Internet

Alternatively referred to as the net or the web, the Internet was

initially developed by the IPTO with the intention of helping to
develop the progress of computing technology by linking the work
being done by all the best academic computer centers. The Internet
as we know it today first started being developed in the late 1960's
and transmitted its first message on Friday, October 29, 1969.
In 1993, the Internet experienced one of its largest growths to date
and today is accessible by people everywhere in the world. The
Internet utilizes the TCP/IPprotocol and is accessed using a
computer modem or network that is connected through an ISP.

The Internet contains billions of web

pages created by people and companies from around the world,
making it a limitless location to locate information and
entertainment. The Internet also has thousands of services that
help make life more convenient. For example, many financial
institutions offer online banking that enables a user to manage and
view their account online. In the picture to the right, is a
representation and map of the Internet done by The Opte Project.

The Internet basics

The Internet is explored, which is more commonly referred to

assurfing, using a computer browser.
Finding information on the Internet is achieved by using a search
engine.
Users browse web pages by following hyperlinks.
 Files, pictures, songs, and video can be shared
by uploading anddownloading.
The Internet is also used for communicating with others
throughsocial networks, forums, chat, e-mails, and IM.
What is the Domain Name System (DNS)?
Every time you visit a website, you are interacting with the largest distributed database in
the world. This massive database is collectively known as the DNS, or the Domain Name
System. Without it, the Internet as we know it would be unable to function. The work that the
DNS does happens so seamlessly and instantaneously that you are usually completely
unaware that it's even happening. The only time that you'll get an inkling about what the
DNS is doing is when you're presented with an error after trying to visit a website. Learn
more about what the DNS is, how it works and why it's so critical by reading on below.

IP Addresses and Domain Names

In order to understand what the DNS is and how it works, you need to have a basic
understanding of IP addresses and domain names. An IP address, or Internet Protocol
address, is a complex string of numbers that acts as a binary identifier for devices across
the Internet. In short, an IP address is the address that computers, servers and other
devices use to identify one another online. The vast majority of IP addresses are arranged
into four sets of digits - i.e., 12.34.56.78.

A domain name is the information that you enter into a web browser in order to reach a
specific website. When you input a URL like www.example.com/index into a web browser,
its domain name is example.com. Basically, a domain name is the human-friendly version of
an IP address. Businesses vie for easy-to-remember domain names, since they make it
easier for people to remember how to find them online. If people had to remember complex
IP addresses in order to navigate the Internet, it wouldn't be nearly as useful or enjoyable.

Translating Domain Names into IP Addresses

Although it's possible to enter an IP address into a web browser into order to get to a
website, it's a lot easier to enter its domain name instead. However, computers, servers and
other devices are unable to make heads or tails of domain names - they strictly rely on
binary identifiers. The DNS's job, then, is to take domain names and translate them into the
IP addresses that allow machines to communicate with one another. Every domain name
has at least one IP address associated with it.

Top Level Domains, Root Servers and Resolvers

The DNS is a remarkable database. It doesn't perform its work alone, though. Things called
Top Level Domains (TLDs) and root servers do a lot of the heavy lifting for the DNS. A Top
Level Domain refers to the part of a domain name that comes after the period. For instance,
the TLD of example.com is COM. While there's an ever-expanding number of domain
names, there's a relatively static number of Top Level Domains; .com, .edu and .org are just
a few key examples.

Specialized computers called root servers store the IP addresses of each Top Level
Domain's registries. Therefore, the first stop that the DNS makes when it resolves, or
translates, a domain name is at its associated root server. From there, the requested
domain name is sent along to a Domain Name Resolver, or DNR. Domain Name Resolvers,
or resolvers, are located within individual Internet Service Providers and organizations.
They respond to requests from root servers to find the necessary IP addresses. Since the
root server already recognizes the .com, .edu or other part of the equation, it simply has to
resolve the remainder of the request. It usually does this instantly, and the information is
forwarded to the user's PC.

The DNS: A Huge Distributed Database

Millions of people make changes to the DNS every day, through new domain names,
changes to IP addresses and other requests. The unique structure of the DNS, though,
keeps everything straight. Duplicate domain names cannot exist within domains, but they
can exist across them - for instance, example.com and example.gov could be two separate
locations online. Otherwise, the highly organized and efficient nature of the DNS ensures
that you never have to worry about arriving at two different places each time you input a
domain name. When you enter a domain name, its IP address will be resolved and you'll
always arrive at the same place. Without the DNS, the Internet wouldn't be useful, practical
or enjoyable.

What is gateway internet access service? Explain network topology.

INTERNET GATEWAY SERVICE
Fast, reliable and secure Internet access for all your remote sites

IT departments are faced with constant pressure to improve business application performance while
reducing costs and ensuring security. Many organizations with a centralized hub-and-spoke network
topology reduce latency experienced by remote users by hosting corporate applications or providing
Internet access closer to remote sites, often referred to as "regionalizing the network".
SITA has been providing regional Internet service to customers on a dedicated basis, whereby each
customer bears the entire cost of its service. To reduce costs, we now offer a Regional Internet Gateway
(RIG) service based on a common ICT infrastructure. This enables organizations to share resources and
costs while still providing high levels of service and security.
The RIG service is designed for organizations that use a hub-and-spoke network topology and want to
improve the application performance experienced by users posted at outstations and airports far away
from the corporate data centre.
Organizations using a hub-and-spoke network topology typically connect their outstations to the corporate data centre

where the traffic is protected by firewalls, proxies, content filters, and anti-virus applications. In such a scenario, the

distance travelled by the data can be extensive, and can lead to poor application performance experienced by the

outstation users.

The RIG service will provide secure and resilient regional Internet access to users at outstations and airports that are

connected to IP VPN and Internet networks. SITA's RIGs are located closer to the outstations and airport campus

users than the corporate Internet hub. No equipment will need to be installed on the customer's premises since

communication resources typically found at the corporate hub are hosted at SITA's facilities.
Rather than having the data travel the full distance to the corporate data centre, the traffic will break out closer to the

outstation, shortening the distance travelled and reducing the latency experienced by the remote users. Breaking out

less critical browsing traffic regionally will also relieve the company's IP VPN and help speed up the exchange of

mission-critical data.

The RIG service is less expensive than a dedicated gateway service because its resources and costs are shared by

all users. Furthermore, since breaking out Internet traffic regionally reduces the amount of Internet traffic carried by

the IP VPN to your hub, IP VPN and Internet access costs at the corporate hub will also be reduced.

What is a Topology?

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method
used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol
chapter.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and other related topics.

Linear Bus
Star
Tree (Expanded Star)
Considerations When Choosing a Topology
Summary Chart
Linear Bus

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end (See fig. 1).
All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator (See fig. 2).

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network.
It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;
however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
 Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups
of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.
What is an IP Address?
No doubt you've heard the term "IP address." Unless you're a techie, though, you may not
have more than a shadowy notion of what an IP address actually is or how it works. Let's
explore the concept.

An IP address is a fascinating product of modern computer technology designed to allow

one computer (or other digital device) to communicate with another via the Internet. IP
addresses allow the location of literally billions of digital devices that are connected to the
Internet to be pinpointed and differentiated from other devices. In the same sense that
someone needs your mailing address to send you a letter, a remote computer needs your
IP address to communicate with your computer.

"IP" stands for Internet Protocol, so an IP address is an Internet Protocol address. What
does that mean? An Internet Protocol is a set of rules that govern Internet activity and
facilitate completion of a variety of actions on the World Wide Web. Therefore an Internet
Protocol address is part of the systematically laid out interconnected grid that governs
online communication by identifying both initiating devices and various Internet destinations,
thereby making two-way communication possible.

An IP address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to three digits, with a
single dot (.) separating each number or set of digits. Each of the four numbers can range
from 0 to 255. Here's an example of what an IP address might look like: 78.125.0.209. This
innocuous-looking group of four numbers is the key that empowers you and me to send and
retrieve data over our Internet connections, ensuring that our messages, as well as our
requests for data and the data we've requested, will reach their correct Internet
destinations. Without this numeric protocol, sending and receiving data over the World Wide
Web would be impossible.

IP addresses can be either static or dynamic. Static IP addresses never change. They serve
as a permanent Internet address and provide a simple and reliable way for remote
computers to contact you. Static IP addresses reveal such information as the continent,
country, region, and city in which a computer is located; the ISP (Internet Service Provider)
that services that particular computer; and such technical information as the precise latitude
and longitude of the country, as well as the locale, of the computer. Many websites provide
IP address look-up services to their visitors, free of charge. If you're curious about your own
IP address, you can locate these websites by performing a Google search.

Dynamic IP addresses are temporary and are assigned each time a computer accesses the
Internet. They are, in effect, borrowed from a pool of IP addresses that are shared among
various computers. Since a limited number of static IP addresses are available, many ISPs
reserve a portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this
way. This lowers costs and allows them to service far more subscribers than they otherwise
could.
Static IP addresses are generally preferable for such uses as VOIP (Voice over Internet
Protocol), online gaming, or any other purpose where users need to make it easy for other
computers to locate and connect to them. Easy access can also be facilitated when using a
dynamic IP address through the use of a dynamic DNS service, which enables other
computers to find you even though you may be using a temporary, one-time IP address.
This often entails an extra charge, however, so check with your ISP.

Static IP addresses are considered somewhat less secure than dynamic IP addresses,
since they are easier to track for data mining purposes. However, following safe Internet
practices can help mitigate this potential problem and keep your computer secure no matter
what type of IP address you use.

telnet and ftp

Copyright Phillip Farrell. Last revision June 8, 2006

Two basic client application programs are an essential part of the

Additional topics:
telnet TCP/IP protocol suite and should be found in all implementations
ftp in some form: telnet and ftp. These programs contact server
programs on remote computers to initiate remote login sessions or
file transfers, respectively.
Telnet and ftp were written when the Internet was a small, friendly place. They send your password
and data over the Internet in plain text format, with no encryption or security. This makes your password
vulnerable to capture by hackers in the modern, hostile Internet. The ssh family of programs for remote
login and file transfer are now the recommended standards, because they encrypt both your password
and your data to protect them from hackers. The telnet andftp services are maintained on pangea for
those rare occasions when you may need to connect from a computer that does not have
the ssh programs available. An anonymous form of ftp is also maintained by many sites, including
pangea, as a mechanism for distributing large files to remote users.
All computers do not implement the server function. Typically, Unix systems have both the client
programs and the server function (although the server may be turned off or restricted by the system
manager for security reasons), allowing two-way connections between Unix computers, initiated at
either end. Desktop computers such as Windows PCs and Macintoshes typically only have the client
programs, and can initiate connections to Unix servers, but not to other desktop computers.

If you are working with multiple Unix systems under the same management, also check the rlogin, rcp,
and rsh commands, which provide more versatility for remote login, file copying, and remote program
execution. Those programs are available only on Unix systems, and should only be used on sets of
computers under the same management for security reasons.
Although the telnet and ftp client programs may be implemented differently on different operating
systems, and even go by other names, they operate in the same basic manner regardless of system.

On Unix systems, these programs are universally available to be run from a shell command line. You
start these programs by typing the program name followed by the name or Internet address of the
remote host as the argument, for example:

telnet toquima
ftp wasson
telnet 171.64.168.232
ftp 171.64.169.203

Windows PCs and Macintoshes usually have programs that implement the telnet and ftp client
functions with menus and graphical displays, rather than a command line. They have a "new session" or
"new connection" menu item that brings up a dialog box into which you can type the remote computer
name or IP address to connect. Stanford University has site-licensedSecureFX for Windows PCs
and Fetch for Macintosh computers. These programs support both plain ftp, as described here,
and encrypted sftp based on the ssh protocol. You can download these programs to any Stanford
computer from the Essential Stanford Software web site.
Windows 95/98/NT/2000/XP also allow you to run the command line versions of telnet and ftp, exactly
like you would do on Unix. Simply select the Run item from the Start menu, and type cmd (followed by
the RETURN key) to get a Command Promptwindow. In that window, you can
type telnet hostname or ftp hostname as the command to run (followed by the RETURN key),
substituting the remote computer name or IP address for hostname. Then proceed as you would for the
Unix commands, described below.
Because MacOS X is based on Unix, you can also run the command line versions
of telnet and ftp from MacOS X, exactly like you would do on a Unix workstation. Simply start
the Terminal application (found in the Utilities subfolder of theApplications folder). In
the Terminal window, you can type telnet hostname or ftp hostname as the command to run
(followed by the RETURN key), substituting the remote computer name or IP address for hostname.
Then proceed as you would for the Unix commands, described below.

What is Client/Server Computing

Why Client/Server ?

The business environment of the 1990's is rapidly changing. Corporate organizations are
flattening their organization structures to be more responsive to customers and the marketplace.
Traditional competitors are now cooperating with one another while competing at the same time
in different markets. Key competitive advantages are characteristics like time-to-market,
customer serviceand simplicity. Being first to a market with a quality product or service which
delights customers can be the difference between market success or failure. Time to market is
now measured in weeks not years, and being first may be the only advantage one company has
over its competitors.Customer service means delighting the customer with both a product or
service as well as being responsive to changing customer requirements. Organizational structures
are flattening in order to empower employees to make decisions closer to the customer, to be
more responsive to the customer. Personal computers provide a whole new level of computing
flexibility, with simple easy to use programs. These programs are transportable, allowing
businesses to react instantly to customers needs. Simplicity, to the end user, is critical to the
success of client/server computing. End users need information access as easy as getting cash
from an automated teller machine (ATM). Customers can get money from their bank account at
any ATM across the country with just an ATM card and a password. Client/server computing
means changing our information systems to support the changes of the business environment.
Lets look at an analogy.

Client/Server Analogy

Restaurant service is an analogy to help explain client/server computing. The

customer (client)makes a series of requests for a specific set of services that may include
an appetizer, beverage, main course and a dessert. These requests are all typically made to one
person, the waiter(server). The services may actually be provided by a number of other people
in the restaurant including the bus boy, bartender, and a variety of chefs. However, to the
customer, these services are all provided by one person, the waiter. The customer doesn't want to
know who performs what service. He would just like to have a high quality meal delivered in a
timely fashion. The client, in client/server computing is much like the customer in a restaurant.
The client requests a service, like running an application or accessing some information from a
data base. The server becomes responsible for performing the service and returning the
information to the client in a timely manner.The server is like the waiter in a restaurant
responsible for handling the client's requests and delivering the finished product to the client.
Client/Server Definition:

Client/server computing provides the seamless integration of personal computers with host
systems. This style of computing allows organizations to be responsive to their customers while
still maintaining the security and integrity to manage their business effectively. Client/server
computing generally refers to a computing model where two or more computers interact in such
a way that one provides services to the other. This model allows customers to access information
resources and services located anywhere within the customers information network. Customers
are very interested in client/server computing because it allows them to be more responsive, as
well as to effectively utilize all computing resources within their network.

As the term implies, client/server computing has two basic components, a client and a server.
Theclient requests a service to be performed. This service might be to run an application, query a
data base, print a document, or even perform a backup or recovery procedure. The server is the
resource that handles the client's request. Clients are typically thought of as personal computers
but a client can be a midrange system or even a mainframe. Servers are typically thought of as a
midrange or mainframe system, however a server can be another personal computer on the
network. Client/server networks are like our restaurant example where specific computers
provide one or more services to other computers within a network. Today's networks have
computers for file serving, data base serving, application serving, and communications serving.
Each of these servers are dedicated devices which provide a specific service to all authorized
users within a network. These servers also allow some of the processing to be handled on each
users PC and some on a centralized server, as the picture below shows.

Client/Server Definition

For example, a data base server uses the PC for the display (user
interface) and processing(application logic) portions of an application, while the server
provides data management portion of the application. On the other hand, an application server
uses the PC for the display portion of an application, while using the server for both
the processing and data management portions.

Data Base and Application Server

Each of these models is best suited for specific types of applications and most customers make use of
different application models based upon the business need being satisfied. This workload separation
allows small servers to handle a larger number of users. In a rapidly changing business environment
client/server computing offers customers the flexibility they need to manage their business effectively.