Revision Guide Certain tare l= (3 International AS and A Level NEW for 2016 elt Second Edition Physics ' * *. Gs HODDERRevision Guicle eee Scography Psychology If you found this guide helpful you can get the same quality revision support for your other exams. ¢ Plan and pace your own revision ¢ Improve your exam technique © Get advice from experienced examiners Visit www.hoddereducation.com/revision to discover our complete range of revision material.Revision Guide Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Second Edition Richard Woodside Series editor: Mary Jones 6 BRON ER LEARN MOREHodder Education, an Hachette UK company, Carmelite House, 90 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y ODZ Orders Bockooint Ld, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 458 tel 01235 977877 fax: 01235 400401 ‘e-mail education@bookpoint co.uk Lines ate open 900 am.~5.00 pn, Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service You can aso order through the Hodder Education welssce: vnvwhoddereducation cou. @ Richard Woodside 2015 ISBN 978-1-4718-2043-7 Fist printed 2005 Impression number 43 21 Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015, [Aighes reserved no part of cis publication may be reproduced, scored ina reteeval system, or transmitted in any form of by any mers, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of Hedder Education ora licence permitting restricted copying in the Unived Kingdom ised by che Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Stree, London ECIN BTS. Cover photo reproduced by permission of Uadeimir Bakunovich/Forolia “Typeset by Greenhill Wood Studios Printed in Spain “This text has not been through the Cambridge endorsement process. Hacheste UK's policy isto use papers that are natura, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin.Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy, but it isessential to review your work, lean it and test your Understanding, This Revsion Guide will help you to do that ina planned way, copic by topic. Use the book as the ‘comerstone of your revision and don't hesitate to write in it — personalise your notes and check your progress by ticking ‘off each section as you revise 1 Tick to track your progress Use the revision planner on pages 4 art 5 to plan your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you have: ‘@ revised and understood a topic © tested yourself ‘© practised the exam-style questions ‘You can ako keep track of your revision by ticking off each ‘topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful co add_ your own notes as you work through each topic. Features to help you succeed xz> —~—~—~S Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on. how to maximise your chances, kkxe:m>” —UCUCUC~«d ‘Advice is given on how to avoid the typical mistakes students often make cx PoE Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are provided on the page where they first appear. Key words from the sylabus are highlighted in bold for yu throughour the book. Emerton Bxam-style questions are provided for AS and A level. Use them to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skil | PEMEres ee ‘These short, knowledge-based questions provide the firs: step in testing your learning, Answers are atthe back of the book. (aimcnee a ‘These activities will help you to understand each topic in am interactive way.My revision planner eed - . | Revised Tested Bam 1 Physical quantities and units ready 9 Sl units L_] 4 u 11. Scalars and vectors 2 Measurement techniques 414 Measurements sl WR st Ht LJ 17 Errors and uncertainties 3 Kinematics 19. Equations of motion 4 Dynamics 27 Momentum and Newton's laws of motion 30 Linear momentum and its conservation 5 Forces, density and pressure 33 Types of force. . 34 Turing effects of forces 35 Equilibrium of forces 38. Density and pressure 6 Work, energy and power 40 Work and efficiency. . 41 Energy conversion and conservation... 42. Potential energy and kinetic energy. 43 Power. Lt Oo Oo 4 7 Deformation of solids 45. Elastic and plastic behaviour. a Hf LI 46 Stress and strain. 8 Waves 48. Progressive waves 50 Transverse and longitudinal waves. 50 Determination of frequency and wavelength of sound waves.. 51 Doppler effect. H 52. Electromagnetic spectrum 9 Superposition 54. Stationary waves 57. Diffraction. i 57 Interference... 10 Electric fields = _ 61. Concept of an electric field i Mat J 61. Uniform electric fields. ® Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide11 Current of electricity 63 Electric current. 64 Potential difference and power. 65. Resistance and resistivity. 12 D.C. circuits 68. Practical circuits. 70 Kirchhoff's laws. 72 Potential dividers... vos 13 Particle and nuclear physics 75. Atoms, nudei and radiation. 78 Fundamental particles... AS experimental skills and invesiigarions 81 Making measurements. . 83. Presentation of data and observations 86 Evaluation of evidence 88 Evaluating the experiment. 90 AS exam-style questions and answers Revised Tested Exam reads 97 Kinematics of uniform circular motion 99. Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force 15 Gravitati nal fields 101 Gravitational forces between point masses. 104 Gravitational potential 16 Ideal gases 107 Equation of state 107 Kinetic theory of gases 109 Kinetic energy of a molecle......oesennennerene 47 Temperature 411 Thermal equilibrium. ANT Temperature scales... ccsersenentuennnennennene 418 Thermal properties of materials 113 Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat 119. Internal energy and the first law of thermodynamics. 19 Oscillations 121 Simple harmonic oscillations. My Revision PlannerMy revision planner Revised Tested i 124 Energy in simple harmonic motion 125. Damped and forced oscillations, resonance... 20 Waves 128. Production and use of ultrasound in diagnosis....... 21 Communication 132. Communication channels. 134. Modulation 136 Ly 138 Relative merits of channels of communication. ~ LJ 140 Attenuation O 22 Electric fields 142. Electric forces between point charges A Oo 143. Electric field of a point charge 143. Electric potential... 23 Capacitance 146 Capacitors and capacitance. 149. Energy stored in a capacitor . 24 Current of electricity and D.C. circuits 150 Sensing devices and potential dividers... 25 Electronics 152. The ideal operational amplifier 153. Operational amplifier circuits. 156 Output devices. 26 Magnetic fields 158. Concept of magnetic field .. ss 160 Force on a current-carrying conductor......... i ee Manco 162. Force on a moving charge H ‘a 168 Magnetic fields due to currents. 168 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging........e0 27 Electromagnetic induction 170 Laws of electromagnetic induction 28 Alternating currents 172 Characteristics of alternating currents. 174 The transformer. L_] H: LJ 175. Transmission of electrical energy . 176 Rectification 29 Quantum physics 179. Energy of a photon. © Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide181 Energy levels in atoms and line spectra......... 183 Wave-particle duality... 185 Band theory 187. Production and use of X-rays. 30 Particle and nuclear physics 198 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 196 Radioactive decay A level experimental skills and investigations 199. The examination questions... cess 200 How to get high marks in Paper 5 204 A level exam-style questions and answers Tested po ooo 215 Now test yourself answers My Revision Planner @Countdown to my exams 6-8 weeks to go Start by looking atthe syllabus — make sure you know exactly what material you need to revise and the style of the examination. Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself with the topics, ‘Organise your notes, making sure you have covered everything on the syllabus, The revision planner will help you to group your notes into topics Work outa realistic revision plan that will allow you time for relaxation, Set aside days and times for all the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your timetable, Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision cdown into focused sessions oF around 40 minutes, divided by breaks, This Revision Guide organises the basic facts into short, memorable sections to make revising easier rn Pane Read through the relevant sections ofthis book and refer to the expert tips, cypical miscakes and key terms, Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them, Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at therm again in detail ‘Test your understanding of each topic by working through the ‘Now test yourselP questions in the book. Look up the answers at the back of the book. Make a nowe of any problem areas as you revise, and. ask your teacher to go over these in class. Look at past papers. They are one of the best ‘ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write cr prepare planned answers to the examstyle ‘questions provided in this book. Check your answers with your teacher. Try different revision methods. For example, you ‘can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards, ‘Track your progress using the revision planner and sive yourself a reward when you have achieve! your target ARN La one) Try to fic in at east one more timed practice of an entre past paper and seek feedback from your teacher, comparing your work closely with the ‘mark scheme. Check the revision planner to make sure you havent missed aut any topics. Brush up on any ateas of difficulty by talking them aver with a friend or getting help from your teacher. ‘Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher, Remember, he or she isan expert at preparing people for examinations. Revise The day before the examination Flick through this Revision Guide for useful reminders, for example the expert tips, typical mistakes and key terms. ‘© Check the rime and place of your examination. ‘© Make sure you have everything you need — extra pens and pencils, a calculator, tissues. a watch, bottled water, sweets. ‘Allow some time to relax and have an earty ‘ight to ensure you are fiesh and alert for the examinations Paper 1 Date: Location:.. Paper 2 Date: Location: Paper 3 Date: Location: Paper 4 Date: «. Location: Paper 5 Date: Location:.. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide1 Physical quantities and units SI units Base quantities ez) { } ‘All quantities in science consist ofa number anda unit. SI units are based on the units of sx SI base quantities: ‘© mass — kilogram (kg) mera mene (r) [suits Syste nteational ) all «'Unités) are carefully defined units that © temperature — kelvin (K) ae used throughout the scientific world electric current — ampere (A) ‘or measuring al quantities. ‘© amount of subscance — mole (mol) ‘Base quantities are fundamental ‘uartities whose units are used to ‘The moleis included for completeness. Itis nota required unit for AS— only | GATE AIAN for level. The mole is ciscussed in Topic 16, together with the Avogaclo constant. \ Although icis not formally an i unit, the degree Cebius (‘C) is often used as a ‘measure of temperature, Each of these units has a precise definition, You do not need to remember the details of these definitions. The units ofall ocher quantities are derived from the base units. For example, speed 5 found by dividing the distance travelled ty the time taken, Therefore, ‘the unit of speed is metres (m) divided by seconds (@). At O-level or IGCSE you ‘wll probably have written this unit as m/s. Now that you are taking your scudies ‘a stage further, you should vate it as ms" Base units are the units of the base quantities. Derived units are combinations of base unis een ‘The uni of force isthe newton. What is thisin base SI units? Answer The newton is defined from the equation: Giz ‘When a unit ike watts is asked for in force = mass x acceleration unit oF mass = ke | base units take extra care ' Uunicof acceleration = ms watt = Ils / Princo the definaequation | Change from this format tos“ then a substitute Nm for and concn a, Units ofnewion = kg xm x sor kans? nome Homogeneity of equations = {_ } IF you are not sure ifan equation is correct you can use the units of the different quantities to check it. The units on both sides of the equation must be the same Physical quantities and units (@))Worked example ‘When a body falls in a vacuum, all its gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. By comparing units, show thatthe equation mgh = mv is a possible solution co this equacion. Answer (Write dawn the units ofthe quantities on each side ofthe equation. Lefchand side: unit of m = kg: unit of g= ms7% uric of =m Right-hand side: unt of & = none unit of m= kg: unit of v= Compare the two des (expert tip } Units of mgh = ke, x ms"? sm =kgm?s? ‘There are lots of worked examples in units of Yarnv? = kg x (mst? = kgmn?s? this book. Try them before reading the answer and then compare your answer Both sides of the equation are identical. TRON oe Hed a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a Using standard form ‘One way to deal with very large or very small quantities is to use standard form, Here, the numerical part of quantity is wricten asa single digc followed by 2 decimal point, and as many digits after the decimal point as are justified thisis then multiplied by 10 to the required power. Worked example {@ The ourput from a power station is 5600000000WW. Express this in watts, using standard form. {© The charge on an electron f 000000 000000000000 16C. Express this in standard form Answer (9 Seoacooan0w =56x 10° Ww {8.0000 000000000000000 16¢ = 16x 10°C 10" means that Ue ube, ths case 1.6 ive by 10% ‘Mistakes are often made when dividing ‘An added advantage of using standard form is that it also indicates the degree trenton oer tease ‘of precision to which a quantity is measured. This will be looked at in more Dee he ne ee « detail in the section on practical skills De EE Ure RTT ol Reg Cry Sometimes, the base unicis either too large or too small. Prefixes are used to alter the size ofthe unit. Table 1.1 shows the prefixes that you need to know. Remember hat Ie? 2g (noe p00 ‘These are the recognised SI prefixes. The deci- (@) prefixis often used in of 1ms is really (dm). Hence itis measuring volume — decimetre cubed (dr) is particularly useful eget 0" * 10 * 10 Making estimates of physical quantities ‘There are a number of physical quantities where you should be aware of the ‘rough values, for example the speed of sound in air ( 300m”). Lists of such ‘values are given in appropriate parts of this guide — for example, Table 8.1 on page 52. Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideTable 11 Prefix | symbol | Meaning pico |p + 1000000000000 | x 10° anon + 1000000000 |x 102 micro | + 1000000 |x 10% mili | m. +1000 |x 107 enti_ |e +100 | x 10 ded |d =10 |x 107 kilo |k x 1000 |x 10? mega_|M x 1000000 | x 105 giga |G % 1000000000 | x 10? ter |T x 1000000000000 | x 107 Scalars and vectors Scalar quant Ascalar quantity has magnitude only, Examples are mass, volume and energy. PE Ryra come eel ty Avector quantity has magnitude and direction. Examples are force, velocity and acceleration. When scalars are added, the total is simply the arithmetic total. For example if there are two masses of 24kg and 5.2kg, the total mass is Z6kg, ‘When vectors ae added, ther directions must be taken into account. Two forces of 3N and §N acting in the same direction would give a total force of 8N. However, if they actin opposite directions the total force is (5 - 3)N = 2N, in the direction of the SN force. fchey act at any ocher angle co each ather the triangle of vectors is used. Constructing a vector diagram Ina vector diagram. each vector is represented by a lin. The magnitude of the ‘vector is represented by the length of the line and its direction by the direction ‘ofthe line. If two vectors act aca point, their resultant can be found by drawing ayector triangle. The folowing rules will help you co draw a triangle of vectors (Figure 11) 1 Choose a suitable scale. Draw line to represent the first vector (V4) in. both magnitude and direction. Draw a second line starting from the tip of the first ne, to represent the second vector (Vy) in both magnitude and direction. 2. Draw alin from the beginning ofthe frst vector to the end of the second line to complete a triangle. 3. The resultant vector is represented by the length ofthis line, and its direction 1 2 ve 3 ve v, v/ / : f Resultant Figure 1.1 Drawing a triangle of vectors fea i 7 © Make. copy of this table ona plece of card to refer to during the course, ‘The larger the scale you choose, the ‘greater precision you should achieve in your answer itis ood practice to include your scale on the diagram. ‘When measuring distances use a ruler, and when measuring angles use a protractor, a a ie E ae) al a o = =] i S = Ga 3 = oh a a Physical quantities and units @)(eos ‘An aeroplane ying with velocity relative to the ar of B0kratt 200k in a direction due north. There is a wind blowing tly from a direction of 30 degrees north of west at 80 mh“! (Faure 12). Calculate the velocity of the aaft eave tothe ground. Figure 1.2 Answer Draw vector diagram to ascae of LOcm:40kmhr* (Figure 13). length of the resulranc'= 435cm Muley by the scaling: velocity = 435 x 4Dkmb-! = 174kmbh+ Measure the ange @, using a protractor (0 = 23; so the direction is 23” east of north, a 4 = 5 a = a a i = r=] = S ej > a E ES i a ‘You vill observe that the directions of the original vectors go round the triangle (GEEaSUa in the same direction (in this example clockwise). The direction of the resultant | Ifyou ried to work aut the answer _g086 in the opposite direction (anticlockwise). the original vectors had gone {0 this worked example for yourself round che triangle in an anticlockwise direction, che resuitanc would have been _ before looking at the one supplied, dodnise. compare the layout of your answer with Figure 13. 1s your layout dear? Gan the examiner see what you have tried to.do? This is most important in ‘akculations, where some credit will be given even if an arithmetic error leads to your giving the wrong answer. Resolving vectors Just asit is useful to be able to combine vectors itis ako useful to be able to resolve vectors into components at right angles to each other. Figure 14 shows a vector, V, acting at an angle @ to the horizontal @ tb) Z\ Va Figure 14 ‘The triangle of vectors in Figure 14(@) shows that this vector can be considered ‘0 be made up from a vertical component (V,) and a horizontal component (Vj). tis sometimes easier to use a diagram similar to Figure 14(b) when resolving vectors — this emphasises that the vectors are acting at the same point. By inspection you can see that cos 6 = V/V. Therefore, Vy = Veos and V, = Vsind @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuidePes A box of weight 20N lies ac rest on a slope, which sat 30* 0 the horizoncl, Calculate the frictional force on the box up the slope Answer Resclye the weight (29N) into components parle! to and. perpendicular to the slope (Faure 15) The fictional force, is equal to che component of the weight down the slope: F=20sn30= 10N [oes ed Which of the following are base quantities? time, speed, volume, energy Which of the following are base units? kilogram, metre squared, joule, kelvin The unit of potential difference isthe vol. Give this in base units. The pressure exerted beneath the surface of aliquid i given by the equation: p=heg ‘where p is pressure his depth below the surface, ps density ofthe liquid and gis the acceleration due to gravity. Show that the equation is homogeneous. 5 Calculate the number of micrograms in a kilogram. Give your answer in standard form: 6 Use standard form to show how many metres there are in a nanometer. Answers on p.215 Physical quantities and units @)PACU a cence (ees Measurements Physics is science of measurement so you will need ro develop the ability 1 use a variety of diferent instruments. Belov is a list of instruments and techniques that you should to be able to use. You will have used most of these ‘during the course ard this book refers to them where relevant. Nevertheless, it ‘would be a good idea to copy the list and, once you feel confident that you can Use the inserument proficient, tick it off You should be able co use a ruler, verner scale and micrometer to measure length ‘atop pan balance and a spring balance to measure weight a protractor to measure angles a clock and stopwatch to measure time intervals «a cathoce-ray oscilloscope to measure potential difference a cathade-ray oscilloscope with a calibrated time base to measure time intervals and frequencies, 1a thermometer to measure temperature ‘an ammeter to measure current voltmeter to measure potential difference a galvanometer in null methods Vannes Rulers can measure to the nearesc milimetre, Vemier calipers measure to the nearest ofa millmete To ead an instrument with averier scale igure 21): 11 Read the milimetres from the main scale marking, which is just before the zero on the veriet, 2 Take the next figure (enths of a milimente) from the fist vernier mark to ‘coincide with a main scale mark. Vernier scale os al Main scale (asneaetmemuestaeniiaala Figure 2.1 Vernier scale Cans What isthe reading on the instrument shown in Figure 21? Answer rain sale racing = 11mm vvernier reading = 04mm Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings. final reading = TL4enm Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guideae) Verrier sales can be used to measure 0 the nearest of rilimete Micrometer can messure tothe nearest 1 of millet Micrometers have an accurately tumed screw thread (Figure 2.2. When the thimble is urned through one revolution, the jaws are opened (or closed) by a predetermined amount. With most micrometers ths is 050mm. There will be 50 divisions on the thimble, so turning it through one division clases, or opens, the jaws by 050mm divided by 50 = 0.01 mm. Jaws Barrel Thimble Ratchet Figure 2.2 A micrometer screw gauge To measure the diameter or thickness of an object the jaws are closed, using the ratchet, until they just apply pressure on the object. To read the micrometer: 1. Take the reading of the milimecres and half milimecres from the barrel 2 Take the reading from the thimble. 3. Add the readings together Toes Cnn What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 22? ‘The 0 is often missed, so the worked example answee would be given as ag 322mm, Some careless students reading on the barre = 35mm might add the 22'to the 35 to givean answer of 3522mm. reading on the thimble = 022mm. (Calculate the final reading by adding the two readings final reading = 372mm (© Trace the diagram of the scaleand. vvernier. Cut them apart, then slide the vernier along the rain scale and practise taking readings. Ten lee ‘Accathode-ray oxtilloscope (Cro) can be used to measure both the amplicude ‘of signals and short time intervals. A potential difference applied to the y-input ‘controls the movement of the trace in a vertical direction. A potential cifference applied across the xinput controls the trace in the horizontal direction, Measurement of potential difference The y-sensitivity is adjustable and is measured in volts per cm (Vem) or volts pet division (Viv). Inthe example in Figure 23 the y-sensitvitys set at 2.V dv" A de. supply is applied across the y-input. No voleage is applied across the x input. The trace ‘appears as 2 bright spot. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= atert ty < = So 2 2 Pry < 7] 5 2 = FA cs bi P= 7 Figure 2.3 Usinga cathode ray oscilloscope to measure potential ifference In Figure 23; ‘© Screen 1 shows the cathode-tay osciloscope with no input, ‘© Screen 2 shows a deflection of 0.75 of a division, The voleage input across the y-platesis 0.75 x 2= 15V. ‘© Screen 3 shows a deflection of 15 divisions, The voltage input across the yplatesis 15 x2 = 30V. ‘© Screen 4 shows a deflection of -0.75 divisions. The voltage input across the _yeplates is -075 x 2 = ~15,, in other words 15V in the opposite direction. Measurement of time intervals ‘To measure time intervals, a time-base voltage is applied across the xinput (Figure 24), This drags the spot across the screen, before flying back to the beginning again, The rate at which the time-base voltage drags the spot across the screen can be measured either in seconds per division (scl) or divisions per second (divs™), You must check which method has been used. Figure 2.4 Application ofa time-base voltage across the s-input ofa cathode-ray oscilloscope In Figure 24 ‘© Screen 1 — the spot moves slowiy across the screen before flying back to the beginning and repeating the process. ‘© Screen 2— with a higher frequency time base, the spot moves across the screen more quickly The fluorescence on the screen lasts long enough for a shor tail tobe formed. ‘© Screen 3 — with a much higher frequency, the fluorescence lasts long enough for the spot to appear as a continuous tne If successive pulses are applied to the y-plate while the time base voltage is applied, the trace might appear as in Figure 25, The time interval between the pulses can be calculated by multiplying the number of divisions between the Figure 2.5 Using cathode-ray oscilloscope ‘wo pulses by the time base ‘tomeasure time intervals ‘Worked example ‘A survey ship sends a pulse of sound down to the seabed and the echo Is decected The two pulses are shown in Figure 2 with the cathode-ray csclloscope rime base being set at SOmsdiv-1Caleulate the depth ofthe sea, given that the speed of sound in water 1500s" Cs) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideAnswer time interval becween pulses = number of divisions x time base = 25 x 50 = 15ms= 0125s. specs = #2NCC Time Theeiore distance = speed > time = 1500 x 0.125 = 1875 depth of the wate! ‘You might use sensors whose output is not proportional to the quantity you ‘are attempting to measure. A good example is the ourput from a thermocouple thermometer, which you will have met in your pre-AS course. The worked ‘example below shows how yout can use a calibration curve when using this type of inssument. Pa & = = < < oS ey 2 my = Fy = 2 = FA 2 bi P= a Cars Figuie 26 shows the calbration curve for a thermocouple emf./mv 0.30 used to measuite temperatures from 1 to 250°C. Deduce the eenperature when che themacouple produces an emf. of ine 0.250. Answer Draw a horizontal ine from 0250mrV on the yas to the curve ‘Draw a vertical line from where this line Incersects with the curve to cut the xaxis. 100150 200 Temperature/*C ‘This intersects at 235°C, hence the required temperature is 235°C. Errors and uncertainties a_i) ‘An error is 2 mistake in taking a reading, Erors and repeated readings are discussed in decail on pages 82-83. Accuracy, precision and uncertainty Accuracy and precision are terms chat often cause confusion. ( > Accuragy is how dose to the ‘eal ‘Consider a rod of ‘true’ diameter 52.8012 mm. Suppose that you use a ruler and value’ a measurement is. Measure it to be 53mm. This is accurate but it S not very precise. your friend | reeision is that part of accuracy that uses a micrometer screw gauge and measures it as 52.81 mm this is more precise, | the experimenter contro’s by the choice ‘even though the final figure is not totally accurate. cof measuring instrument and the skill swith wich itis used No measurement can be made to absolute precision — there is always some uncertainty. Ifa result is recorded as 84°55, this implies thac there is an uncertainty of at least ) 041s perhaps more, You might see such a reading writen a5 84 + 0.25, The (02s in tis readings caled the absolute uncertainty \ ( ‘Uncertainty is the range of values in hich a measurement can flItis often convenient to express an uncertainty as a percentage of the reading. This s known as the percentage uncertainty. absolute uncertainty . 993 reading ‘The percentage uncertainty in the previous example is 82 100% = 0.26% Bes Precision of measurement When making a static measurement for example, the length of a pendulum) you should normally measure to the nearest division on the instrument. The exception to thisis ifthe divisions are one millimetre of mote apart. In this case, you need to judge to the nearest hal division or better. When making a dynamic measure (for example, che height to which a ball bounces), other considerations come into play — the balls moving, so you have to judge when itisac its maximum height. Ths isa much more difficult cask. You can probably measure only to the neares:§ millimetres percentage uncertainty 9 FA 2 = A rs = 3 3 = 4 5 E g ] 3 e ES a Many digital stopwatches measure to V/100 ofa second, However, the uncertainties in the reaction times of manually starting and stopping @ stopwatch are much greater than this. The bes: you can manage is to measure 1 the nearest 1/10 of a second. Until 1977, world records for running events ‘wete given to only this precision, It was only with the advent of electronic timing, that it became possible to record them to 1/100 ofa second. The current world record for the men’s 100m is 958s This suggests an absolute uncertainty of +40.01s, percentage uncertainty of approximately 01% This has the knock-on «effect that for the world record to be valid the track musc also be measured to a precision oF 0.9% or better. This means an absolute uncertainty of 10cm, ‘The precision can also be estimated from taking repeat readings If ive readings ‘of the time taken fora ball to run down a track are taken, itis acceptable to give ‘the uncertainty as half the range ofthe readings. For example ifthe readings ‘were: 5.25 5.25 545, 505,518. The range is the difference between the largest and smallest values (5.4 — 50 = 0.43), so the uncertaincy is +04s/2 = 40.2 Rens es ‘1 What isthe reading on the vermier scale in Figure 2.7? 2. What isthe reading on the micrometer in Figure 2.8? 3. Ifthe time base in Figure 25 i given as 5 sd, deduce the rime between the pulses. 4 In Figure 2.6, deduce the reading on the volemerer when the remperacure is 100%C. 0 70] Di i | Figure 27 Figure 2.8 Answers on p.215 @s) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide3 Kinematics Equations of motion Seem cued sy ‘You should kriow the definitions of the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. ‘© Distance is a scalar quantity. thas magnitude only. ‘© Displacement isa vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction, (© Speed isa scalar quantity. e refers co the total discance travelled. (© Velocity i a vector quantity, being derived from displacement — not che total distance travelled. ‘© Acceleration isa vector quantity, Acceleration in the direction in which a body ‘s cavaling will increase its velocity. Acceleration in the opposite direction from ‘which a body is traveling will decrease its velocity. Acceleration atan angie ‘0F 90" to the direction a body is traveling in wil change the direction of the velocity but will noc change the magnitude of the velocity Peo nya Ue Ty = Distance isthe length between two ppoints measured along the straight line ‘pining the two points. Displacement is the distance of an object from a fixed reference point in a specified direction, Speed is the distance travelled per unit tie. Velocity isthe change in displacement fer unit time, ‘Acceleration isthe rate of change of velocity. | a vvis the velocity and As is the change of dislacement in time At. x ar ‘where ais the acceleration and Av is the change in velocity in time At. Units ‘Speed and velocity are measured in metres per second(s"). where ‘Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. Velocity is measured in ‘metres per second (ms~ and time is measured in seconds (9, which means that the acceleration is measured in metres per second every second (ms" per) which is written as ms" (ano ‘toy wain travel round one dreut ofa circular crack of circumference 241m in 48s Calculace () the average speed the average velocity Answer (@ xis the dicance traveled so average speed. 48G) (sis the dsplacement, which after one lap is 2er0, The train finishes atthe same point at which it started. Hence: As _ O(n) 20) andy =oms? Reser OY a 486) | In general, che symbol A means ‘change, | soAsisthe change in displacement | and Atis the change in time. Icisgood practice to include units in your calculations, as shown in | this eaample — it can help to avoid | mistakes with multiples of units. ft | canalso help you to seeif an equation ‘does not balance. inthis book, in order | to make the equations clear, units are | only included inthe final quantity. Kinematics‘Worked example A car travels 840 malong a straight level rack at constant speed of 35s". The iver chen apples the brakes and the car deceerates to rest ata constant rae in a further 70s. Calculate. (9 chetime for which the caris traveling at constant speed. (©) the acceleration ofthe car when the brakes ate applied Answer Gra we a8 ‘The minus sign shows that the velocity 35 decrease rather than increases. Ie is alo worth noting that the given quantities inthe question are to two Significant figures. Therefore, the answer should aso be recorded to two significant figures. 2 Fe g E 3 & ad a ‘Graphs give a visual representation of the manner in which one variable changes ‘with another. Looking at motion graphs can help us to see what is happening, ‘over a period of time. Displacement-time graphs Figute 31 shows the displacement of a body that increases uriforrnly with time. ‘This shows constant velocity. The magnitude of the velocity is equal to the gradient of the graph, As v= gradient = Gzap rv ‘When you measure the gradient of a gaph, use as much ofthe graph 2s posable. This wll reduce the petcentage error in your ealulation, Displacement s/ms“ Time t/s Figure 3.1 Displacement-time graph for constant velocity Figure 3.2 shows an example of a body's velocity steadily increasing with time. To find the velocity ata particular instant (the instantaneous velocity), draw a ‘angent 0 the graph ac the relevant point and calculate the gradient of that tangent, Displacement s/ms" Time t/s Figure 3.2 Displacernent-time graph for increasing velocity @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideVelocity-time graphs 8 Figure 3.32) shows a body moving with a constant velocity; Figure 3.3(b) shows =} «that the velocity of the body is increasing at a constant rate — it has conscant £ acceleration. = @ © Fo Velocty Velocity v4. = fms ims" ” a Timers Figure 3.3 Velocty-time graphs: (a) constant velocity, (b) velocity increasing at ‘constant rate ‘The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the change in velocity divided by the time taken. Iris equal to the magnitude of the acceleration. ovou wy Displacement from a velocity-time graph ‘The cisplacement is equal to the area under a velocity-time graph. This can be ‘leary seen in Figure 3.3(@), The shaded area isa rectangle and its area is equal to: height x length = velocity x time Figure 3.3(0) shoves changing velocity the distance vaveled is the average velocity multiplied by the time. For constant acceleration from zero velocity this ishalF the maximum velocity multioied by the time — the area ofa triangle, (aes Velocity/ms-* e070 80 Time/s Figure 3.6 Figure 34 shows the motion ofa cyclist as shetravelsfrom Answer one stage to thernextin a race, Calculate: aakeearsTaari sonst wo-0 @) the acceleration from A to B (H The maximum speed can be read directly from the graph. (@ the maximum speed of the cyclist Icis 10s" (@ thecoualdixance he cys waves (@ distance traveled = area under the praph @ the acceleration from C0 D = (6x 10% 1) + (10% 50) + 04% 1021 @ acceleration = graciene = 2 = -a5ms?Figure 35 shows the motion of a body that has accelerated at a uniform rate, from an initial velocity w toa final velocicy vin time t 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.5 Equation 1 ‘The acceleration of the body: vou t Rearranging this equation gives: veutat Equation 2 ‘The distance s travelled by the body can be calculated in two ways. First verage velocity x time vtu 2 Equation 3 ‘Second, the distance travelled is equivalent to the area under the graph: rea of rectangle ABDE + area of triangle BCD t Equation 4 A fourth equation is needed to solve problems in which the time and one other variable are not known. Equation 1 rearranges to: a ‘Substitute this in Equation 2: vu you Rearranging gives Pau + 2as @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guidethe journey that is being considered. Summary Erma 8 The equations of uniformly accelerated motion are ‘tessa otnatnesionve | esl . bat © sur wat? used if there is constant acceleration s {including constant deceleration and 5 ° eee Per anre eater g & ” ing the equations of uniformly accelerated motion Acommon type of problem you might be asked to analyse isthe journey of a vehicle between two fixed points. (oo During the teing ofa cr cistimed overs measured klomette In ane tet ‘enters the timing zone at a velocity of 501s“ and decelerates at a constant rate oF 0.80ms*, Calculate: @ the velocity of che car as it leaves the measured kilometre (theme takes ro cover he messed emere Answer @u=50ms? G=zp §=10km=1000m Icmight seem tedious writing out % all the quantities you know and oo the equation you are going to use. » However, this wll mean that you are less likely to make a careless error and, oe ee if you do make an arithmetic error, it ete a helps the examiner to see where you Substitute the relevant values and solve the equation: hhave gone wrong, so that some marks canbe awarded. = 50 + 2x (080) x 1900 = 2500 ~ 1600 = 900, ms (0 Reauired equation: OTe “Two common mistakes in this type oF eo question are: Substitute in the relevant variables ee 30-50-80 x1) negative acceleration $= 50=30_ 55 (© forgetting to convert kilometres to 08 metres Analysing the motion of a body in a uniform gravitational field ‘The equations of uniformly accelerated motion can be used to analyse the motion ‘ofa body moving vertically under the influence of gravity. In this type of example itis important to call one direction positive and the other negative and to be ‘consistent throughout your calculation. The next example demonscrates this. Cees ‘A boy throws a stone veracaly up into the airwith a velocity ©£60ms" The stone reaches maximum height and falls inco the sea, whichis 12m below the point of release (Figure 36). ‘Calculate the velocity ac which the tone his the water surface. (Gcceleration due to gravity = 98ms%)In this example, upwards hasbeen chosen as the postive direction; hence wis +605"! Consequenty, che distance of the sea below the point of release (12m) and the aceleraron due ro graity (105-2) are considered nepatve because they 2 Fe g E 3 & ad are both in the downward direction. a Recuired eiatiory The final velocity ofthe scone is ako in che downward direction. aw + Qos ‘Therefore it should be recorded as -165ms® v= 608 + 2 x (-98) x (12 =36 +235 =271 Itisalso worth noting that ar resistance on a stone moving at these speeds & negligible. Mass and weight ‘Mass and weight are often confused. Weight i the gravicationa pull on a body and depends on the strength ofthe gravitational field at the position ofthe ‘wash ial eee body, Mass is a property of a body itself and does not vary with the position of | fae tae togan Ook the body, Weight isthe gravitational pull on a In general, the two are connected by the equation: body. Weight isa type of force and ike W=mg all forces its unit is the newton (N). ee, ‘where W is weight, m is mass and gis the gravitational fied strength (or acceleration of free fll). ‘The gravitational field strength near the surface of the Earth is BN kg” Thetefore, a mass of about 100g (0.1kg) has.a weight of just less than 1N (098N) on the Earths surface. Its weight on the Moon is only O.16N because the gravitational field stength on che Moon is only about % of that on Earth. Exe al Inthe absence of air resistance, all bodies near the Earth fall with the sarne acceleration. This is known as the acceleration offre fall. Similarly bocies near any other planet will fll with equal accelerations. However, these accelerations «wll be different from those near the Earth. This is explored further in Topic 4 (Dynamics). Measurement of the acceleration of free fall Figure 3,7 shows apparatus that can be used to measure the acceleration of free fall. Equipment Photograph Strobescopic light all bearing Metre ruler —_ Digital camera 8 e s Figure 3.7 Apparatus to measure the acceleration offre fll Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘The stroboscopic light flashes at @ fixed frequency and the shutter of the ‘camera is held open. This results in a photograph that shows the position of the ballin successive time intervals, a in Figure 37. In this example the stroboscopic light was sec to flash at 20 H2. In Table 31, the third column shows the distance travelled by the bal in each time interval and the fourth colurnn shows the average speed curing each interval. Table 3.1 Time/s | Positionim | Distance travelled/m | Speed/m: a00 | 000 0.00 00 0s | 001 aor o2 910 | 0.05 0.04 08 os | om 0.06 12. 020 | 020 0.09 18 025 | 030 oi 22 o30 | 4a O18 28 035 | 0.60 016 32 940 | 078 018 36 ‘Acgraph of the speed against time is plotted (Figure 38). The acceleration of the ballis equal to the gradienc of chs graph 010 0.20 0.30 040 Timers Figure 3.8 Readings from Figure 3.8: (046, 4 and (0.13, 19) 41-10 = Tens Effect of air resistance ‘When you kick a football or hit tennis ball you will be aware of the effect of air resistance. Air resistance affects all moving bodies near the Earth’ surface, including the motion of falling bodies. Air resistance depends on che shape of ‘a body and also on the speed at which the body travels. The resistance on a sieamlined body is lower than on a less streamlined body. Car manufacturers spend a lot of time and money researching the best shape for a car 0 as to redhlce air resistance. Ait resistance, of drag, increases as the velocity of a body increases, As a falling body acceleraces, the drag. force increases. Therefore, the resultant force on ic will decrease, meaning that the acceleration decreases. When the drag force is equal {0 the gravitational pull on che body ic will no longer accelerave, but fll with @ ‘constant velocity, This velocity is called the terminal velocity. s 2 3s 5 ) | Ss ”Figure 39 shows how the velocities ofa shuttlecock and of a tennis ball change as they fall from rest. Speed > y y 3 Kinematics Time Figure 3.9 ‘© At point A the air resistance (or drag force) is negligible and both the shutelecock and the tennis ball fall with the same acceleration, g ‘© At point B the air resistance (compared wich the weight of the bal) remains scrall and i continues to fall wth the same acceleration; the shurtlecack has a much smaller weight than the ball and the air resstance on itis significant compared with its weight, so its acceleration is reduced, (© Atpoint € the air resistance is equal co the weight of the shuttlecock. It no Songer accelerates and fals with ts terminal velocity ‘© At point D the air resistance on the balls now significant an! its acceleration is reduced, ‘© At point € the air resistance is equal to the weight ofthe ball and it als with ‘ts weminal velocity. (airman ‘You should be able ro develop many equations from more fundamental ‘equations, Some of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of tthe exam paper; others you must lear by heart. It is good idea to write out ‘these equations on a plece of ard and stick the card on your bedroom mirror to help learn chem by heart. In this chapter the ‘must-earn’ equations are: ‘The others are either on the lis on pages 66~67 ofthe syllabus or you should be able to derive them. Now test yourself Describe one similarity and one difference between speed and velocity. 2 Acartravelling ac 15ms-! applies its brakes and comes ro rest after 4.05. Calculate the acceleration of the ca ‘Anastronaut on the Moon dropsa hammer from a height of 7.2m, The hammer strikes the ground 1.2s ater being released, Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon. Abullet of mass 50. is fired horizontally from a height of 1.2m. The bullet leaves the gun ata speed of 280m: Describe the path the bullet takes b Assume the ground is level. Calculate: | the time that i rakes for the bullet to hit the ground Ii the distance the distance the bullet craves before It hits the ground. il Stare any assumptions you made in | and ll and explain the effect they will have on your answer to Answers on p.215 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideMomentum and Newton's laws of motion >—_____YY-ez7_) ‘Newton's laws are the basis on which classical mechanics was built. Many of the ideas are seen as selt evident today but were revolutionary when Newoon first developed his ideas. Before discussing Newton’ laws of motion in detail you need to understand the ‘concept of momentum, Linear momentum (ps defined as ‘the product of mass and velocity: The unit of momencum is kgrns"\.tc i formed by multiplying a vector by a pew scalar and is, therefore, a vector itself This means, for example, that a body of mass 2g travelling at 3ms" has a momentum of 6kgms"™A body of the ‘same mass traveling at the same speed but in the opposite direction hasa momencum of ~6kgms”.Itisimportant when you consider interactions between bodies that you understand the vector nature of momentum, Ciro Calculate the momencum of a cruise liner of mass 20000 tonnes when icis traveling ac &.0ms” (Ironne = 1000ks). Answer ‘Convert the mass to ke: 20000¢ = 20000 x 1000kg = 20000000kg p=my= 20000000 x 60 = 120000000 kgms" Newton's laws Newtons first law Abody will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by resultant force ‘The fist part of this law is relatively straightforward; we do not expect an object 10 move suddenly for no reason. The second part requiresa lctle more thoughe. A got ball putted along level ground will gradually sow dow, as will a cyclist freewheeling along.a level path. In both these cases frictional forces actin the ‘opposte direction to the velocity of the body and cause it to decelerate, ‘When we observe motion on the Earth we cannot diminate friction and we ‘earn’ (falsely) that a force is needed to keep bodies moving, In practice, we ‘only need that force to overcome frictional forces. |F you think of a rock moving through outer space, there is no force on it — yer it will continue moving in a straight line forever, or until it encounters another body, perhaps in another galaxy. owanics @)Certs) Newton's second law ‘A resultant force acting on a body will cause a change in momentum in the direction of the force. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the magnitude of the force. Newcon’ first law describes what happens when there is na force on a body, | ‘The second law explains what happens when there isa force on a body. ‘The second law defines force: something that tends to cause a change From this law we can write: in momentum af a body. pele . a ‘A constant of proportionality defines the size of the unit of force. The newton is defined by raking the constant equal co 1, when momentum is measured in kgm" and time is measured in s. You see from this equation chat force is measured in kgm s*. 1 kgs" called IN (newton). Cass 4 golf ball of mass 45 is putted slong a level green with an intial velocity of 40ms” It decelerates ata constant rate and comes to rest after 30s. Calculate the frictional force on the ball Answer CCorvert the mas to kg 45g Bese ke=0045ke inal momentum = 0.065 x 4= 018kgms" final momentum =0 change in momentum = -O:18kgms-" “The minus sigh in the answer shows that the force is acting in the opposite sbrecsion from the inal velocity. Acceleration of a constant mass In many sintations including the previous worked example, the mass of the body on which the force is applied remains corstant (or nearly constant). ‘Consider the basic equation: pee Ae ‘Now Ap = Adm) and ifm is constanc tis can be rewritten as p = mAw ‘Therefore: may = ma The previous worked example could be solved using chis equation, rather chan the rate of change of momentum, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideCano A car of mass 12 tonnes accelerates from Sms to 30ms*in 75s. Calulate the average accelerating force on the cat, Answer change in velocity _ 30 Peels acceleration = SEE (Convert the mass to kilograms, 120 1200ke force =mass x acceleration = 1200 x 33 = 4000N ‘This equation also gives a deeper insight into the concept of mass, You can see that the greater the mass of a body, the harder its to change its uniform velocity, You begin to see that mass isa measure ofthis reluctance to change’, orinertia. Newton's third law ‘The third law looks atthe interaction between two bodies. Ifbody A exerts a force on body B then body 8 will exert a force on body ‘A of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction. @) © ee ff} J \ ] Figure 41 (a) Two protons repel each other, (b) two magnets attract each other, (¢) the Earthand the Moon attract each other ‘The examples in Figure 41 show forces on two bodies of roughly equal size; it is easy to appreciate that the forces in each example ate of equal size. However, itisalso crue with objects of very different sizes. For example, when you jump ‘off a wall there isa gravitational pull on you from the Earth that pulls you down ‘owaids the ground (See Figure 4.2). What you do not think about is that you. ako pull the Earth upwards towards you with an equal sized force. OF course, the movement ofthe Earth is negligible because itis so much more massive than you are — but the force is still there ‘The child is pulled down by ‘the Earth with a force, W | nesonpmon Figure 4.2 Interaction between two bodiesLinear momentum and its conservation n of momentum Certs) ‘One of the useful results chat can be developed fromm Newton's third law is ‘hat momentum is conserved in any interaction. This means that the total momentum of a closed system (that is,a system on which no external forces act is the same after an interaction as before, ‘Consider two bodies that move towards each other, asin Figure 43, and then stick to each other after the collision. Positive direction game! gomst | , Or a i aa Trill a naly Figure 4.3 Collision between two bodies total momentum before the colision = total momentum after the collision If we consider the positive direction to be from left to right: (20x 38)+G0x -40)=5y -44= 50 0.88ms" ‘The negative sign means that the velocity after che collision is from right to left. ‘A formal statement of the law é 2s follows The total momentum of a closed system before an interaction is equal to the total momentum of that system after the interaction. Collisions in two dimensions ‘The example above considers a heacL-on collision, where all the movement isin single direction. The law applies equally if there isa glancing collision and the two bodies move offin different directions. In this type of problem the momenta must be resolved so that the conservation of momentum be ‘considered in two perpendicular directions ot Before collision After collsion Figure 46 o— Figure 44 shows a disc A of mass mia, with a velocity u, moving towards a stationary dsc B of mass mg. The discs collide. After the collision disc A moves off with velocity vg at an angle @ to its original velocity and disc B moves with a velocity vp at an angle of @ to the original velocity of A. ‘Momenta parallel tu momentum before colsion = mau ‘momentum after colliion = mav,cos@ + mahgcos @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide‘Therefore: gu =m,v,cos0 + mscos ED , -Momenca perpendicular © Theanglsat which A and 8move | ‘momencum before colson = 0 mus both be measured inthe , fame dretion ound the re; rmomencum ater colison = myyqsin@ + myiysing i Eee Therefore: direction is chosen. This makes erie epoca O= mavasin 8+ mgrysing eat noeiaee ‘A particle moves towards stationary partie of equal mass, with a velocity u of 2.00ms". After the collision one partie moves (ff with velocity 100ms ar an angle of 0 ro the orginal velocity The second particle moves off with a velocty of magninude “V73ms-1. Calculate the angle the second particle makes withthe original velocity. Answer Momenta parallel to Therefore: momentum before collision 0 =1.00rn sin60 + musing momentum after cllsion = 10000360 + miycosp 0= 0866 +vasng Therefore: gS = 0.866 [equation 2] 2m= Loom cos60 + mycoep Divide equation 2 by equation =05 + vgc0s@ sng, ees 059 15 ugcosp=15 [equation 1] Set on Gace Momenta perpendicular tou. momentum before clision =0 momentum after collision = 1.00msin60 + mivasin Beart) Elastic Ian elastic interaction not only is momentum conserved but kinetic energy is also conserved. On the macroscopic scale this s rare. However, many interactions do approximate to being perfectly elastic and the mathematics of ‘an elastic interaction can be used to model these. On the microscopic scale, for ‘example, the collision between two charged particles such as protons can be considered to be elastic Iris worth noting chat in any perfectly elastic collision the relative speed of approach before the interaction is equal to the relative speed of separation after the interaction. A good example of this s the nearly elastic inceraction of a golt ball being struck by the much more massive club (Figure 45). ‘golf club approaches ‘The dub continues to move at a velocity of very nears) v. The ball moves off at @ speed the ball at a veloaty of v. cf (nearly) 2v. The speed of separation of the ball from the dub is equal to the speed of ‘approach of the club to the ball Figure 45 An elastic collision Inelastic Ian inelastic collbion some ofthe initial kinetic energy is converted into other forms, such as sound and intemal energy. The kinetic energy is less after the ‘olision than before ic Asin all collisions, momentum is conserved, There are ry a 5 S S > =) <)rnuimerous examples and degrees of inelastic colsion — from neatly perfectly elastic, such as one billard ball scrking another, to two bodies sticking cogether, such as two identical trolleys colcing and sticking together as shown in Figure 46. Certs) ———+v Pin Cork —> "v ‘One trolley moves towards a second ‘The two tralleys stick together and identical stationary trolley with aspeed v. move off with a combined speed of tiv. Figure 4.6 An inelastic collision ‘Worked example Ernst A plier of mass 0.20kas moving at ms onan ai rack towards a second ‘Note thac each step in the explanation alder of mass 025ke, which & moving at 20ms“in the opposte deston. is clearly explained and thatthe final When the two gliders colide they stick togethes. comment completes the answer {@) Calculate thet joint velocity after the coision. (Show thatthe collsion is inelastic. xp Answer ‘An elastic collision between two equal @ momentum before the eolsion = (0.20 x 36) + (025 x -20) masses always leads to the two masses somes having velocities after the collision, - that are perpendicular to each other. momentum after the collsion = (0.20 + 0.25)v = 0454, where vs the velocity Wisc beckto ie eee eae ofthe two gliders after the eolsion ‘on page 31, which involves an elastic ‘momentum after che collsion = momentum before che collision ccolision. 022= 0450 Mee (nee) (kinetic energy before the colin = (x02 « 342) + (5 025 20%) Werk tina paler Caton 13405=18) ves a key term from this chapter, kinetic energyafter the colsion = 0x 045 x 0%) ~ 0054 and the other gives an explanation iinet CH AA OA) 0054) Of the term. Change places until ll the key terms have been covered. Do thisat the end of every chapter “The kinetic energy after the calsion isles than the kinetic energy befare the callsion, therefore che cellsion is inelastic. Now test yourself ‘Avbal-bearing falls ata constant speed through oil. Name the forces acting on it magnitude of the resultant force an it. ‘Acar of mass 1200kg accelerates from rest to 18ms~ in 6.35. Calculate: athe acceleration of the car b the average resultant force acting on ic the momentum of the car when itis travelling at 18s“ the vertical direction and state the ‘ball of mass 250 travelling at T3ms-* collides with and stick toa second stationary ball of mass 4008, Calculate the speed ofthe balls after the impact. 'b Show whether or not the collision is elastic. 4 Adis of mass 24 kgis moving at a velocity of 6.0ms“'at an angle of 40* west of north. Calculate its momentum in: a the western direction bb the northem direction Answers on p.215, @) Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision GuideS 5 Forces, density and pressure Types of force In your work before AS you will have met the idea of a force being a push or a pull. You should now recognise the slightly more sophisticated idea that a force ‘cauises, or tends to cause, a change in the velocity of a body. ‘You have met various types of force already. Here is alist ofthe types of force ‘with which you should be familiar: (© gravitational forces © electric forces © upthrust or buoyancy forces © frictional and viscous forces Cee tees a | ‘Ammass in a gravitational field experiences a force. You have already seen that the ‘Sze of che force depends on the strength of the gravitational field and the mass ‘ofthe object: F=me ‘where Fis force (or weight), m is mass of the body and gis the gravitational field srength Neat the Farths surface (or any planerary-sized body) the gravitational field is ‘uniform, Therefore, che gravitational force s the same wherever the body is placed near the planet's surface. Consequently, the body wil fall with a conscant ‘acceleration (ignoring air resistance). Near the Earths surface the gravitational field is approximately 98 Nkg”. This will cause any object to fall with an ‘acceleration of 98m? The gravitational field near che Moon is 16N kg ‘Consequently, an object near the Moon's surface wil fall towards the Moon's surface with an acceleration of 16ms® Feet sed A charged object will experience forces due to other charged objects nearby. ‘The behaviour of a charged object in @ uniform electric felis investigated in Topic 10, Urine nane Bodies wholly or partly immersed in fluids experience an upthrust cue to the sighcly cliferenc pressures exerted on their ower and upper surfaces. This is ‘explored further on page 39. Forces, density and pressure @)fe FI a Fe 2 a a] € a > 2 rf = 3 a] ¢ 3 & G 2 vy Frictional forces have already been discussed. The term ‘rction’ is usually applied. ‘where chere is resistance ro motion due to contact between two solids. arises because no two surfaces are perfectly smooth and the lumps in them tend to interlock when thete is relative movement between the bodies (Figure 5.1) ‘Wooden, block Table Magnified view showing the roughness of the two surfaces ‘and how they inteclock Figure 5.1 Frictional forces The term Viscous tends to be used when fluids (liquids and gases) ae involved, Itis the difference in viscosity that makes water flow much more quickly than ‘il Sirilarly, the vscous forces on a body travelling through oil are much larger than those on an object traveling through water. Gases tend to produce far less viscous drag than liquids. Even so, ac high speeds the viscous drag on cars and aircraft is significant, Turning effects of forces Moment of a force ‘The turning effect ofa force about a point (sometimes known as torque) is G@EEESUD) ‘ known as its moment about that point. When considering a single force, the force itself does not have a unique point about which the force is producing its turning effect must be specified. ‘moment. It all depends on the point | about which the force has a turning ‘The moment of a force about a point equals the force multiplied by the | effect. Therefore when referring to a perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the point. ‘moment you should always refer to Consider a spanner turninga nut Figure 52) The force is not perpendicularto _ispelngabout which the moment i the spanner. Therefore either the component of the force perpendicular to the saa spanner or the perpendicular distance from the centre of the nut to the line oF action of the force must be used in the calculation, The perpendicular distance ‘ofthe line of accion of the 30N force from the cencre of the nut isthe distance x = 250520 = 235cm, Hence the torque about the centre of che nut is 30 x 235 = 705Nem. t 25cm Figure 5.2 Turing forces on a spanner, Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide