotations, steady employment generation and more efficient use of
equipment are obtained.

ii. Business risk is reduced due to a crop failure or unfavourable market


prices.

iii. Regular and quicker returns are obtained from various enterprises.

 Disadvantages:

i. Because of varied jobs in diversified farming, a farmer can efficiently


supervise only limited number of workers.

ii. Better equipping of the farm is not possible because it is not economical to
have extensive implements and machinery for each enterprise.

C) Mixed Farming: Mixed farming is a type of farming under which crop production is
combined with livestock rearing. The livestock enterprise is complementary to crop
production programme so as to provide a balanced and productive system of farming. In
mixed farming, the contribution of livestock activities to gross farm income should be a
minimum of 10 per cent and a maximum of 49 per cent.

 Advantage:

i. Mixed farming helps in the maintenance of soil fertility. Byproducts of crop


production, namely, green and dry fodder, rice bran, gram husk and so on are
better used for live stock. On the other hand, farm yard manure enriches the
soil with important nutrients.

ii. Draught animals are used in crop production and transport.

iii. It provides regular income and employment.

D) Ranching

A ranch differs from other type of crop and livestock farming in that the livestock graze
the natural vegetation. Ranch land is not utilized by tilling or raising crops. The ranchers

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have no land of their own and make use of the public grazing land. Ranching is followed
in Australia, America, Tibet and certain parts of India (Bikaner in Rajasthan).

Determinants of Type of Farming


1) Physical Factors: The physical factors namely climate, soil and topography have
influence in determining the type of farming.

2) Economic Factors: Marketing cost, changes in input and output prices,


availability of resources like land, labour and capital, competition between
enterprises, miscellaneous factors such as personal likes and dislikes; prevalence
of pest and diseases, etc. influence type of farming.

3) Social Factors: The kind of people in the community and the provision of
protection of crops against the hazards of bird and animal ravages may influence
the farming community to change the pattern of cropping. The co-operative spirit
in providing security to crops, benefits resulting from low transport costs through
collective sale and better marketing facilities permit farmers to expand some
enterprises like fruit farming, dairying or poultry rearing.

System of Farming
The system of farming refers to the organizational set up under which farm is being run. It
involves questions like who is the owner of land, whether resources are used jointly or
individually and who makes managerial decisions. Systems of farming, which are based
on different organizational set up, may be classified into five broad categories:

1. Capitalist or Estate farming: In what is known as capitalistic or estate or


corporate farming, land is held in large areas by private capitalists, corporations
or syndicates. Capital is supplied by one or a few persons or by many, in which
case it runs like a joint stock company. In such farms, the unit of organization is
large and the work is carried on with hired labour; latest technical knowhow is
used and extensive use of machines is made and hence they are efficient.
Examples of this type of farming are frequently found in USA, Australia, Canada
and few in India too. Such types of farms have been organized in the states of
Maharashtra, Chennai and Karnataka for the plantation of coffee, tea and rubber
and sugarcane.

The advantages of such farming are good supervision, strong organizational set up,
sufficient resources etc. Their weaknesses are that it creates socio-economic
imbalances and the actual cultivator is not the owner of the farm.

2. State farming: State farming as the name indicates is managed by the


government. Here land is owned by the state. The operation and management is
done by government officials. The state performs the function of risk bearing and
decision making, which cultivation is carried on with help of hired labour. All the
labourers are hired on daily or monthly basis and they have no right in deciding
the farm policy.

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Such farms are not very paying because of lack of incentive. There is no dearth of
resources at such farms but sometimes it so happens that they are not available in
time and utilized fully.

3. Collective farming: The name, collective farming implies the collective


management of land where in large number of families or villagers residing in the
same village pool their resources like land, livestock, and machinery. A general
body having the highest power is formed which manages the farms. The resources
do not belong to any family or farmer but to the society or collective.

Collective farming has come into much prominence and has been adopted by some
countries notably by the Russia and China. The worst thing with this system is
that the individual has no voice. Farming is done generally on large scale and
thereby is mostly mechanized. This system is not prevalent in our country.

4. Peasant farming: This system of farming refers to the type of organization in


which an individual cultivator is the owner, manager and organizer of the farm.
The peasant farming, on the one hand, places a greater importance on
management and the use of family labour which maximizes farm business income
and on the other hand allows the organization of the farm to be adjusted to the
capabilities of the various members of the family.

The biggest advantage of this system is that the farmers himself is the owner and
therefore free to take all types of decisions. A general weakness of this system is
that the resources with the individual are less. Another difficulty is because of the
law of inheritance. An individual holding goes on reducing as all the members in
the family have equal rights in that land.

5. Co-operative farming: Co-operative farming is a voluntary organization in


which small farmers and landless labourers increase their income by pooling land
resources. According to planning commission, Co-operative farming necessarily
implies pooling of land and joint management.

The working group on co-operative farming defines a co-operative farming


society as a voluntary association of cultivators for better utilization of resources
including manpower and pooled land and in which majority of the members participate in
farm operation with a view to increasing agricultural production, employment and
income.

A Co-operative farming society makes one of the following four forms:

i. Co-operative better farming: These societies are based on individual


ownership and individual operation. Farmers who have small holdings and
limited resources join to form a society for some specific purpose eg: use of
machinery, sale of product. They are organized with a view to introduce
improved methods of agriculture. Each farmer pays for the services which
he receives from the society. The earnings of the member from piece of
land, after deducting the expenses, his profit.

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ii. Co-operative Joint farming: Under this type, the right of individual
ownership is recognized and respected but the small owners pool their
land for the purpose of joint cultivation. The ownership is individual but
the operations are collective. The management is democratic and is elected
by the members of the society. Each member working on the farm receives
daily wages for his daily work and profit is distributed according to his
share in land.
iii. Co-operative tenant farming: Such societies are usually organized by
landless farmers. In this system usually land belongs to the society. The
land is divided into plots which are leased out for cultivation to individual
members. The society arranges for agricultural requirements such as
credit, seeds, manures, marketing of the produce etc. Each member is
responsible to the society for the payment s of rent on his plot. He is at
liberty to dispose of his produce in such a manner as he likes.
iv. Co-operative collective farming: Both ownership and operations under
this system are collective. Members do not have any right on land and they
cannot take farming decisions independently but are guided by a supreme
general body. It undertakes joint cultivation for which all members pool
their resources. Profit is distributed according to the labour and capitals
invested by the members.

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Chapter 2 [Weed Management]
Weed Management
Weed management is the application of certain principles and suitable methods that will
improve the vigor and uniform stand of the crop. At the same time ignore or discourage
the invasion and growth of weeds.

Weed Control Vs Weeds Management


Weed Control and Weed Management, are the two terms used in weed science. Weed
control is the process of limiting infestation of the weed plant so that crops can be grown
profitably, whereas weed management includes prevention, eradication and control by
regulated use, restricting invasion, suppression of growth, prevention of seed production and
complete destruction. Thus weed control is one of the aspects of weed management.

Principles of Weed Management


Prevention: Prevent the entry and establishment of weeds into uninfected area.

Important weed prevention practices are:

1. Use clean crop seeds/ weed free crop seed


2. Avoid feeding of screenings, grain or hey containing weed seeds to
live stock without destroying their viability by grinding, cooking
and ensiling.
3. Use well rotten\decomposed organic manure. Avoid reaching of
weed seeds into the compost pit
4. Prevent movement of weeds with other farm resources
5. Keep non crop area clean
6. Use vigilance
7. Follow legal & quarantine measures

Eradication: It is complete removal of all live plant parts and seeds of the weed from an area. It
may be a field/farm/village/geographical region depending upon the need.

In general eradication of common weed seeds is not practiced as these weeds harbor crop
pests or secretes soil nematodicides. They may be useful to hold the soil nutrients against
leaching losses during fallow period. However weed eradication is justified against weeds
like Striga, Cuscuta, and Lantana to prevent their dispersal to new areas of useful land and
water bodies. Weed eradication programme should begin when the weed growth is
limited. If the weed occupied large and continuous areas eradication is not economical. It
should be carried out more than one year. It requires intensive initial efforts to destroy all
plant parts and followed by many years of vigilance to prevent the new weed seedlings
from establishing into adult plants.

Control: Weed infestations are reduced but not necessarily eliminated. Weed control methods
includes:

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I. Cultural
II. Physical/Mechanical
III. Biological.
IV. Chemical.

Cultural Methods of Weed Control


Principle behind this method is giving competitive advantage to the crop. Cultural methods,
alone cannot control weeds, but help in reducing weed population. They should,
therefore, be used in combination with other methods.

1. Proper crop stand and early seedling vigor: Lack of adequate plant
population is prone to heavy weed infestation, which becomes, difficult to
control later. Therefore practices like a). Selection of most adopted crops
and crop varieties b. Use of high viable seeds c. Pre plant seed and soil
treatment with pesticides, dormancy breaking chemicals and germination
boosters d. Adequate seed rates are very important to obtain proper and
uniform crop stand capable of offering competition to the weeds.
2. Selective crop simulation: In crop weed competition, competitive
advantage is in favor of can be achieved by selective simulation of crop
growth. Vigorous crop plants compete better with weeds as they close the
ground very quickly. Selective simulation can be achieved by a) application
of soil amendments like gypsum or lime may correct the soil conditions in
favour of crop growth) addition of FYM or synthetic soil conditioners to
very light or heavy soils may improve the soil structure and maintaining
better air water relationships and ultimately it improving the crop growth
c) manures and fertilizers application of proper kind in adequate quantities
improve the crop growth. D) Inoculation of crop seeds with suitable
nitrogen fixing and phosphorous solubilizing organisms may help in
selective simulation of some crops. Eg: Legume crop and non-legume
weed. Selective simulation in wide row crops like maize, sugarcane, cotton
can be achieved by foliar application of nutrients.
3. Proper planting method: Any planting method that leaves the soil surface
rough and dry will discourage early growth. Plough planting (minimum
tillage) methods proved to be very useful to reduce early weed growth. In
summer, furrow planting of crops reduce the weed problems. Because in
this method irrigation water restricted initially to the furrow only. In
transplanted crops farmers get opportunity to prepare weed free main
field.
4. Planting time: Peak period of germination of seasonal weeds coincides
with crop plants. So, little earlier or later than normal time of sowing is
beneficial by reducing early crop weed competition. Eg: Using photo
insensitive varieties we can make adjustments with regarding to time of
planting.
5. Crop rotation: Growing of different crops in recurrent succession on the
same land is called as crop rotation. Monocropping favors persistence and
association of some weeds. Crop rotation is effective in controlling of crop

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associated and crop bound weeds such as Avena fatua in wheat and Cuscuta
in dodder. Wheat-pea and gram break the Avena in wheat, Lucern - grain
crop rotation control Cuscuta. The obnoxious weeds like Cyperus rotundus can
be controlled effectively by including low land rice in crop rotation.
6. Stale Seedbed: It is the one where one or two flushes of weeds are
destroyed before planting of any crop. This is achieved by soaking a well
prepared field with either irrigation or rain and allowing the weeds to
germinate. These weeds are controlled by using contact herbicides like
paraquat and by mechanical methods then sow the crop. Here the
advantage is the crop is germinated in weed free environment. In this way,
weed seed bank is exhausted.
7. Smother crop / Competitive crop: This crop germinates very quickly and
develop large canopy, capable of efficient photosynthesis within short
period. They possess both surface and deep roots. Competitive crop
smother the ground quickly than non-competitive crop. Eg; Cowpea,
lucern, berseem, millets
8. Growing of intercrops: Inter cropping suppresses weeds better than sole
cropping and thus provides an opportunity to utilize crops themselves as
tools of weed management. Many short duration pulses viz., green gram
and soybean effectively smother weeds without causing reduction in the
yield of main crop.
9. Minimum tillage & Zero tillage: Deep and frequent tillage may be useful
for some reasons but it serves to bring more of dominant weed seeds and
rhizomes to the soil surface, preserve the new weed seeds deep in the soil
for the future.
Zero tillage completely avoids burying of weed seeds and reduces persistence of
annual weeds but it induces vigorous growth of perennial weeds.
10. Summer fallowing: The practice of summer tillage or off-season tillage is
one of the effective cultural methods to check the growth of perennial weed
population in crop cultivation. In the month of April, May and June farmers
expose their lands to sun in order to control many soil born pests,
including weeds. roots, rhizomes and tubers of shallow rooted perennials
like Bermuda grass and nut sedge.
11. Lowering area under bunds: Bunds are made in field for the purpose of
irrigation is ideal places for the rapid growth of weeds. One way of tackle
the problem of weeds on bunds is to level the land well so that less no. of
bunds is needed to irrigate the field.
12. Flooding and drainage: Flooding is worldwide crop husbandry method
controlling weeds in rice fields. It controls terrestrial weeds: To ensure the
effectiveness of flooding the weeds should be submerged sufficiently for a
longer period (i.e. for 2 weeks or more). Excludes O2from environment and
kills the weed. In M.P. deep flooding of fallow land is followed in rainy
season and water is let out after 2-3 months. This practice locally called
Haveli. Drainage is used for controlling aquatic and semi aquatic weeds in
rice fields, channels, canals, and ponds.

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Mechanical/Physical Methods of Weed Control
These methods are distinguished into a) mechanical b) manual methods. Physical method
of weed control utilizes manual energy, animal power or fuel to run the implements that
dug out the weeds. These methods are as old as agriculture. The hand hoe first animal
drawn implement invented by Jethro Tull in 1731.This methods include under non
chemical method of weed control. Implements used vary from simple to multiple tractor
drawn implements.

Advantages

1. These methods are efficient, cheaper, safer, to crop and no harmful effect to crop
and user.

2. Oldest, effective and economical method

3. No special skill is required in adopting physical methods.

Disadvantages

1. More labour is required, and tire some.

2. Its success depends on its timely operations when the weeds still young

3. Usually operations limited by too wet or too dry conditions

 Mechanical/Cultural Methods

1. Hand weeding: Removal of weeds either manually or by using tools like khurpi or
sickle, when weeds grown upto some extent. Its effective against annuals and
biennials and controls only upper portion of the perennial. Higher labour is
required and is tire some.

2. Hand hoeing: Hoe has been the most appropriate and widely used weeding tool for
centuries. The weeds are taken out with the help of khurpi or hand hoes. Hoeing
by cutting the crown part gives proper control. Annuals and biennials can be
effectively controlled. Convolvulus arvensis which has shallow root system can be
controlled.

3. Spudding: Hand weeding, hand hoeing added by a sharp edged sickle.

4. Sickling: Sickling is also done by hand with the help of sickle to remove the top
growth of weeds to prevent seed production and to starve the underground parts.
These methods are useful for control of tall growing grasses. Especially sickling is
useful in irrigation channels, drainage channels and where undulating
topography is present.

5. Digging: Digging is useful for patch or spot control of obnoxious / perennial


weeds. Digging is very useful in the case of perennial weeds to remove the
underground propagating parts of weeds from the deeper layer of the soil. They

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can be eliminated by digging with crowbar or Pick axe etc. For large areas, it is not
desirable because it is costly and labour oriented

6. Mowing: It is cutting of uniform growth from the entire area up to the ground
level. It is useful more in non-cropped areas than cropped areas. Mowing
improves aesthetic value of an area. It is effective against erect and herbaceous
weeds.

7. Cutting: Cutting is the topping/cutting of the weeds little above ground level. It is
done with help of axes and saws. It is mostly practiced against brushes and trees.
In aquatics under water weed cutters are used.

8. Dredging: This is used to control aquatic weeds growing in shallow ditches. Its a
mechanical method of pulling of aquatic weeds along with their roots & rhizomes
from the mud.

9. Chaining: Very big & heavy chain is pulled over the bottom of a ditch with tractors
along with embankments of ditch. With rubbing action of chain weeds can be
fragmented & collected by nets and hooks.

10. Burning: It is cheapest method to eliminate the mature unwanted vegetation in


non-cropped areas and range lands. Coagulation of protoplasm occurs with
which plant dies.

11. Flaming: It is the momentary exposure of green weeds to as high as 1000oC from
flame throwers to control in row weeds. Eg. Flaming is used in western countries
for selective weed control in crops like cotton, onion, soybean and fruit orchards.
Dodder is also controlled by flaming in lucern.

12. Searing: Repeated application of flame to above ground parts destroyed the root
system and plant dies.

13. Soil Solarization: It is also called solar soil heating. It is effective against weeds
which are produced from seeds. It doesnt involve any tillage of the field. It can be
achieved by covering the soil with transparent, very thin plastic sheets of 20-
25mm polyethylene (PE) film during hottest part of summer months for 2-4
weeks. This increases the temperature by 10-12 0 C over the unfilmed control
fields. Then weeds seeds are desiccated which are present at top 5 cm soil depth.
Eg: Phaliris minor, Avena and broad leaved weeds controlled by Solarization.
Whereas Melilotus sp. possess hard seed coat is resistant to Solarization treatment.

14. Chiseling: An implement called chisel (spade like implement with very long
handle) with which weeds & soil can be racked up. Generally, it is practiced in tea
plantations.

15. Tillage: Tillage is done for preparing good seedbed, conservation of soil moisture
& weed control. Tillage removes weeds from the soil resulting in their death. It
may weaken plants through injury of root and stem pruning, reducing their
competitiveness or regenerative capacity: Pre-plant tillage helps in burying the

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existing weeds. Bring the seeds to the soil surface for germination and their
subsequent destruction by suitable secondary tillage implements. Incorporation of
pre-plant herbicides. Post plant tillage (row cultivation) helps in mixing of
manures and fertilizers & control of weeds, soil and water conservation.

16. Mulching: Principle is exclusion of sunlight from environment. Polythene Sheets,


natural materials like paddy husk, ground nut shells, saw dust etc. are used as
mulching material. The thickness should be enough to cut off light (i.e. 10-15
cm).The efficiency of polythene sheet is more (more polythene) if it is applied in
continuous sheet rather than in particle farm. It is effective against annual weeds
and perennial weeds like cynodon dactylon and sorghum halopense. Mulching is used
in high value crops like coffee tea plantations by using guatemala grass (
Tripsacum laxum ) and citronella grass ( Cymbopogan spp )

17. Flooding: Flood kills weeds by excluding oxygen from their environment. Flooding
is a worldwide crop husbandry method of controlling weeds in rice fields.

Biological Control of Weeds


In this approach of weed management, utilization of natural living organism, such as
insects, herbivorous fish, other animals, disease organisms and competitive plants are
employed to limit their growth. In biological control method, it is not possible to
eradicate weeds but weed population can be reduced. This method is not useful to control
all types of weeds.

Introduced weeds are best targets for biological control. Bio-control started in the year
1900.The control of Opuntia spp (prickly pear) in Australia and Lantana in Hawaii with
certain insect bioagents are two spectacular examples of early period biological control of
weeds.

Merits

1) Least harm to the environment


2) No residual effect
3) Relatively cheaper and comparatively long lasting effect
4) Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage
5) It is very effective in control of weeds in non-cropped areas
6) Besides this some of the fish, snails and other animals convert weed vegetation
into seafood

Demerits

1) Multiplication is costlier
2) Control is very slow
3) Success of control is very limited
4) Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present
5)

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Approaches in Biological Weed Control
Mainly, there are 2 approaches:

1) Classical biological control

Main objective of classical biological weed control is restoring balance between target
alien weed and its natural enemies in the ecosystem by introduction of suitable, exotic
bio-agent. Successful bio-agent reduce the weed population first then the Bio-agent
population due to starvation of food. After some time the bio-agent population may
recover. This process continues in cyclic fashion till the bio-agent and weed population
gets established at a low level. This method is a slow operating and currently used in
non-cropped areas. In crop fields, the bio-agent will not get opportunity to work on host
weed due to frequent use of insecticides and fungicides in modern agriculture. Otherwise
Cyperus rotundus can be controlled in crop fields with moth Bactra verutana and selective
bio control of Ludwigia parviflora (water purslane) by Haltica cyanea (steel blue beetle) in
rice fields.

Criteria / Characteristics of successful bio-agent

i. Host-specific: Bio-agents should be host specific and they should not attack other
economic plant spp. They should pass starvation test i.e. they prefer to starve to death
rather feed upon other than host weeds. Lantana was controlled by Teleonemia
scrupulosa insect bio-agent. But in India it is likely to damage teak (Tectona grandis) and
sesame (Sesamum indicum). Zygogramma bicolarata is an effective leaf eating bio-agent
against Parthenium (carrot grass). But it is found to attack sunflower in India.

ii. Bio-agent hardiness: Bio-agent should free from its own parasites and predators. Bio-
agent should withstand starvation for short or long periods of food shortage when the
target weed population is brought to low level. But carp cant survive even a short period
of starvation.

iii. Feeding habit: Bio-agents are more efficient in controlling weeds if they attack either
flowers or seeds of the weed or bore into the stems than root and leaf feeders. But root-
feeding insects are more effective in controlling perennial weeds.

iv. Ease of multiplication: Bio-agent should have high rate and ease of natural
reproduction. It is very important for insects, pathogens, snails and competitive plants.
But it is not desirable with carp as its increased population compete with natural fish.

Kinds of Classical Bio-agents

Bio agent may be either specific or nonspecific. Specific bio agent attack only one or two
specific weeds, while nonspecific bio agent feed upon a variety of vegetation. Specific bio
agents are insects, plant pathogens and competitive plants. Nonspecific bio agents are
Carp fish, snails, and mites.

Six kinds of Bio-agents were used to control weeds. They are Insects, Carp fish, Fungi,
Competitive plants, Snails and mites

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1. Insects: These are largely host specific i.e. one insect spp is employed to destroy
the only one weed sp. First successful example reported from Hawaii in 1902
Lantana camara controlled by Moth Crocidosema lantana. Insects that were
found effective belong to Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Diptera.

2. Carp fish: Certain fresh water Carp fish consume large quantities of aquatic weeds.
Whiteamur (Chines grass carp) Ctenopharyngodon idella is promising spp for
aquatic weed control. This can grow more than its body weight i.e. 5 kg/year and
attaining up to 50kg at its full size. Herbivorous fish are not food specific. Whereas
the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) a non-herbivorous fish used to control
submerged aquatic weeds.

3. Plant pathogen: Many fungi attack specific weed spp. For instance, Acacia glauca
controlled by spore suspension of Cephalosporium zonatum. Skeleton weed
(Chondrilla juncia) controlled by rust causing fungi Puccinia chondrillana.

4. Competitive plants: Certain plants sp are very competitive in suppressing specific


weeds. Slender spike rush (Eleocharis acicularis) aquatic plant can cover the canal
bottom and it is not allowing to establish destructive tall weeds. Typha sp can be
controlled by Panicum purpurascens or Brachiaria mutica (Para grass). Marigold
has potential to displacing Parthenium spp. Cassia sericea also suppressed the
Parthenium.

5. Snails: The large tropical fresh water snail Marisa cornuarietis feed on aquatic
weeds. Marisa feed on roots of water hyacinth, water lettuce and leaves of
Salvinia.

6. Mite: The mite Tetranychus desertorum controls prickly pear Opuntia dellini

Outstanding examples of Classical Bio-control

Lantana Camera: Lantana was the first weed controlled successfully with certain
insect bioagents in Hawaii. Of this Crocidosema lantana, a moth was found to be
promising in destroying flowers and seeds of lantana. In Australia, three
successful insect biocontrol agents are hispine beetles (Octotoma scabripennis and
Uroplata girardi) and tingid /lantana bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa).

Prickly pear (Opuntia sp): In Austrlia biocontrol of Opuntia inermis.with a moth


Cactoblastis cactorum .In Tamilnadu and Maharashtra 40,000 ha land was
recovered from the weed Opuntia delini by releasing Dactyloplius tomentosus. a
Cochineal scale insect.

Water hyclinth: (Eichornea crassipes) it is world wide aquatic weed infested


transplanted paddy fields including India. Hyacinth moth Sameodes albiguttalis
feed up on young leaves and apical buds. Besides this beetles Neochetina bruchii and
N. eichorniae are also damaging the water hyacinth.

Some examples of Classical Bio-control

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Weed Bio-agent Kind of bioagent

Chondrilla juncea Puccina chondrillina Plant pathogen

Cirsium arvense Septoria cirsii Plant pathogen

Cyperus rotundus Bactra verutana Shoot boring moth

Echinochloa spp. i) Emmalocera sp. i)Stem boring moth

(In rice fields) ii) Tripos spp. ii) Shrimp

Eupatorium Entyloma compositarum Plant pathogen


riparium

Hydrilla verticillata Hydrellia pakistanae Shoot fly

Orobanche cernua Sclerotinia sp. Plant pathogen

Parthenium i)Zygogramma bicolorata Leaf eating beetle


hysterophorus
ii)Epiblema strenuana Stem galling insect

iii) Conotrachelus sp. Stem galling insect

2) Bio-herbicide Philosophy of Weed Control

Bio-herbicides are pathogens cultured artificially and made available in sprayable


formulations; just like a chemical herbicide. The pathogen selected for the purpose is
usually from the native place of the weed, but it could also be from other places. The bio-
herbicides are also sometimes called mycoherbicides. A mycoherbicides can be both
specific and non-specific.

The bio-herbicide philosophy differs from the classical bio-control philosophy referred to earlier,
in certain ways as follows:

Bio herbicide remains active only on the current weed population, without any chance of
cyclic perpetuation of the weed (or of the bio gent); each new flush of the weed thus
requiring retreatment with it. Bio herbicide can be developed for selective control of
weeds in a crop just like any other selective herbicide, which is not the case with the
classical philosophy bio agents. The development of bio herbicides is of great interest to
industrialists since it involves every season requirement of the product for field use. In
variance with it, the classical biological control approach has no incentive to the private,
profit-oriented organizations; it must depend solely upon public sector support.

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Some examples of Commercial Mycoherbicides

Product Content Weed controlled

De-Vine A liquid suspension of fungal spores of Strangler-vine.


Phytophthora palmivora It causes root rot in (Morrentia odorata) in
the weed. citrus orchards.

Collego Wettable powder containing fungal spores of Jointvetch (Aeschynomone


Colletotrichum gloesporiodes. The bio-herbicide sp). In rice fields.
causes stem and leaf blight in the weed.

Bipolaris A suspension of fungal spores of Bipolaris Johnsongrass (Sorghum


sorghicola halepense)

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Chapter 3 [Soil Science] Soil
Forming Processes
The geological weathering produces weathered rock material i.e. the parent material and
when the genetic factors set the stage for soil development. The pedogenic processes
change the parent material in to soil with varying horizonations.

The Pedogenic/Soil forming processes are extremely complex and dynamic involving
many chemical and biological reactions, and usually operate simultaneously in a given
area. One process may counteract another, or two other processes may work
simultaneously to achieve the same result.

The relationship between pedogenic processes and genetic factors contributes in some
manner or another, to the pedogenic development of each mature soil. All the genetic
factors contribute to the development of each soil, but no single soil is influenced by all
pedogenic processes.

The sequence of processes in the formation of soils is:

Rock ->Weathering ->Regolith ->Soil forming factors and processes ->True soil

The basic pedogenic processes involved in soil formation:

 Gains or additions of water (mostly as rainfall) organic and mineral matter to the
soil.

 Losses of above material from soil.

 Transformation of mineral and organic substances with in the soil.

 Translocation or movement of soil materials from one point to another with in the
soil. It is usually divided into

i) Movement in solution (leaching) and

ii) Movement in suspension (eluviation) of clay, organic matter and hydrous oxides.

In contrast, the major changes that retard horizon differentiation are due to:

 Mixing of materials by burrowing animals

 Removal of surface soil by erosion (water or wind)

 Creep (by shifting old and its replacement by new materials); and

 Accretion of sediments in cultivated flood plain areas, for instance silting of


irrigated areas

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Basic / Fundamental Pedogenic Processes

I. Humification

Humification is the process of transformation (decomposition) of raw organic matter in


to HUMUS. It is an extremely complex process involving various organisms such as
bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, earth worms and termites.

The decomposition of organic matter takes place in two phases: mineralization and
humification. Mineralization is a biochemical breakdown of dead plant tissues by soil
microorganisms to produce simple structured soluble organic substances, mineral
compounds, metal cations and gases (CO2). During the second phase, that is
humification; soluble organic substances regroup themselves in to large molecules by
polymerization and become poorly soluble. They form major part of soil humus and
provide site for retention of cations. The other part of humus is the polysaccharides
gummy products of microbial excretions, which help in soil aggregation.

The activities of microorganisms in soil formation are as under:

 Mor: It refers to surface soil horizon developed under acid litter and humus from
coniferous and healthy vegetation, where fungi activity predominates.

 Mull: Designated as forest soil horizon (A1) is of intimately mixed mineral matter
and amorphous humus. It is slightly acid and is best developed under base rich
litter, where bacterial activity predominates.

 Sward: Is a dominantly rhizogenous A1 horizon in grasslands as contrasted with


zoogenous mull horizon of forest soils. This includes mollic epipedon or Ap
horizon formed by cultivation of forest soils, in general.

 Orterde: Is a humus rich B horizon in podzols.

II. Eluviation

Eluviation means Washing out. It is the process of removal of constituents in


suspension or solution by the percolating water from the upper to lower layers. The
eluviation encompasses mobilization and translocation of mobile constituents resulting
in textural differences.

Mechanical movement of clay and iron oxides from A horizon without undergoing
chemical alteration is called Lessivage. Leaching refers to the movement and removal of
material in solution from the soil. It connotes the removal of the dissolved material from
the entire solum.

Elemental mobility

Ca2+ Na+ > K+, Mg2+ >>>> Fe2+ >> Si4+ >> Al3+

(Most mobile) (Least mobile)

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The leaching of an element depends not only on its relative mobility but also on the rate
of water percolation through the soil. The effect of leaching is well illustrated with the
depth of accumulation of CaCO3 in soils (Jenny, 1941).

Hot arid zone - < 50 cm

Less hot semi-arid zone - 100 150 cm

Sub humid zone - >150 cm

III. Illuvation

The process of deposition of soil materials (removed from the eluvial horizon E) in the
lower layer (or horizon of gains having the property of stabilizing translocated clay
materials) is termed as illuviation. The horizons formed by this process are termed as
illuvial horizons (B-horizon especially Bt).

All these basic pedogenic processes, combine to result in a number of wide ranging soils
that are observed on surface of the earth.

Hot semi-arid - Calcisol

Cool humid - Podsol

Hot humid Ferralsol

Specific Pedogenic Processes

The basic pedogenic processes provide a frame work for later operation of more specific
processes.

1. Calcification: The process of precipitation and accumulation of calcium carbonate in


some part of the profile is called calcification. This is a common process in arid and
semi-arid regions, which are low in rainfall (Rainfall<PET).

The illuviated horizon of CaCO3 is designated as calcic horizon. Whenever high carbon
dioxide is produced in soils, it combines with water and forms into carbonic acid. This
dissolves the calcium carbonate in soils into soluble calcium bicarbonate, which moves
along the percolating water. Again wherever a situation of high temperature and low
carbon dioxide prevails, there calcium carbonate precipitates.

CO2 + H 2O H2CO3; H2CO3 + Ca Ca (HCO3)2

Temp

Ca (HCO3)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O + 2CO2

CO2

The calcium compounds are in solution as long as the CO 2 concentration or supply is


maintained. The depth of calcic horizon depends on percolating rain water, ground

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water depth, amount of rainfall and the texture of the soil. The depth of calcareous layer
In hot arid zone- <50cm, in semi-arid zone 100-150cm and in sub-humid zone the
calcium carbonate accumulates at a depth of >150cm

2. Decalcification: It is the reverse of calcification that is the process of removal of CaCO3


or calcium ions from the soil by leaching. This occurs mostly in high rainfall or humid
regions.

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2OCa (HCO3)2 [Soluble]

3. Podzolization [Pod = under and zola = ashlike (Russian)]: It is a process of soil


formation resulting in the formation of podzols and podzolic soils. It is the process of
accumulation of silica and eluviation of sesquioxides. It is almost a reverse of calcification
process due to leaching of all bases including calcium. The favourable conditions for
podzolization are:

A cool and humid climate (Invariably found at high altitudes)

Siliceous (sandy) or acidic parent material, having poor reserves of weatherable


minerals, favor the operation of podsolization, as it helps in easy percolation of
water.

Acid loving vegetation, such as coniferous pines (Pinus roxburghii), hemlock (Tsuga
Canadensis) and heath ( Calluna vulgaris) are essential for this process.

Under calcium free, acidic environment (pH <5.0), fungi plays active role in
organic matter decomposition

Less microbial activity declines the polysaccharide production and keeps the
soluble organic products in soluble form.

The soluble organic acids react with sesquioxides and the remaining clay minerals,
forming organic - sesquioxide and organic - clay complexes, which are soluble
and move with the percolating water to the lower horizons.

Alluminium ions in solution hydrolyse and make the soil solution very acidic.

2Al + 6H2O 2Al (OH)3 + 6H+

As the materials move out, it gives a bleached appearance (E-horizon) below the surface.
The eluviated materials deposit in B horizon as dark coloured Bh (precipitated humus),
reddish brown Bs (deposition of sesquioxides) and a yellowishish brown (silicate clay)
layer which gradually merges with parent material. Hence a mature podzol has well
developed horizonation. Podzols are highly acidic, low in fertility and used for forestry or
pastures. Rarely crops like oats. Potato and clover can be cultivated.

4. Laterization: The term laterite is derived from the word later means brick or
tile. In tropics, certain soils are massively impregnated with sesquioxides to the extent
of 70 to 80% of the total mass, and forms a cemented horizon, which when dried

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becomes very hard like a brick. This soil forming process is called laterization or
Lotozation Eg: Soils of Malabar hills of Kerala.

In laterization, unlike podzolisation, silica is removed leaving sesquioxides to remain in


solum. The favorable conditions are:

Warm and humid (tropical) climate with 2000 to 2500 mm rainfall and continuous
high temperature (+25C) throughout the year. Rapid decomposition of parent
material and organic matter, and intensive leaching are very likely in this climate.

The rain forests of tropical areas are the suitable vegetation for this process. Under
this vegetation organic additions are low but organic matter decomposition is at
very high rate.

Basic parent materials, having sufficient ferro-mangnesion minerals (Pyroxenes,


amphiboles, biotite and chlorite) are congenial for the development of laterites.

The iron released during weathering is oxidized to form FeO, Fe2O3 and coats clay, silt or
sand particles imparting characteristic red color to soils. The Al-oxides /hydroxides
impart grey coatings to the soil particles.

The high temperature, intense leaching and basic kind of parent material all favor the
removal of silica (de-silication) and accumulation of sesquioxides. The soluble basic
cations are quickly released during weathering, moves freely in the soil profile and shoots
up the pH to neutrality. Under this basic environment silica liberated from parent
material is solubilized and leached. The solubility of quartz and amorphous silica
increases with increased temperature.

The sesquioxides are left behind as these are more stable under these conditions. As the
alkaline bases are removed from the seat of their formation, the residual soil is acidic in
reaction. Though considerable eluviation takes place, there is no marked horizonsiation
as the eluviated materials are not re-deposited in the lower layers.

Laterite soils are non-plastic, non-cohesive and have granular structure. They are low in
cation exchange capacity and fertility. Phosphorus fixation is high in these soils.
Plantation crops are usually grown on these soils.

5. Gleization: Glei means blue, grey or green clay. The gleization is a process of soil
formation resulting in the development of a glei (or gley) horizon in the lower part of the
profile above the parent material due to poor drainage conditions or water logged
conditions. Such soils are called hydromorphic soils. This process is not particularly
dependant on climate (high rainfall as in humid regions) but often on drainage
conditions. Poor drainage may be due to lower topographic position, impervious soil
parent material and lack of aeration.

Under anaerobic conditions, iron compounds are reduced to soluble ferrous forms. The
reduction of iron is primarily biological and requires both organic matter and the
microorganisms capable of respiring anaerobically. Iron exists as Fe 2+ organo-compexes
in solution or as a mixed precipitate of ferric and ferrous hydroxides, which is responsible

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for the production of typical bluish to grayish horizon. Due to seasonal fluctuations of
ground waters, the gley shows distinct mottling of yellow and rusty brown colors caused
by the alternate oxidation and reduction phenomena.

6. Salinization: It is the process of accumulation of salts such as sulphates, chlorides of


calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in soils in the form of salty (salic) horizon.
As a result of the accumulation of salts, solonchalks or saline soils develop with an
electrical conductivity of > 4 dSm-1. The soils are called saline soils, which have ESP less
than15 per cent and pH between 7 and 8.5.

The responsible factors:

Arid or semi-arid climatic conditions, associated with shallow and brackish (high
amounts of sulphates and chlorides) ground waters.

Lower topographic positions / depression land forms.

Imperfect or poor drainage conditions

Old lake bottoms

Alluvial deposits along the sea coasts

Use of saline irrigation waters

The ground water containing high salts moves in an upward direction by capillary action.
The water on evaporation leaves the salts behind, which accumulate at the surface or at
some depth depending upon the capillary fringe. Surface accumulation of salts gives
white appearance to soils .Hence the soils are called as white alkali soils. These soils can
be managed by leaching of salts followed by provision of sub-surface drainage.

7. Solonization or Alkalization: The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions on


the exchange complex of the clay to an extent of >15%, resulting in the formation of sodic
soils (solonetz) under arid and semi-arid conditions. This occurs when anions like
carbonates and bicarbonates predominate in soil.

The calcium and magnesium in soil solution will precipitate as corresponding carbonates
or bicarbonate whenever the ionic product of solution exceeds the solubility products of
respective carbonates. This reduces the concentration of Ca and Mg in soil solution, there
by releasing them from exchange complex. As this process continues the sodium
concentration on exchangeable complex increases. When the ESP in soils exceeds 15 %,
the soil is designated as alkali soil with a high pH of >8.5, which results in less nutrient
availability.

The high pH in soils results in dissolution of humus, which moves upward along the
capillary water giving black colour to soils. Hence the soils are called black alkali soils.
High sodium on clay minerals results in dispersion of soil aggregates leading to physical
problems like poor aeration, low infiltration and percolation of water.

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This process results in a very thin, friable horizon followed by a dark horizon of hard and
impermeable heavy soils generally with illuviated clay and having a typical columnar
structure, which is characteristic of solonetz.

8. Solodization or Dealkalization: This process refers to the removal of Na+ from


exchange sites. The Na+ can be eliminated by increasing the concentration of Ca2+ or
Mg2+ in the water, followed by improved drainage facilities.

2NaX + CaSO 4 Na2SO4 + CaX

9. Pedoturbation: It is the process of mixing of the soils. Mixing to some extent takes
place in all soils.

Faunal pedoturbation: Mixing by animals such as ants, earthworms, moles,


rodents and man himself.

Floral pedoturbation: Mixing by plants, as in tree tipping that forms pits and
mounds.

Agrillopedoturbation: Mixing of materials in solum by churning process caused by


swell - shrink clays as is observed in deep black cotton soil.

Calcification, podzolization and laterization are zonal soil forming processes,


where in the profile characteristics are influenced by prevailing conditions of
climate and vegetation.

Gleization, salinization, solonization and solodization are the Intra-zonal soil


forming processes, wherein, the profile characteristics are more influenced by
certain local conditions, such as relief (topography) and / or parent material than
the climate and vegetation.

Salinization, alkalization and dealkalization processes operate in sequence and


advance the soil to a certain point in transition until the zonal soils are formed.

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Chapter 4 [From Plant Breeding]
Use of Polyploidy in Plant Breeding

The somatic chromosome number of any species, whether diploid or polyploid, is


designated as 2n, and the chromosome number of gametes is denoted as n. An individual
carrying the gametic chromosome number, n, is known as haploid.

A monoploid, on the other hand, has the basic chromosome number, x. In a diploid
species, n=x; one x constitutes a genome or chromosome complement. The different
chromosomes of a single genome are distinct from each other in morphology and or gene
content and homology; members of a single genome do not show a tendency of pairing
with each other.

Thus a diploid species has two, a triploid has 3 and a tetraploid has 4 genomes and so on.

In euploids, the chromosome number is an exact multiple of the basic or genomic


number. Euploidy is more commonly known as polyploidy.

When all the genomes present in a polyploidy species are identical, it is known as
autopolyploid and the situation is termed as auto polyploidy.

In the case of allopolyploids, two or more distinct genomes arepresent. Euploids may
have 3 (triploid), 4 (tetraploid), 5 (pentaploid), or more genomes making up their somatic
chromosome number.

In case of autopolyploidy, they are known asautotriploid, autotertaploid, autopentaploid,


and so on, while in the case of allopolyploidy they are termed as allotriploid,
allotetraploid, allopentaploid, etc. Amphidiploid is an allopolyploid that has two copies of
each genome present in itand, as a consequence, behaves as a diploid during meiosis. A
segmental allopolyploid contains two or more genomes, which are identical with each
other, except for some minor differences.

Breeding Autopolyploids

Origin and production of doubled chromosome numbers:

1. Spontaneous: chromosome doubling occurs occasionally in somatic tissues and


unreduced gametes are produced in low frequencies.

2. Production of adventitious buds: decapitation in some plants leads to callus


development at the cut ends of the stem. Such a callus has some polyploid cells
and some of the shoot buds regenerated from the callus may be polyploid.
Insolanaceae, 6-36% of adventitious buds are tetraplods. The frequency of
ployploid buds may be increased by the application of 1% IAA at the cut ends as it
promotes callus development.

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3. Treatment with physical agents: Heat or cold treatment centrifugation, x-ray
orgamma ray irradiation may produce polyploids. Exposing the plants or ears of
maize to a temperature of 38-45oC at the time of the first division of zygote
produce 2-5 % tetraploid progeny.

4. Regeneration in vitro: polyploidy is a common feature of the cells cultured in-


vitro.

5. Colchicine treatment: Colchicine treatment is the most effective and the most
widely used treatment for chromosome doubling. Chromosome doubling reduces
the risk of meiotic complications, and thus increases chances of fertile
autopolyploids.

Morphological and cytological features of autopolyploids

1. Polyploids have larger cell size than diploids. Guard cells of stomata are larger the
number of stomata per unit area is less in polyploids than diploids.

2. Pollen grains of polyploids are generally larger than those of the corresponding
diploids.

3. Polyploids are generally slower in growth and later in flowering.

4. Polyploids usually have larger and thicker leaves, and larger flowers and fruits
which are usually less in number than in diploids.

5. Polyploids generally show reduced fertility due to irregularities during meiosis


and due to genotypic imbalance leading to physiological disturbances.

6. In many cases, autopolyploidy leads to increased vigour and vegetative growth.

7. Different species have different levels of optimum ploidy. For sugar beet the
optimum level is 3x, sweet potato 6x while for timothy grass it is between 8-10x.

8. Autopolyploids generally have a lower dry matter content than diploids.

Application of Autopolyploidy in Crop improvement

Triploids

Triploids are produced by hybridization between tetraploid and diploid strains. They are
generally highly sterile, except in a few cases. This feature is useful in the production of
seedless watermelons. In certain species, they may be more vigorous than the normal
diploids, e.g., in sugar beets.

Seedless watermelons are produced by crossing tetraploid (4x, used as female) and
diploid (2x, used as male) lines, since the reciprocal cross (2x x 4x) is not successful. The
triploid plants do not produce true seeds; almost all the seeds are small, white
rudimentary structures like cucumber (Cucumissativus) seeds. There are several problem

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viz. genetic instability of 4x lines, irregular fruit shape, a tendency towards hollowness of
fruits, production of empty seeds and the labour involved in triploid seed production.

1. Triploid Sugar beets: Among root crops triploid sugar beets apparently represent the
optimum level of polyploidy because 3n plants have longer roots than diploid and also
yield more sugar per unit area.

2. Tetraploid Rye: The advantage of tetraploid over its diploid counterpart are large
kernel size, superior ability to emerge under adverse condition and higher protein
content. Tetraploid rye varieties have been released for cultivation e.g. Double steel, Tetra
petkus.

Limitations of autoployploidy

1. Larger size autopolyploids generally contain more water (gigas effect) and produce less
dry matter content than diploids.

2. High sterility with poor seed setting is observed

3. Due to complex segregation, progress through selection is slow.

4. Monoploids and triploids cannot be maintained except through clonal propagation

5. The varieties cannot be produced at will

6. Effects of autopolyploidy cannot be predicted.

Allopolyploidy

Allopolyploids have genomes from two or more species production of allopolyploids has
attracted considerable attention; the aim almost always was creation of new species.
Some success has been evident from the emergence of triticale, Raphanobrassica and
allopolyploids of forage grasses.

Morphological and cytological features of allopolyploids

1. Allopolyploids combine the morphological and physiological characteristics of


the parent species but it is very difficult to predict the precise combination of
characters that would appear in the new species.

2. Many allopolyploids are apomictic as in Tulips, Solanum.

3. The chromosome pairing in the new species depends upon the similarities
between the chromosomes of the parental species. Chromosomes with such
similarities are known as homeologous chromosomes. After chromosome
doubling, the allopolyploid would have two homeologous chromosomes for each
chromosome present in the F1 hybrid, comparable to the diploid species. Such
allopolyploid is referred as amphidiploid or Allotetraploid.

4. Fertility of allopolyploids can be improved by hybridization and selection.

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Application of allopolyploidy in crop improvement

1. Utilization as a Bridge species: Amphidiploids serve as a bridge in transfer of


characters from one species to a related species, generally from a wild species to
cultivated species. Creation of new crop species as in Triticale, Raphanobrassica.

2. Widening the genetic base of existing Allopolyploids: The genetic base of some
natural allopolyploids may be narrow, and it may be useful to introduce variability
in such cases by producing the allopolyploids afresh from their parental species.

Limitations of Allopolyploidy

1. The effects of allopolyploidy cannot be predicted. The allopolyploids have some


features from both the parental species, but these features may be the undesirable
ones, e.g., Raphanobrassica, or the desirable ones, e.g., Triticale.

2. Newly synthesized allopolyploids have many defects, e.g., low fertility, cytogenetic
and genetic instability, other undesirable features etc.

3. The synthetic allopolyploids have to be improved through extensive breeding at


the polyploidy level. This involves considerable time, labour and other resources.

4. Only a small proportion of allopolyploids are promising; a vast majority of them


are valueless for agricultural purposes.

Aneuploidy

Aneuploidy is referred to individuals with an incomplete set of chromosome that is


equivalent to the euploid number plus or minus one or more specific chromosome. As in,
normal set if is 2n then 2n-1, 2n-2, 2n+1 are referred to as monosomy, nullisomy, and
trisomy respectively.

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Chapter 5 [From Entomology]
Storage Pests & their Management
Types and Species

o Stored grain pests cause loss in quality and quantity of food grains. Nearly 5-10%
of grains are lost in storage due to insects and mites, especially beetles and moths.

o They also contaminate food, lower its nutritive value, and create conditions
favorable for mould growth.

o Primary pests are capable of initiating injury on undamaged grains. e. g. rice


weevil, granary weevil, lesser grain borer, and angoumois grain moth.

o Secondary pests tend to feed on the grains that have already been damaged. e. g.
red and confused flour beetles, Indian meal moth, Mediterranean flour moth, and
the saw-toothed grain beetle.

I. Storage Beetles

Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium (Dermestidae: Coleoptera)

o Larvae chew up the seed coat and grain into frass.

o Attacks wheat, maize, sorghum, pulses etc

o Adult: brown with or without red markings, 2-3 mm long.

o Egg: 125 eggs, singly or 2-5 eggs, period 6-16 days

o Larva: yellowish white later brownish, period 3-7 weeks

o Pupa: pupation in last larval skin, period 4-6 days

Lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (Bostrychidae: Coleoptera)

o Damage: grubs and adults bore irregular holes

o Paddy, wheat, maize

o Life cycle 2 months

o Affect the grains in both larval and adult stages

o Adult: small, cylindrical, 3mm long, dark brown

o Egg: white elongate, oval, 300-500 eggs, incubation 5-6 days

o Larva: white, oligopodous, period 40 days

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o Pupa: white, exarate, 7-8 days

Rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae

Maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

o Adults and larvae infest the grain and flour.

Saw toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Cucujidae: Coleoptera)

o Damage: scaring of grain surface, burrowing holes.

o Attacks rice, wheat

o Life cycle: 3-4 weeks

o Adult: elongate (3 mm), brown, 3 longitudinal ridges, saw-like edges

o Egg: elongate, white, shiny, period 4 -12 days

o Larva: yellowish white, conical apex to abdomen, 4 mm, period 2 weeks

o Pupa: creamy white, exarate, period 1 week

Red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera)

o Damage: grubs and adults infest stored foods, broken grains

o Attacks wheat flour, rice bran, flours of other grains

o Life cycle: 6 weeks

o Adult: flat, shiny, reddish brown, 2 mm

o Egg: elongate, oval, whitish, 400-450 eggs on grains, period 4-12 days

o Larva: whitish, 3 mm, period 27-30 days

o Pupa: yellowish white, hairs on dorsal surface, period 6-9 days

Pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (Bruchidae: Coleoptera)

o Damage: grub, cavity made, round exit holes, cigar shaped eggs

o Attacks stored cowpea, grams, lablab (pulses)

o Adult: reddish black, 3 mm, serrated antenna

o Egg: laid singly, several on one grain, translucent, smooth, shiny, later greyish
white, period 4-5 days

o Larva: white, 6 mm, cylindrical, fleshy, wrinkled

o Pupa: brown, period: 4 days (summer), 4 weeks (cooler month)

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o Life cycle: 2 months

Cigarette or tobacco beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (Anobiidae: Coleoptera)

o Adult: light brown, humped appearance, elytra with minute hairs, antenna
uniform thickness

o Damage: grubs and adults, pin head sized bore holes

o Attacks tobacco, ginger, wheat, peanut, bean, coriander, chilli, turmeric, dried
fruits.

o Egg: creamy white, oval, period 9-14 days

o Larva: whitish hairy, oligopodous, period 17-29 days.

o Pupa: exarate, period 2-8 days

Drug store beetle, Stegobium paniceum (Anobiidae: Coleoptera)

Damage: circular pin head size hole made on turmeric, coriander, ginger, etc.

o Adult: reddish brown, striated elytra,3 mm, antenna clubbed

o Egg: batches (10-40 eggs)

o Larvae: not hairy, pale white, fleshy with abdomen terminating in 2 dark horny
points, period- 10-20 days

o Pupa: period 8-12 days

Longheaded flour beetle, Latheticus oryzae (Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera)

o Damage: grubs and adults feed on milled products, secondary infestation

o Attacks cereal flour, packaged food, rice and rice products

o Adult: yellowish brown, flat, antennae 10 segmented, eye with anterior and
posterior projections, 2.5-3mm

o Egg: 7-8 eggs, oval, white to opaque, period- 3 days.

o Larva: white, finely hairy, 5 mm, period 15 days

o Pupa: yellowish white, thorax concealing the head, period 3-7 days

o Life cycle: 45-55 days

Flat grain beetle, Cryptolestes minutus (Cucujidae: Coleoptera)

o Damage: grubs and adults feed on broken grains, heavy infestation

o Attacks rice, maize

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o Adult: small, light to dark reddish brown, 1.5-2mm

o Egg: white eggs in flour, grain, period 5 days

o Larva: cigar like, yellowish white, 2 reddish brown spots at anal segment, period-
21 days

o Pupa: gelatinous cocoon

o Life cycle: 42 days

Cadelle, Tenebroides mauritaricus (Tenebrionidae: Cleoptera)

o Biggest beetle, 1/4 length, white fleshy body, 2 hard processes at posterior end,
prefers moist places

o Infest whole grains of cereals, millets, processed items like flour, maida

Copra beetle, Necrobia rufipes (Cleridae: Coleoptera)

o Infests stored copra and ground nut kernels

Dried fruit beetle, Carpophilus dimidiatus (Nitidulidae: Coleoptera)

o Attacks dry fruits, copra and groundnut kernels in storage

II. Storage Moths

Angoumois Grain Moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)

o Major pest of stored husked rice

o Attacks rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley and oat

o Larvae feed on grain kernels.

o Grey or buff colored moth, nocturnal in habit, 5-10 mm, fore wings with darker
spots, apex of hind wings fringed with hairs, short lived (5-10 days)

o Life period : 4-6 weeks

o Whitish eggs are laid on the grain, hatch in a week

o Larva yellowish white in color with dark head; enters the grain through crack or
split in the husk and closes the hole with silken web

o Feeds on the grain kernels and the grain gets filled with refuse

o Pupates inside the grain spinning a silken cocoon; pupal period 7-10 days

Rice Moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Galleriidae: Lepidoptera)

o Serious pest of milled rice

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o Attacks rice, rice bran and other stored products

o Larva webs the grains that adhere to each other (caking).

o When more than 16 larvae develop in 250g of rice, the grain color changes with an
unpleasant odour.

o Adults nocturnal, pale greyish moths, fore wings uniform in color, hind wings
creamy white with fringe

o Life cycle period: 7-12 weeks

o 10-320 eggs laid in crevices of stores; white in color, oval in out line; incubation
period: 5-7 days

o Larva varying in color from whitish to grey; live inside a tough silken tunnel;
larval period : 5-6 weeks

o Pupa dark brown; pupal period 7-10 days inside a silken coon

Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

o Infests a variety of food: stored grains, flours, corns, nuts, powdered milk

o Larvae web together the milled products that become dirty silken masses
containing the excreta of larvae.

o Adults have peculiar markings on the forewings, i. e. reddish brown with a copper
luster on the outer two-thirds but whitish grey on the inner or body ends

o Whitish , ovate eggs are deposited on grain surface

o Grown up larvae (1-2 cm) are whitish, greenish or pinkish in color and they spin
the webs

o Pupate within a thin silken cocoon

o Life cycle complete within 6 weeks

Warehouse moth, Ephestia cautella (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

o It is also called Cocoa moth

o Attacks nuts, almond, cocoa beans and tobacco

o Serious problem in chocolate and tobacco industry

o Adult lays the eggs on the finished product

o The female may lay 200-300 eggs over or near the product

o Larvae are mobile over the products and they produce silk

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o Adults are short lived (13-14 days)

o Life cycle takes 50-90 days

Grain Pest Life Cycle Remarks

Granary Weevil 4 weeks Universal feeder on whole grains.

Rice Weevil 4 weeks Universal feeder on whole grains.


Most common stored whole grain
pest.

Coffee Bean Weevil 4 weeks Lays eggs in corn in field; infestations


may continue for 3 months after
storage.

Lesser Grain Borer 4 weeks Universal feeder on whole grains.

Angoumois Grain Moth 5 weeks Most important in stored corn.

Indian Meal Moth 6-8 Prefers coarse grades of processed


weeks grain.

Mediterranean Flour 8-9 Prefers finer grades of processed


Moth weeks grain.

Saw-toothed Grain Beetle 4 weeks Prefers grain products

Red Flour Beetle 5 weeks Attacks grain and grain products.

III. Rodents

Two species of rodents, the Norway rat Rattus norvegicus and the house mouse Mus
musculus infest large storage godowns. They feed and contaminate even more of the
stored material with their droppings, urine, and hair.

IV. Storage Mites

1. Grain mite, Acarus siro

2. Cheese mite, Tyrophagus casei

3. Mold mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae

4. Dried fruit mite, Carpoglyphus lactis

5. Itch mite, Glycyphagus domesticus

o The cheese mite, known to cause dermatitis, is larger than both the grain mite and
the mold mite.

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o The mold mite is a pest of many foods, especially those having a high fat or
protein content. Infestations have been found on wheat flour, soy flour, wheat
germ, rye bread, and mixtures of oats, barley and wheat. Not serious on stored
products in tropical or subtropical regions.

o The dried fruit mite infests dried fruits, jams, and products containing lactic,
acetic, or succinic acids. It has been also found in honeycombs, fruit drink residue,
senna confections, rotting potatoes, flour, dried-milk powder, and caramel used
in manufacturing sweets.

o The grocer's itch mite is found in flour, wheat, linseed, tobacco, sugar, cheese,
and bee frames, in bees' and birds' nests.

Principles and Methods of Management

Bin Storage

Make needed bin repairs

Avoid mixing old and new grain

Treat empty bins prior to filling. After cleaning bins thoroughly, spray walls,
floors and ceilings to the "point of runoff". Apply the insecticide 2-3 weeks before
harvest.

Before storing the grain, sweep the bin to remove all dead insects.

Loading Grain for Storage

Reduce the moisture content to a storable level of 13 percent or below.

The grain bin should not be overfilled

Space (headroom) must be left on top of the grain.

After the bin is filled, the grain's surface should be leveled

Application of insecticidal treatment, aeration, and fumigation cannot be effective


on uneven grain surfaces.

Moisture condensation and subsequent mold and insect problems are more likely
to develop in mounded grain.

Surface Treatments

Surface treatments are applied to prevent insects such as moths from entering
the grain from the outside.

This should be done as soon as the bins are filled and the surface leveled.
Treatments can be repeated if necessary with 57 % malathion EC, 1% malathion
dust, or Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel).

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The grain should be inspected at 2- to 4-week intervals to monitor these
conditions.

Fumigation

Fumigation is needed when no other pesticide or control method can reach the
insect infestation.

If the insects are already inside the grain mass, no spray or dust can reach them.

Fumigants act on all insect life stages.

Methyl bromide, aluminum phosphide

In recent years aluminum phosphide (Celphos, Phostoxin) has been found to be an


effective fumigant for stored grain insects.

The main advantage of aluminum phosphide is the ease of application.

Pest Management in Storage Go-downs

Maintain store house hygiene

o Eliminate various bio-stages of pests, hiding creeks and crevices.

o Clean the store room or go-down before stocking the grains fresh.

o Arrest rat entry by providing a metal sheet up to a height of 25 cm at the bottom


of wooden doors.

o Provide wire meshes on windows, ventilators, gutters, drains, etc. to prevent the
entry of rats.

o Fill crevices, cracks, rat holes, etc. found on the walls and floor.

o Follow an integrated approach by blending all known technology to minimize the


damage by storage pests.

Reduce the moisture content of the grains to prevent insect build up

o The seeds or grains have to be dried in sun thoroughly and repeatedly to bring
down the moisture content below 10 13 %.

o All the bags, bins, etc. which were used previously should be dried in the sun
repeatedly to kill the insect bio-stages harboured in them.

Eliminate conditions which favour storage pests

o Seeds should be sieved and all broken grains removed before bagging since broken
grains favour the pest build up.

o Alltorn bags should best stitched before filling.

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o Loose bags should be filled or stitched to make them tight.

Surface treatment of store house before storage

The walls, ceiling and floor or empty store rooms or go-downs should be treated with any one of
the following chemicals before stocking the bags:

o Malathion 4 % 25g / sq. m

o Malathion 50 % EC 10 ml/litre of water and 3 litres of spray solution per sq. m

o DDVP 76 % SC 7 ml/litre of water and 3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq. m

Good storage minimizes insect infestation

o Provide good dunnage by arranging wooden blocks or bamboo poles or spreading


thick polythene sheets on the floor.

o The dunnage materials have to be treated with one of the above chemicals
suggested for surface treatment.

o The bags should be arranged over the dunnage in a crisscross pattern, i.e. arrange
one layer of bags length-wise and the next layer of bags breath-wise.

o The bags have to be stored in such a way that they do not lean or touch the walls.

o A gangway or alley of 0.75 to 1.0 meter has to be left around and at convenient
intervals for inspection, aeration, prevention of moisture seepage and for
fumigation and chemical spraying, if necessary.

o Bags should be stored only up to 15 bags high or as specified.

o Adequate space has to be left between the roof and the top layer of the bags.

o Bags containing different seeds or grains should be stacked separately and they
should not be mixed.

Prophylactic treatment of seeds/grains and bag surface

o If the produce is meant for seed purpose, mix 1 kg or activated kaolin or malathion
5% D with every 100 kg of seed and packed in gunny or polythene lined bags.

o If the produce of cereals is meant for grain purpose, mix 1 kg of activated kaolin to
every 100kg of grain and store. To protect the pulses grains, activated kaolin is
mixed at the above dosage or any one of the edible oils at 1 kg for every 100 kg or 1
kg of neem seed kernel for every 100 kg of cereal or pulse grain and stored.

o One of the following pesticides has to be applied at the specified dosage over the bags:

Malathion 5% 25 g per sq. m

Malathion 50% EC 10 ml/ litre of water (3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq. m)

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DDVP 76 % SC 7 ml per litre of water (3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq. m)

o No synthetic insecticide should be mixed with the grains which are meant for
consumption.

o Alleys or gang ways have to be treated with one of the following chemicals:

Malathion 50% EC 10 ml/litre of water

DDVP 76% SC 7 ml/litre of water

Apply one litre of spray solution for every 270 cu.m or 10,000 cu. ft.

o The chemicals have to be sprayed on the walls and floors and the treatment
repeated based on the extent of flying and crawling insects.

For continued healthy insect free conditions of seeds or grains

o Draw samples of seeds or grains at fortnightly intervals and classify the


infestation as follows based on the number of insects found per 1 kg of sample:

When there is no pest Free

Up to 2 insects Mild

More than 2 insects Severe

o Decide the need for shed fumigation (entire store house or go-down) or cover
fumigation (only selected blocks of bags).

o The store houses/go-downs and the black polythene sheets or rubberized


aluminum covers should be checked for holes and got them ready for fumigation.

o Choose the fumigant and work out the requirement on the following guidelines:

Aluminium phosphide

1. For cover fumigation: 3 tablets of 3 grams each per ton of grain

2. For shed fumigation: 21 tablets of 3 grams each for 28 cu. metres

3. Duration of fumigation: 5 days

o In case of cover fumigation clay or red earth with water is mixed and made
into a paste and kept ready for plastering all around the fumigation cover,
or sand snakes are kept ready.

o The required numbers of aluminum phosphide tablets are inserted in


between the bags in different layers or methyl bromide is applied as
required.

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o The bags should be covered immediately with fumigation cover.

o The edges of cover all around are to be plastered with wet red earth or clay
plaster or weighed down with sand snakes to make leak proof.

o The bags are kept airtight for a period of 5 or 7 days under fumigation
based on the fumigant chosen.

o The mud plaster is to be removed after specified fumigation period and the
cover lifted in a corner to allow the residual gas to escape.

o Aeration has to be allowed and the cover lifted after a few hours.

o Similar steps should be followed to ensure leak proof condition, fumigation


period, aeration etc. in case of shed fumigation.

o Fumigants are used for curative treatments and they have no residual
action on new immigrant insects which can infest grains.

o Sampling has to be done periodically and the stored materials fumigated


based on the need.

o Fumigants should be handled with utmost care as per specifications.

Rodent management in store houses

o Trim the branches of trees or plants hanging over the store house or go-
down.

o Provide metallic mesh to windows, ventilators, drains, etc.

o Man holes or covers of the drainage systems have to be covered.

o The doors should closed tightly without gaps. Do not give clearance of
more than 0.5 cm between floor and door.

o Remove the wooden stairs in front of go-downs as soon as the work is over
and they should never be allowed to remain at nights.

o All rat holes should be plugged with cement after filling with glass pieces.

o If possible, automatic door closers may be provided to prevent entry of


rats.

o Check for the rodent infestation periodically. If rodents are noticed, they
may be baited with multi-dose or chronic anticoagulant rodenticides. In
case of dry concentrated food, the bait may be prepared as follows:

Cereal or flour 450 g

Any edible oil 10 g

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Powdered jaggery or brown sugar 15 g

Anticoagulant rodenticides like coumarin compounds 25 g

o Mix the ingredients thoroughly and keep it in small cups on the rat runs, dark
places, etc. where the rats frequently move. Replace the consumed bait daily. The
rats which begin dying should be collected after 5 or 6 days and buried.

o Water soluble bait may be prepared my mixing 25 grams of water soluble


anticoagulant in 475 ml of water. Keep the shallow cups or plates at a number of
places inside the go-down for the rats to drink the poisoned liquid before death.

o If needed, the single dose or acute poison bait may be prepared as follows:

Food materials 97 grams

Any edible oil 1 gram

Zinc phosphide 2 grams

The ingredients are mixed thoroughly and kept in cups in the places frequented by rats.

o Before providing the poisoned zinc phosphide bait the plain or non poisoned
bait are provided for two or three days to make the rats to accept the bait.

o The same material stored in the vicinity has to be used for preparing baits to make
the rats accept and eat them without suspicion.

o Once the rat population has been contained, discontinue the baiting by removing
all the baited food and destroyed.

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Chapter 6 [From Horticulture]
Propagation of Horticultural Crops
I. Asexual Propagation

Asexual propagation is the method of multiplication of a plant from a tissue other than
zygote which is formed by the combination of male and female gametes. The cellular
basis for this method of multiplication is mitosis viz., regeneration of a daughter plant
from the somatic tissue. The different methods of asexual propagation are:

A) Cuttings

1. Root cutting Red raspberry, Bread fruit etc.,

2. Stem cuttings

a. Hardwood fig, grape, gooseberry, rose etc.,

b. Semi hard wood coleus, geranium, sweet potato etc.,

c. Softwood-lilac, jasmine etc.,

d. Herbaceous coleus, geranium, sweet potato etc.,

3. Leaf cutting - Begonica, Bryophyllum, Sansevieria etc.,

4. Leaf bud cuttings Hydrangea

B) Layering

a) Ground layering

1. Tip layering : Black berry

2. Simple layering: Guava, Pomegranate, crotons etc.,

3. Mound layering : Goose berry, apple etc.

4. Compound layering : Grape, Honey suckle etc.,

5. Trench layering : Etiolation method eg. Cherry

b) Air layering (Gootee (or) marcotage) : Litchi, guava, crotons etc.

C) Grafting

1) Root grafting: Whip graft-apple and pear

2) Crown grafting: a) Whip and tongue graft Persian walnut, apple

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b) Cleft graft camellia, plums

c) Side graft - Narrow leaved evergreen, mango

3) Top grafting:

a) Cleft various fruit trees

b) Notch graft

c) Bark graft

d) Side graft

e) Whip and tongue graft

f) Veneer grafting

D) Budding

a) T budding (Shield budding) Pomefruits, rose, ber etc.

b) Patch budding Citrus

c) Ring budding Walnut and pecan

d) Flute budding Walnut and pecan

e) Chip budding citrus

E) Tissue culture - Micropropagation

F) Other special parts

Advantages of Asexual Propagation

1. In most horticultural plants, the genetic make up (genotype) is highly


heterozygous. The unique characters of such plants are immediately lost if they
are propagated though seed

2. It is necessary to grow cultivars that produce non viable seeds, eg. Bananas, fig
and grape

3. Propagation of some species may not be easier through seeds . For eg.
Cotoneaster seed it has complex dormancy condition but it is easily propagated
through cuttings

4. To reduce pre-bearing period/or to reduce long juvenile stage.

5. To induce dwarfness eg. in apple

6. To induce disease and pest resistance. Troyer citrange is used as a rootstock for
citrus. It is resistant to tristeza virus.

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7. To induce hardiness in cultivars eg. Alnarp apple used for its winter hardy
properties

Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation

1. Longevity is not high when compared to the seedling progeny.

2. Asexual method is uneconomical and impractical in the case of vegetable crop


propagation and grains (eg.tomato, brinjal, amaranthus etc.) since cost of
cultivation is high when compared to sexual method

3. Most of the virus disease are not seed borne. When propagated vegetatively the
virus are carried to the next generation eg. Katte disease of cardamom.

Genetic variation in sexual propagation

Gene/chromosome change

By mitosis, it becomes permanent

It is found in a part of the plant only

The plants with normal and mutated cells are called Chimeras

Eg. Coleus, crotons, Bougain villeas.

Kinds of Chimeras

1) Sectorial Chimeras- Growing point of the stem is found with two types of tissues.

- The leaves & lateral buds are also mutated

2) Periclinal - The mutated tissue occurs as a thin skin with several cell
layers

- The most common type of chimeras

- Relatively stable

- This type will revert back if propagated by seed or root cuttings

3) Mericlinal - Similar to periclinal

- The outer of mutated cells does not surround fully

- It occupies as a segment of the whole part only

Budsport

Budsport is one where a branch of a tree alone is found with genetic change from the
rest of the part

The characters of budsport are inheritable

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They can be vegetatively propagated

Eg. Apple varieties star kind and Richa Red ar ebudsports from Delicious apple

Apomixis

It is the occurrence of an asexual reproductive process in place of normal sexual


reproductive process of reduction division and fertilization. Simply, it is an asexual
seedling developed from a seed viz., a seedling that arises from tissue of the seed other
than embryo

Plants that produce only apomictic embryos are known as obligate apomicts, (Eg.
Mangosteen) those that produce both apomictic and sexual embryos are facultative
apomicts eg. Acid lime

Type of apomixes

Recurrent apomixes: Here, embryo develops from the egg mother cell which doesnt under
go any meiosis. So., egg has normal diploid number of chromosome, the same as in the
mother plant. The embryo subsequently develops directly from the egg nucleus without
fertilization. In some cases, the embryo develops with stimulus of pollination (eg Allium)
and in some cases, without stimulus of pollination (eg. Malus)

Adventitious or Nucellar embryony: Here, embryo will rise from a cell or group of cells
either in the nucellus or in integuments. Here, embryo develops outside the embryo sac
in addition to the regular embryos. Eg. Citrus

Non-recurrent apomixes: Here embryo arises from the egg nucleus without
fertilization. Since the egg is haploid, the resulting embryo will also he haploid. The case
is very rare.

Vegetative apomixes: In some cases, vegetative buds or bulbils are produced in the
inflorescence in place of flowers eg. Agave and grass species

Polyembryony: The phenomenon in which two or more embryos are present within a
single seed is called polyembryony (Nucellar embryony)

Significance of apomixes

1. Apomictic seedlings are true to its mother and apomictic cultivar can be
considered as a clone

2. They are uniform and vigorous

3. Virus diseases are not seed borne. So, it is the best method to rejuvenate virus
affected plant crops.

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I. Principles and methods of vegetative propagation by cuttings

Cuttings are vegetative plant portions such as stems, leaves and roots taken from plants
to produce new independent plant which, in most ca cases,
ses, will be identical with the parent
plant. This is one of the least expensive and easiest methods of vegetative propagation.

Cuttings are taken from 1) stem 2) leaf 3) leaf bud and 4) root

In the case of stem cuttings, it has four groups

1. Hard wood cutting-spring


spring February, March

2. Semi-hard
hard wood cutting
cutting-summer April, may

3. Soft wood cutting -fall


fall (or) autumn June, july & August

4. Herbaceous cuttings-Winter
WinterSeptember,
September, October, November, December & January

Hardwood cutting

Deciduous Hardwood

The cuttings are fully matured with more reserve food and anatomically, the maximum of
sclerenchyma can be seen. The cuttings are prepared during dormant season (late fall,
winter or early spring) from wood of previous seasons growth. In some species, such as
fig, olive and certain plum varieties, two year old wood can be used. Fruits propagated
through hard wood cuttings are fig, olive, mulberry, grape, gooseberry, pomegranate,
some plums and rose

Cuttings should be taken from healthy plant grown in full ssunlight.


unlight. Length may vary
from 4 to 30 inches (Common 66-8)
8) the diameter of cuttings may range from inch to
even 2 depending upon the species.

At least, two nodes are included in the cutting. The basal cut is usually just below a node
and a top cut to 1 above a node. After preparing cuttings, bundles of cuttings may be
buried out of doors in sandy soil or stored in a refrigerated room before planting in
spring.

While planting, cuttings should be planted 3 or 4 apart and deeply enough (1/3 of its
length
gth placed inside the soil)

Evergreen hardwood

Grapes, pomegranate and some


citrus fruits are propagated
through hard wood cuttings.
Length of cuttings range from 44-7
with 5 to 6 nodes. Cuttings are
taken during late winter. Spring

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season is good for planting.

Semi-hard wood cuttings

Stem cuttings of trees and shrubs that are taken from current season shoots, which are
partly matured are known as semi-hard wood. They have lesser reserve food compared
to hard wood and similarly, the formation of sclerenchyma in the anatomical
development is also comparatively less. Length of cuttings ranges from 3 to 6 inches.
Here we can retain one or two terminal leaves.

Soft wood cutting

Cuttings of 3-6 length prepared from soft, succulent and new growth may be called as
soft wood cuttings eg. Vernonia

Herbaceous cuttings

This type of cuttings made from succulent herbaceous plants just near the terminal buds
is called herbaceous cuttings (Geranium, Coleus, Alternanthra and Sweet potato) Length
of cuttings is 3-5 with leaves

Leaf cuttings

Leaf blades are utilized in starting a new plant. Adventitious roots and an adventitious
shoot form at the base of leaf. (eg.) Sansevieria, Begonia & Bryophyllum

Leaf bud cuttings

They consist of a leaf blade, petiole and a very short piece of stem with attached axillary
bud.

This type of cuttings will be very useful in species which have a tendency to produce root
from the leaf, stem or petiole but do not produce a shoot system out of any one of the
three parts. In this case, the axillary bud serves as a source for new shoot system.
Eg.Lemon, Rhododendron.

Root cuttings

Root piece of 2-4 length are planted horizontally at 1 to 2 depth. Eg: Bread fruit, Crab
apple, Black berry, Rasp berry

Anatomical and physiological basis of rooting

The formation of adventitious roots in cuttings or layering can be divided into two
phases. One is initiation which is characterized by cell division and the differentiation of
certain cells into root initials and then into recognizable root primordia. The second
phase is the growth and emergence of new roots, by a combination of cell division and
cell elongation including rupturing of other stem tissues and formation of vascular
connections with the conducting tissue of the cutting

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These root initials
ls are formed adjacent to vascular tissue. In herbaceous plants which
lack a cambium, the root initials are formed near the vascular bundle close to the phloem.
In woody perennials, the adventitious roots in stem cuttings usually originate in the
young, secondary phloem although they may also arise from other tissues such as
vascular rays, cambium or piths.

In some plants, adventitious root initials form during early stage of intact stem
development and are already present at the time of preparation of cuttings.
cu These are
termed preformed of latent root initials. These generally lie dormant until the stems
are made into cuttings and placed under environmental conditions favourable for further
development and emergence of the primordial as adventitious roots. Willow, Hydrangea,
Poplar, jasmines, Citrons are some of the species which produce preformed root initials.
The position of origin of these preformed root initials is same as that of other
adventitious roots. After elaborate studies with easy and difficult to root plants, some
insight into the physiological basis of rooting has been established. The important aspects
are summarized below:

1. Auxin level is closely associated with adventitious rooting of stem cuttings.

2. Nutritional status of plants especially high carbohydrate levels with optimum N is


associated with vigourous root growth.

3. Few organic compounds interact with auxin to affect rooting and they are called
rooting co-factors

II. Principles and methods of propagation by layering

It is a propagation method by which adventitious roots are caused to form on a stem


while it is still attached to the parent plant. The rooted stems are then detached and
established in a medium to become a new plant growing on its own roots.

Types of layering

a) Air layering or Gootee

b) Ground layering

1) Simple layering

2) Compound layering

3) Mound (Stool) layering

Air layering

In air layering, roots form on aerial part of plants where the


stem has been girdled and covered with rooting medium. It
should be e done during humid months because root initiation
will be high under high humid conditions

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Steps:

1. The branch selected should be of pencil thickness

2. The stem should be girdled for about a length of 1cm to 1 to induce adventitious
root formation above the cut. It should be given at 12-15
15 from the tip of the
branch

3. A ball of slightly damp sphagnum moss is placed around the girdled stem.

4. A wrap of polythene film is placed around the sphagnum moss and tied airtight on
both ends.

Time of removal

It is better determined by observing root formation through the transparent film. In


some plants, rooting occurs in two or three months. Layering made in spring or early
summer is the best and it will give high percentage of success.

The rooted layers should be potte


potted
d in a suitable container and placed under cool humid
conditions as a hardening process before it is used for planting.

Ground layering

1. Simple layering: Branches that have formed roots in one area only are called simple
layers. Such layers are made by bending the branches to the ground and covering the
portion with soil.

This should be done in early spring for temperate species before growth has started. For
other tropical species an actively growing period is selected. The tip of the shoot is left
exposed
posed to carry out normal process of the plant.

Procedure

1. A healthy shoot of pencil thickness from a lower branch near the ground level has
to be selected.

2. The common practice is to injure the portion


to be covered, by notching, girdling, cutting
or twisting. This practice destroys the
phloem tissue partially or completely and
retards the downward movement of food
material as well as hormones manufactured
by leaves. Injury is given 6
6-12 back from
the tip

3. The bent part of shoot is inserted into the soil

4. The usual time for layering depends on species eg. for temperate species, it is
done in early spring and for this, dormant, one year old shoots are used.

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5. The rooted layers may be removed from the parent plant and kept under cool
humid conditions for curing.

2. Compound or serpentine layering: It is essentially the


same as simple layering, except that the branch is
alternately covered and exposed along its length. So
that, the roots strike wherever the plant is covered by
soil

3. Mound layering (or) stooling: Here, the plant is


pruned close to the ground level and all the branches are
covered with soil. Striking of roots takes place at a number of
places and the plant also produce new shoot system which
come out of the mound. Each shoot with part of roots formed
will be separated and planted in pots for further establishment.
Apple rootstocks are propagated by this method.

The anatomical development of roots

Stem cuttings: Propagation through cutting/layering is common


in dicotyledonous plants. How
However, cuttings of some
monocots, such as asparagus can be rooted under proper
conditions

Process of root initiation in stem: It is divided into three stages

1. Cellular differentiation of cambium leading to initiation of meristematic cells.


Proliferation of certain cells to form root initials near vascular bundle.

2. These differentiated cells group into recognizable root primoridia

3. The growth and emergence of new roots.

Initiation of root primordia in herbaceous plants

1. Origin is usually just outside and betwee


betweenn the vascular bundles (from cmbium)

2. Small group of cells, the root initials, continue dividing, forming groups of many
small cells which develop into root primordial (it looks like root tip)

3. A vascular system develops in the new root and becomes connected with adjacent
vascular bundle

Initiation of roots in woody plants: Origin is in the young secondary phloem, sometimes
from vascular rays or cambium. The time at which root initials develop after cuttings are
placed in the propagating bed varies widely

Callus: After stem cuttings have been made and placed under favourable environmental
conditions, callus will usually develop at the basal end of cuttings. This is an irregular
mass of undifferentiated parenchyma cells. It was believed that callus formation would

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be essential for rooting. In most cases, formation of callus and formation of roots are
independent of each other and if they occur simultaneous it is due to their dependence
upon similar internal and environmental condition.

III. Principles of grafting and budding

It is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant into another or placing it
upon another in such a way that an union will be formed and the combination will
continue to grow as one plant. The part of graft combination which is to become the
upper portion if termed as the scion (ion) and the part which is to become the lower
portion or root is termed as root stock or understock or the stock Rootstocks are
commonly grown from seeds, cuttings or layers. All methods of joining plants are
popularly termed as grafting but when the scion part is only a small piece of bark (and
sometimes wood) containing a single bud, the operation is termed as budding.

Reasons for grafting and budding

1. When other methods of asexual propagation are not successful in perpetuating a


clone, eg: Mango and Sapota can be successfully propagated on commercial scale
by grafting only.

2. Plants propagated on their own roots may be weak, susceptible to pests and
diseases, or to any adverse environmental conditions may not adaptable to a
particular soil or climate. For many plant species, rootstocks are available which
tolerate all the above cases and hence they may be exploited as a rootstock
through grafting or budding.

3. For converting poor trees into more desirable one by top-working

4. For overcoming pollination problems, self-fertile varieties may be grafted over


self-sterile trees

5. For fancy purposes, different types of scion may be grafted in the same plant

6. To modify the growth of the plant as dwarf one by employing suitable dwarfing
rootstocks

7. Occasionally the roots, truck or large limbs of trees are severely damaged by
winter injury, cultivation implements, certain diseases or rodent. But use of
bridge grafting or in arching such damage can be repaired and the tree saved.

Limitation of grafting or budding

One of the requirements for a successful graft union is the close matching of the callus-
producing tissues near the cambial layers. Grafting is generally confined to dicotyledons.
These plants have a vascular cambial layer existing as a continuous tissue between the
xylem and phloem. For grafting, it should be borne in mind that the plants to be
combined are capable of uniting. Generally, the more closely the plants to be grafted are

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related botanically, the more favourable is the chances of the graft union being
successful.

1. Intra-varietal grafting: When a scion can be grafted back on the same plant or a
scion from a plant of a given clone can be grafted to any other plant of the same
clone eg. Elberta peach on Elberta peach

2. Inter-varital grafting: when different varieties of a species are employed as graft


parents eg. mango

3. Inter-specific grafting: In this case, grafting between the species of the same
genus is done. But this is usually difficult but widely used between species in the
genus citrus. Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is grafted commercially on peach
(Prunus persica)

4. Intergeneric grafting: when the plants to be grafted together are in different


genera but in the same family the chanes of union are more remote. But successful
union has been reported in the following cases:

Citrus spp. on trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliatat)

Sathugud (Citrus sinensis) on wood apple (Ferronia elephantum)

Sapota (Achras sapota) on pala (Manilkara hexandra)

Stock-scion relationships

A grafted or budded plant can produce unusual growth patterns which may be different
from what would have occurred if each component part of a graftage viz., rootstock and
scion was grown separately or when it is grafted or budded in other types of rootstocks.
Some of these have major horticultural value. this varying aspect of rootstocks in the
performance of a scion cultivar or vice versa is known as stock-scion relationship

A) Effect of stocks on scion cultivars

1. Size and growth habit: In apple, rootstocks, can be classified as dwarf, semi-
dwarf, vigorous and very vigorous rootstocks based on their effect on a scion
cultivar. If a scion is grafted on dwarf rootstocks eg. Malling IX, the scion grows
less vigorously and remain dwarf only. On the other hand if the same scion is
grafted on a very vigorous rootstock eg. Malling II the scion grows very
vigorously,. In citrus, trifoliate orange is considered to be the most dwarfing
rootstock for grapefruit and sweet oranges. On the other hand, in mango, all
plants of a given variety are known to have the same characteristic canopy shape
of the variety despite the rootstocks being of seedling origin. But recently,
rootstocks of Kalapade, Olour have been found to impart dwarfness in the scion
cultivars of mango. Guava cultivars grafted on Psidium pumilum are found to be
dwarf in stature.

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2. Precocity in flowering and fruiting : The time taken from planting to fruiting i.e.,
precocity is influenced by rootstocks. Generally fruiting precocity is associated
with dwarfing rootstocks and slowness to start rootstocks are precocious than
those grafted on sweet orange or sour orange or acid lime rootstocks

3. Fruitset and yield: The rootstocks directly influence on the production of flower
and setting fruits in oriental Persimmon (Diospyrous kaki cv. Hichiya). When it is
grafted on D.lotus, it produces more flowers but few only mature but when D.kaki
is used as the rootstock, the fruitset is more. the influence of rootstock on the
yield performance of cultivar has been well documented in many fruit crops. Acid
limes budded on rough lemon register nearly 70 percent increased yield than
those budded on troyer citrange, Rangpur lime or its own rootstock. Sweet
orange var. Sathugudi budded on Kichili rootstock gave higher yield that on
Jambhari or on its own seedling.

4. Fruit size quality: Sathugudi sweet oranges grafted on Gajanimma rootstocks


produced large but poor quality fruits while on its own roots they produced fruits
with high juice content and quality. The physiological disorder granulation in
sweet orange is very low if grafted on Cleopartra mandarin seedlings, on the
other hand rough lemon seedlings stocks induced maximum granulation. the
physiological disorder black end in Bartlett Pear did not appear if Pyrus communis
was used as the rootstock. When P.pyrifolia was used as the rootstock, this
disorder appeared, affecting fruit quality.

5. Nutrient status of scion: Roost stocks do influence the nutrient status of scion
also. Sathugudi orange trees have a better nutrient status of alnutrients in the
leaves when it is budded on C.volkarimariana rootstock than on its own rootstock
or Cleopatra mandarin stocks

6. Winter hardiness: Young grape fruit trees on Rangpur lime withstand winter
injury better than on rough lemon or sour orange. Sweet oranges and mandarins
on trifoliate stocks were more cold hardy.

7. Disease resistance: In citrus considerable variability exists among the rootstocks


in their response to diseases and nematodes. For instance, rough lemon rootstock
is tolerant to tristesa, xyloporosis and execortis but is susceptible to gummosis
and nematode. On the other hand, treyer citrange is tolerant to gummosis but
susceptible to execortis virus disease. Similarly, guava varieties grafted on
Chinese guava (Psidium friedrichsthalianum) resist wilt diseases and nematodes

8. Ability to resist soil adverse conditions: Among the citrus rootstocks, trifoliate
orange exhibits poor ability, while sweet oranges, sour orange, Rangpur lime
rootstocks exhibit moderate ability to resist excess salts in the soil. Im pome
fruits, similarly, ariation exists among rootstocks to resist excess soil moisture or
excess boron in the soilyrobolan plum rootstocks generally tolerate excess boron
and moisture than Mananna plum root or other rootstocks viz., peach, apricot or
almond.

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B)Effect of scion on rootstock

1. Vigour of the rootstocks: In apple, it has been found that if apple seedlings were
budded with the Red Astrochan apple. The rootstock produced a very fibrous
root system with few tap roots. On the other hand, if scion Golden burg was
budded on the seedlings, they produced two or three pronged deep roots without
fibrous root system. In citrus, if the scion cultivar is less vigorous than the
rootstock cultivar the rate of growth and the ultimate size of the tree is more
determined by the scion rather than the rootstocks.

2. Cold hardiness of the rootstock: Cold hardiness of citrus roots is affected by the
scion cultivar. Sour orange seedlings budded to Eureka lemon suffered much
more from winter injury than the unbudded seedlings.

3. Precocity in flowering: Young mango rootstock seedlings (6 months to one year


old) were found to put forth inflorescence when the branches from old trees are
inarched which can be attributed to the influence of scion on the rootstock.

IV. Propagation by specialised plant parts

Certain plants posses specialized vegetative structure whose primary functions are
storage of food and vegetative reproduction. If such structures are naturally detachable
for propagation, this procedure is termed as separation On the other hand such
structure are to be can into sections for ht purpose of propagation, then this process is
called as division the following specialized vegetative structure are used in propagation

1. Bulb: A bulb is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy, usually


vertical stem axis bearing at its apex a growing point or a flower primondium enclosed by
thick flesh scales. The outer bulb scales are generally fleshy and contain reserve food
materials whereas the scales towards the inner contain relatively less food materials an
dare more leaf-like. Bulbs possessing dry and membranous outer scales are tunicate
bulbs and bulbs which lack this cover is non-tunicate

2. Corm: A corm is the swollen base of a stem axis enclosed by the dry, scale-like leaves.
It is solid stem structure with distinct nodes and internodes. the propagation of cormous
plants is principally by the natural increase of new corms. the development of miniature
corms between the old and the new corms is termed cormels.

3. Tuber: A tuber is modified stem structure which develops below ground as a result of th
swelling of the subapical portion of a stolon and sub-sequent accumulation of reserve
materials. A tuber has all the parts of a typical stem. Certain plants produce aerial tubers
in the axils of leaves which are known as tubercles.

4. Tuberous roots and stem: In certain plants, the adventitious roots become thickened and
they do have external and internal structures of roots nodes and internodes. These are
known as tuberous roots. In other plants such as tuberous Begonia, Cyclamen or
Gloxinia, they have thickened structures which have arisen from enlarged hypocotyls

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tissue. They have a vertical arrangement and may show features of stems. Propagation
of platn with such tuberous roots or stem consists of division of such materials.

5. Rhizome: It refers to a specialized stem structure in which the main axis of the plant
grows horizontally at or just below the ground surface. A rhizome consists of nodes and
internodes having leaf scars on the node. In determinate types of rhizomes each clump
ends in a flowering stalk and growth continues only from lateral branches.

6. Runner: Runner is a specialized stem which develops from the axis of a leaf at the
crown of a plant and grows horizontally along the ground and forms a new plant at one
of the nodes

7. Offset: It refers to special types of lateral shoot or branch which develops from the main
stem in certain plants and is characterized by shortened, thickened stem of rosette-like
appearance. Offsets which produce sufficient roots can be removed by cutting them close
to the main stem with a sharp knife and used for propagation

8. Suckers: A sucker is a shoot which arises on a plant from below ground usually from an
adventitious bud on a root. Suckers are further known as root suckers, ground suckers
and shoot suckers if they arise respectively from root, near the ground and stem of the
plant

9. Crown: The term crown designates that part of a plant at the surface of the ground from
which new shoots are produced. This kind of crown is observed in herbaceous perennials
like strawberry, pyrethrum, Gerbera or African violet wherein the stem is a short and
thickened structure from which the leaves are produced in a rosette like arrangement

Certain plants do have one or more of the above mentioned specialized structures useful
for propagation. But particular structure is preferred for commercial propagation for
obvious reasons. Strawberry can be propagated both by runners and splits from crown.

V. Principles of Micropropagation and Its Advantages

Micro propagation or in vitro propagation refers to the development of new plant in an


artificial medium under aseptic conditions from very small pieces of plant, such as
embryos, seeds, stems, shoot tips, root tips, callus, single cells and pollen grains. This
technique has been put into various applications in the discipline of agriculture,
horticulture and forestry ever. The various applications of micro propagation are as follows

1. Rapid rate of multiplication of a plant clonally.

2. Production of disease-free and disease resistant plants.

3. Induction of mutant and selection of mutants.

4. Production of haploids through anther culture

5. Wide hybridization through excised embryo and ovule culture

6. Somatic hybrids and cybrids through protoplast fusion

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7. Transformation through uptake of foreign genome

8. Nitrogen fixation

9. Cryopreservation of germplasm types

Requirements for micro propagation

1. Laminar air flower chamber It is useful to perform all operation in aseptic


culture

2. Auto-clave or pressure cooker It is used to sterilize the media, containers,


petridishes and the various accessories required in the transfer operation.

3. Alcohol lamps, disinfectant and sterile water are also required

4. Culture medium A medium consists of mineral salts, carbon and energy source,
vitamins, plant growth regulators and other organic components

Procedure for micro propagation

1. Collection of explant: The small piece of plant used to begin a culture is referred
to as an explant. The size, age and type of explant affect the success of in vitro
propagation.

2. Surface sterilization: Explants so collection from field grown plants harbor


numberous fungi and bacteria, which when inoculated into a nutrient medium
contaminates the entire in vitro system. Hence, surface sterilization is resorted to
prior inoculation of explants. The efficacy of the sterilants used are found to vary
depending upon the type of chemical, concentration used, time of exposure etc., A
few drops of teepol are also added to facilitate better contact between the explants
and the sterilant.

3. Inoculation: Transfer of the explant into the culture medium is known as


inoculation. This must be done in an aseptic condition. This is achieved by
surface sterilization of the working table of the laminar air flower chamber with
absolute alcohol followed by UV light for 30 minutes.

4. Sub-culturing: After inoculation, the explant increases in volume or it proliferate.


At this stage, it is divided into different components or parts and transferred into
a fresh medium under above mentioned aseptic sterile condition. This process is
known under above mentioned aseptic sterile condition. This sub cultured mass
should produce a shoot and root system which is dependent upon the type of
growth regulator and its concentration used in the medium. It is generally
observed that if the concentration of cytokinins is high relative to auxin in a
medium, shoots are induced and on the hand, when the concentration of cytokines
is low to auxin, roots are induced and at intermediate concentration, the tissue
grows as undifferentiated callus.

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Various methods of culturing plant tissues and organs: There are five classes of plant tissues
culture:

1. Callus culture: A piece of sterile plant tissue with living cells is transferred to a
culture medium to induce callus proliferation. Subculturing is then done onto a
medium with or without altered growth regulator concentration, ultimately
resulting in the induction of adventitious organs or embryos.

2. Cell culture: Cells are maintained in suspension cultures so as to produce free cells
and are then subcultured to regenerate complete plants from single cells. This
technique is now useful to induce variability in plant cells and slowly exposed to
select desirable cell variants and regenerate complete plants from these variants.

3. Meristem culture: This technique involves aseptic culture of shoot meristems on


nutrient medium so as to produce complete plants. Most important application of
meristem culture is the production of virus free plant from these variants.

4. Embryo culture: involves aseptic excision of the embryo and its transfer to a
suitable medium for development under optimum culture conditions. After the
embryo has grown into a plantlet in vitro, it is transferred to sterile soild or
vermiculite and grown to maturity in a green house

5. Protoplast culture: From different sources, protoplasts, the plant cells without any
rigid cellulose wall but with plasma membrane only, is allowed to fuse to form a
somatic hybrid. These are cultured in suitable media to regenerate the cell wall
and are again cultured in suitable medium for differentiation and morphogenesis.

Hardening

The plant lets developed in the culture tubes are acclimatized to a specific environment
having a high humidity, a low light level and a constant temperature. Besides, the roots
developed in vitro are hairless and hence delicate, requiring care during transfer from
culture medium. To have better survival rate, the plantlets may be transferred to
container kept in mist chamber where relative humidity is maintained at higher order.
Once new growth is seen, the plants may be slowly transferred to outside by exposing to
increased light intensity in stages.

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Please take a print out of the Admission Form, fill it up completely, affix a copy of a
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B 11, 2nd Floor, Commercial Complex
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