Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Introduction
2. Literature review
Aircraft inspection
Defects and failures in Aircraft
3. Problem definition
4. Scope of the work
5. Materials and Methods
Material used for make the aircraft
Carbon Nano tubes and properties
Self healing material
Self Healing Inspection Method
Special inspection
Sensors and working procedure
Future proposal and conclusion
6. Conclusions
7. References
INTRODUCTION
Aviation is one in all the foremost developed sectors within the current era.
The aviation is employed in numerous fields reckoning on their purpose. for
instance traveler flights for transportation, single propeller flights for cultivation,
fighter jets within the defense sector, etc..,. This was earned by several scientists
from these several centuries United Nations agency found the physics in
numerous forms. The producing of craft is one in all the most expensive one in day
todays life. So, that has got to be inspected properly since an excessive amount
of of load can act on the craft.
LITERATURE SURVEY
AN AIRCRAFT
For any aero plane to fly, one have to lift the weight of the aero plane itself,
the fuel, the passengers, and the cargo. The wings accomplish a lot of of the lift to
authority the even in the air. To accomplish lift, the aeroplane have to be pushed
through the air. The air resists the motion in the form of aerodynamic drag. Modern
airliners use winglets on the tips of the wings to reduce drag. The turbine engines,
which are located beneath the wings, provide the thrust to overcome drag and push
the airplane forward through the air. Smaller, low-speed airplanes use propellers
for the propulsion system instead of turbine engines.
To control and move the flying machine, smaller wings are located at the tail
of the plane. The tail usually has a fixed horizontal piece, called the horizontal
stabilizer, and a fixed vertical piece, called the vertical stabilizer. The stabilizers'
occupation is to give security to the air ship, to keep it flying straight. The vertical
stabilizer keeps the nose of the plane from swinging from side to side, which is
called yaw. The horizontal stabilizer prevents an up-and-down motion of the nose,
which is called pitch (On the Wright siblings' first air ship, the flat stabilizer was
put before the wings. Such a design is known as a canard after the French word for
"duck").
At the back of the wings and stabilizers are little moving segments that are
joined to the settled areas by pivots. In the figure, these moving sections are
colored brown. Changing the rear portion of a wing will change the amount of
force that the wing produces. The capacity to change strengths gives us a method
for controlling and moving the plane. The hinged part of the vertical stabilizer is
called the rudder; it is used to deflect the tail to the left and right as viewed from
the front of the fuselage. The hinged part of the horizontal stabilizer is called the
elevator; it is used to deflect the tail up and down. The outboard hinged part of the
wing is called the aileron; it is used to roll the wings from side to side. Most
airliners can also be rolled from side to side by using the spoilers. Spoilers are little
plates that are utilized to upset the stream over the wing and to change the measure
of power by diminishing the lift when the spoiler is conveyed.
The wings have extra pivoted, rear sections near the body that are called
flaps. Flaps are deployed downward on takeoff and landing to increase the amount
of force produced by the wing. On some aircraft, the front part of the wing will
also deflect. Slats are used at takeoff and landing to produce additional force. The
spoilers are also used during landing to slow the plane down and to counteract the
flaps when the aircraft is on the ground. Whenever you fly on a plane, notice how
the wing shape changes amid departure and landing.
The fuselage or body of the plane holds every one of the pieces together. The pilots
sit in the cockpit at the front of the fuselage. Travelers and payload are conveyed in
the back of the fuselage. Some flying machines convey fuel in the fuselage; others
convey the fuel in the wings.
As specified over, the flying machine design in the figure was picked just as
a case. Singular flying machine might be designed uniquely in contrast to this
carrier. The Wright Brothers 1903 Flyer had pusher propellers and the elevators at
the front of the aircraft. Fighter aircraft often have the jet engines buried inside the
fuselage instead of in pods hung beneath the wings. Many fighter aircraft also
combine the horizontal stabilizer and elevator into a single stabilizer surface. There
are numerous conceivable air ship arrangements; however any design must
accommodate the four forces required for flight.
Weight:
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth. The
size of the weight relies on upon the mass of all the plane parts, in addition to the
measure of fuel, in addition to any payload on load up (individuals, stuff, cargo,
and so on.). The weight is circulated all through the plane. But we can often think
of it as collected and acting through a single point called the center of gravity. In
flight, the airplane rotates about the center of gravity.
Lift:
To conquer the weight power, planes produce a contradicting power lift. Lift
is created by the movement of the plane through the air and is a streamlined power.
"Aero" stands for the air, and "dynamic" denotes motion. Called Lift is directed
perpendicular to the flight direction. The magnitude of the lift depends on several
factors including the shape, size, and velocity of the aircraft. As with weight, each
part of the aircraft contributes to the aircraft lift force. Most of the lift is generated
by the wings. Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the center of pressure.
The center of pressure is defined just like the center of gravity, but using the
pressure distribution around the body instead of the weight distribution.
The distribution of lift around the aircraft is important for solving the control
problem. Aerodynamic surfaces are used to control the aircraft in roll, pitch, and
yaw.Lift is a partial vacuum created above the surface of an airplane's wing
causing the wing to be "lifted" upward. The special shape of the airplane wing (air
foil) is designed so that air flowing over it will have to travel a greater distance -
faster - resulting in a low pressure area thus lifting the wing upward. Lift is that
force which opposes gravity.
Drag:
As the plane travels through the air, there is another streamlined power
present. The air resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called
drag. Drag is directed along and opposed to the flight direction. Like lift, there are
many factors that affect the magnitude of the drag force including the shape of the
aircraft, the "stickiness" of the air, and the velocity of the aircraft. Like lift, we
collect all of the individual components' drags and combine them into a single
aircraft drag magnitude. And like lift, drag acts through the aircraft center of
pressure.
Thrust:
The motion of the airplane through the air depends on the relative strength
and direction of the forces shown above. If the forces are balanced, the aircraft
cruises at constant velocity. If the forces are unbalanced, the aircraft accelerates in
the direction of the largest force.
Laminar Flow is the smooth, continuous stream of air over the form of the
wings, fuselage, or different parts of an air ship in flight. Laminar flow is most
often found at the front of a streamlined body and is an important factor in flight. If
the smooth flow of air is interrupted over a wing section, turbulence is created
which results in a loss of lift and a high degree of drag. An airfoil designed for
minimum drag and uninterrupted flow of the boundary layer is called a laminar
airfoil.
The Laminar flow theory dealt with the development of a symmetrical airfoil
section which had the same curvature on both the high and lower surface. The
design was relatively thin at the leading edge and progressively widened to a point
of greatest thickness as far aft as possible. The theory in using an airfoil of this
design was to preserve the adhesion of the boundary layers of airflow which are
present in flight as far aft of the leading edge as possible. on normal airfoils the
boundary layer would be intervallic at high speeds and the resultant break would
cause a turbulent flow over the residue of the foil. This turbulence would be
realized as drag up the point of highest speed at which time the control surfaces
and aircraft flying characteristics would be affected. The design of the boundary
layer is a process of layers of air formed one next to the other, ie; the term laminar
is derived from the lamination principle involved.
The flow after that to any surface forms a "boundary layer", as the flow has
zero velocity exact at the surface and some distance out from the surface it flows at
the same velocity as the local "outside" flow. If this boundary layer flows in
parallel layers, with no energy transfer between layers, it is laminar. If there is
energy transfer, it is turbulent.
All boundary layers start off as laminar. Many influences can act to
destabilize a laminar boundary layer, causing it to transition to turbulent. Adverse
pressure gradients, surface roughness, heat and acoustic energy all examples of
destabilizing influences. Once the boundary layer transitions, the skin friction goes
up. A favorable pressure gradient is required to maintain laminar flow. Laminar
flow airfoils are designed to have long favorable pressure gradients. All airfoils
must have adverse pressure gradients on their aft end. The usual definition of a
laminar flow airfoil is that the favorable pressure gradient ends somewhere
between 30 and 75% of chord.
Angle of attack
The angle of attack is the angle that the wing presents to approaching air,
and it controls the thickness of the slice of air the wing is cutting off. Because it
control the slice, the angle of attack also controls the amount of lift that the wing
generates (although it is not the only factor).
AIRCRAFT INSPECTIONS
Investigations are visual examinations and manual checks to decide the state
of a flying machine or segment. An airplane investigation can run from an
easygoing stroll around to a point by point examination including finish
dismantling and the utilization of complex review helps. An examination
framework comprises of a few procedures, including reports made by mechanics or
the pilot or team flying a flying machine and routinely booked reviews of an air
ship. A review framework is intended to keep up a flying machine in the most ideal
condition. Careful and rehashed reviews must be viewed as the foundation of a
decent support program. Sporadic and heedless examination will perpetually bring
about slow and certain weakening of an air ship.
The time spent in repairing a manhandled air ship regularly adds up to
significantly more than at whatever time spared in rushing through routine
assessments and upkeep. It has been demonstrated that routinely planned
investigations and preventive upkeep guarantee airworthiness. Working
disappointments and breakdowns of hardware are apparently decreased if
unreasonable wear or minor deformities are distinguished and remedied early. The
significance of investigations and the best possible utilization of records
concerning these assessments can't be overemphasized. Airframe and motor
reviews might extend from preflight assessments to point by point investigations.
The time interims for the review periods change with the models of airplane
included and the sorts of operations being led. The airframe and motor producer's
directions ought to be counseled while setting up investigation interims. Flying
machine might be investigated utilizing flight hours as a premise for planning, or
on a date-book assessment framework. Under the schedule review framework, the
proper examination is performed on the termination of a predetermined number of
logbook weeks. The logbook assessment framework is an effective framework
from an upkeep administration point of view. Planned supplanting of segments
with expressed hourly working constraints is typically proficient amid the
timetable review falling closest the hourly impediment. In a few occurrences, a
flight hour restriction is built up to constrain the quantity of hours that might be
flown amid the timetable interim. Air ship working under the flight hour
framework are assessed when a predefined number of flight hours are collected.
Segments with expressed hourly working impediments are regularly supplanted
amid the examination that falls closest the hourly confinement.
Routine/Required Inspections
For the purpose of determining their overall condition,14 CFR provides for
the inspection of all civil aircraft at specific intervals, depending generally upon
the type of operations in which they are engaged. The pilot in command of a civil
aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in condition for safe
flight. Therefore, the aircraft must be inspected before each flight. More detailed
inspections must be conducted by aviation maintenance technicians at least once
each 12calendar months, while inspection is required for others after each 100
hours of flight. In other instances, an aircraft may be inspected in accordance with
a system set up to provide for total inspection of the aircraft over calendar or flight
time period.
To decide the particular review prerequisites and rules for the execution of
examinations, allude tithe CFR, which recommends the necessities for the
assessment and support of air ship in different sorts of operations. The principal
segment of an agenda incorporates a segment entitled Preflight Inspection. The
preflight examination agenda incorporates a "stroll around "area posting things that
the pilot is to outwardly check for general condition as he or she strolls around the
plane. Likewise, the pilot must guarantee that fuel, oil and different things required
for flight are at the best possible levels
Annual/100-Hour Inspections
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 discusses the
basic requirements for annual and 100-hour inspections. With some exceptions, all
aircraft must have a complete inspection annually. Aircraft that are used for
commercial purposes and are likely to be used more frequently than
noncommercial aircraft must have this complete inspection every 100 hours.
Despite the fact that the degree and point of interest of yearly and 100-hour
examinations is indistinguishable, there are two critical contrasts.
One difference involves persons authorized to conduct them. A certified
airframe and power plant maintenance technician can conduct a 100-hour
inspection, whereas an annual inspection must be conducted by a certified airframe
and power plant maintenance technician with inspection authorization (IA). The
other difference involves authorized over flight of the maximum 100 hours before
inspection. An aircraft may be flown up to 10 hours beyond the 100-hour limit if
necessary to fly to a destination where the inspection is to be conducted.
Progressive Inspections
Since the degree and point of interest of a yearly examinations exceptionally
broad and could keep an air ship out of administration for an impressive period of
time, option assessment programs intended to minimize down time might be used.
A progressive inspection program allows an aircraft to be inspected progressively.
The scope and detail of an annual inspection is essentially divided into segments or
phases (typically four to six). Finish of the considerable number of stages finishes
a cycle that fulfills the prerequisites of a yearly examination.
The benefit of such a system is, to the point that any required portion might
be finished overnight and along these lines empower the flying machine to fly day
by day without missing any income acquiring potential. Progressive inspection
programs include routine items such as engine oil changes and detailed items such
as flight control cable inspection. Routine items are accomplished each time the
aircraft comes in for a phase inspection and detailed items focus on detailed
inspection of specific areas. Detailed inspections are typically done once each
cycle. A cycle must be completed within 12 months. In the event that every
required phas are not finished inside of 12 months, the remaining stage reviews
must be directed before the end of the twelfth month from when the first stage was
finished.
Continuous Inspections
Nonstop assessment projects are like dynamic review programs, aside from
that they apply to extensive or turbine-controlled flying machine and are
consequently more entangled. Like progressive inspection programs, they require
approval by the FAA Administrator. The approval maybe sought based upon the
type of operation and the CFR parts under which the aircraft will be operated. The
maintenance program for commercially operated aircraft must be detailed in the
approved operations specifications (Op Specs) of the commercial certificate
holder. Airlines utilize a continuous maintenance program that includes both
routine and detailed inspections. However, the detailed inspections may include
different levels of detail. Often referred to as checks, the A-check, B-check, C-
check, and D-checks involve increasing levels of detail. A-checks are the least
comprehensive and occur frequently. D-checks, on the other hand, are extremely
comprehensive, involving major disassembly, removal, overhaul, and inspection of
systems and components. They might occur only three to six times during the
service life of an aircraft.
Corrosion and fatigue cracks are always expected in aging aircraft structure.
Corrosion is a critical problem of aircraft structure, which directly affects the
praiseworthiness of an aircraft. Corrosion causes thinning of aircraft structure skins
lead to a degradation of structural integrity. Fatigue cracks also occur in multi-
layered riveted joint especially in aluminum-alloy structures. Failure of an aircraft
structural component can have catastrophic consequences, with resultant loss of
life and of the aircraft. The investigation of defects and failures in aircraft
structures is, thus, of vital importance in preventing further incidents.
All in all, disappointments happen when a part or structure is no more ready
to withstand the stresses imposed on it amid operation. Commonly, failures are
associated with stress concentrations, which can occur for several reasons
including:
Design errors, e.g. the presence of holes, notches, and tight fillet radii
The microstructure of the material may contain voids, inclusions etc
Corrosive attack of the material, e.g. pitting, can also generate a local stress
concentration.
From different records and case histories data, an assessment can be made of
the frequency of failure modes (Table 1). This reveals that the incidence of fatigue
failure dominates the distribution in aircraft. This would suggest, therefore, that
fatigue is the predominant failure mode in service. The detection and rectification
of corrosion damage on in-service aircraft, however, consumes more effort than the
repair of fatigue cracking.
The high occurrence of fatigue failure observed probably reflects the
destructive nature of this failure mode, while corrosive attack is generally slower
than fatigue, and normally all the more effortlessly spotted and redressed amid
routine support.
All the aliment checks are done for the aircraft to acquisition out the flaws in
it. The aircrafts are made up of composite materials which contain epoxy
resins and carbon fibers to add strength. The microscopic level flaws are
very hard to find in the manual check and also in the other mediums like
ultrasonic testing. If at all the flaw is begin out, it is actual harder to adjust
that; due to its size. For example crack may happen in a minor level and
rectifying it is a hard task. So the cost for producing it is of no use, if
suppose it is not rectified. That small crack can get worse if that flaw is not
found and rectified before flying. At that time the entire aircraft is in the
chancy area which leads to accident of abounding lives and accessories in
the aircraft. So the high pressure acts on the wings, fuselage and rudders.
These parts have to be given more attention while inspecting.
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE
Aim
The aim of the project is to implement an inspection method in the aviation
field where the hidden cracks can be begin out to abstain the accident of
accessories and lives.
Specific Objectives
The specific objectives are as follows,
To study the available information about the materials and inspection
methods.
To abstraction about the carbon tubes for making the gridlines and epoxy
resins for healing the material.
Methods and Methodology
The following methodology is to be followed to meet the objectives of the project,
Study of the available literature and understanding the different materials
and inspection methods to evaluate an aircraft.
Spot the drawbacks in the present aircraft manufacturing material and in
the aircraft inspection methods.
Need to find out the consequences of those drawbacks if it is not
rectified.
Choosing an alternative approach to overcome those defects and if it is
not reliable again the alternative approach has to be optimized.
Once the voltage fluctuation is adjusted the temperature at that spots will
be increased than the melting point of the self- healing material. Then the
self -healing material will fill the crack.
Ultimately the implementation of new inspection method is getting
fulfilled when the crack is healed by the self- healing material.
AIM
STUDY OF EXISTING
DESIGN
STUDY OF EXISTING
INSPECTION METHODS
DEMERITS OF EXISTING
DESIGN
EFFECTS OF DEMERITS
ALTERNATIVE
APPROACH
NO
IF
ALTERNATIV
E APPROACH
IS RELIABLE
YES
COMPOSITES USED TO
DESIGN SELF HEALING
STRUCTURES
IF CRACK NO
IS
DETECTED STOP
YES
APPLY VOLTAGE
NO
IF
CRACK
HEALED
YES
STOP
OUR PROPOSAL
The material gets melted and that will fix the crack part. The heat may be
increased or decreased by changing the potentials of the current passage. This
should be tested both horizontally and vertically for rectifying the flaws. This kind
of test can be done on the wings, rudders and fuselage, where the high pressure
acts on them while flying. The amount of heat will depend on the melting point of
the composite material that is used. The sensors can be done to recognize the
amount of heat got generated.
Properties of Metals
Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are such general properties of
metals and their alloys as hardness, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness,
density, brittleness, fusibility, conductivity contraction and expansion, and so forth.
These terms are explained to establish a basis for further discussion of structural
metals.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion, penetration,
cutting action, or permanent distortion. Hardness may be increased by cold
working the metal and, in the case of steel and certain aluminum alloys, by heat
treatment. Structural parts are often formed from metals in their soft state and are
then heat treated to harden them so that the finished shape will be retained.
Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of metals.
Strength
One of the most important properties of a material is strength. Strength is the
ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is also the ability of a material
to resist stress without breaking. The type of load or stress on the material affects
the strength it exhibits.
Density
Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material. In aircraft work, the
specified weight of a material per cubic inch is preferred since this figure can be
used in determining the weight of a part before actual manufacture. Density is an
important consideration when choosing a material to be used in the design of a part
in order to maintain the proper weight and balance of the aircraft.
Malleability
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes
without cracking, breaking, or leaving some other detrimental effect, is said to be
malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is worked into curved
shapes, such as cowlings, fairings, or wingtips. Copper is an example of a
malleable metal.
Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently
drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking. This property is
essential for metals used in making wire and tubing. Ductile metals are greatly
preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure
under shock loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for cowl rings;
fuselage and wing skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and
bulkheads. Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed into desired shapes.
Ductility is similar to malleability.
Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original size
and shape when the force which causes the change of shape is removed. This
property is extremely valuable because it would be highly undesirable to have a
part permanently distorted after an applied load was removed. Each metal has a
point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded without causing
permanent distortion. In aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed
that the maximum loads to which they are subjected will not stress them beyond
their elastic limits. This desirable property is present in spring steel.
Toughness
A material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and
may be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking. Toughness is a
desirable property in aircraft metals.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows little bending or
deformation without shattering. A brittle metal is apt to break or crack without
change of shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads,
brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast-iron, cast aluminum, and very hard
steel are examples of brittle metals.
Fusibility
Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of
heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse around 2,600 F and aluminum
alloys at approximately 1,100 F.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or
electricity. The heat conductivity of a metal is especially important in welding
because it governs the amount of heat that will be required for proper fusion.
Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent, determines the type of jig to be used
to control expansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical conductivity must also
be considered in conjunction with bonding, to eliminate radio interference.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansion that are reactions
produced in metals as the result of heating or cooling. Heat applied to a metal will
cause it to expand or become larger. Cooling and heating affect the design of
welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary for hot rolled material.
FERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS
Many different metals are required in the repair of aircraft. This is a result of
the varying needs with respect to strength, weight, durability, and resistance to
deterioration of specific structures or parts. In addition, the particular shape or
form of the material plays an important role.
In selecting materials for aircraft repair, these factors plus many others are
considered in relation to the mechanical and physical properties. Among the
common materials used are ferrous metals. The term ferrous applies to the group
of metals having iron as their principal constituent.
Iron
If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1
percent, the product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel.
Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon
steel with other elements known to improve the properties of steel.
A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have
been added is called an alloy. The addition of other metals changes or improves the
chemical or physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.
The term nonferrous refers to all metals which have elements other than
iron as their base or principal constituent. This group includes such metals as
aluminum, titanium, copper, and magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as
Monel and babbit.
Composites have been used throughout history, i.e., straw in bricks, metal
rod-reinforced concrete, and lightweight aerospace structures. Fiber reinforced
polymer matrix composite materials are being introduced in ever-increasing
quantities in military systems and have become a key element in the Department of
defenses effort to lighten the force. However, polymer matrix composites have an
inherent temperature limitation based on their hydrocarbon structure. The high
temperature alternative to high density metals is ceramics, offering weight savings
as well high temperature capability and oxidation resistance.
The sensitivity of monolithic ceramics to small flaws and the resulting brittle
fracture has severely limited the use of their unique properties (high temperature
strength, low density, chemical stability, and wear resistance) in military and
aerospace applications. The development of ceramic composites and associated
flaw-tolerant microstructures has been a major goal of structural ceramics over the
past two decades. A composite is defined as a material containing two or more
distinct phases combined in such a way so that each remains distinct. Based on this
broad definition of composite, ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are
conveniently separated into two categories: discontinuous reinforced and
continuous fiber reinforced CMCs.
Discontinuous reinforced CMCs include particulate, platelet, whisker, fiber
and in situ reinforced composites (including Nano composites). CMCs containing
discontinuous second phases are, in general, processed by shaping techniques
commonly used for monolithic ceramics; i.e., injection molding, slip casting, and
tape casting, followed by sintering to density the composite. By contrast
continuous fiber ceramic composites (CFCCs) have required the development of
infiltrate ion (vapor, sol, melt, and liquid pre ceramic polymers) methods that
enable the densification of various ceramic matrices in continuous fiber lay-ups
and/or net shape woven fiber performs.
Continuous fiber reinforced CMCs are further subdivided into carbon fiber
reinforced carbon composites, a.k.a. carbon-carbon composites and other
composites. Both discontinuous reinforced and continuous fiber reinforced
composites decrease the susceptibility of ceramic components to catastrophic
thermal-structural "brittle failure". The mechanisms by which discontinuous
reinforced and continuous reinforced CMCs retard crack initiation and/or
propagation are dependent on the nature of material reinforcements (geometry,
quantity, and distribution). Understandably, the reinforcements in discontinuous
and continuous CMCs give rise to inherently different mechanical properties,
different advantages, and different end uses.
A ceramic's resistance to small flaws, crack propagation, and failure can be
quantified by measuring a property termed fracture toughness. The fracture
toughness coupled with sufficient statistical mechanical property data provide
designers the information needed for structural analysis and design safety margins
of ceramics. In general, the fracture toughness values of monolithic ceramics
excluding transformation toughened materials do not exceed values of 4.5 ksi in (5
MPam1/2).
Discontinuous reinforced CMCs have typical values in the range of 6 to
10.92 ksi in (7 to 12 MPam1/2). Continuous fiber CMCs reach values around
18 ksi in (20 MPam1/2) and depending on the fiber architecture can approach
values similar to good metallic systems, 27 ksi in (30 MPam1/2). Continuous fiber
reinforced CMCs and discontinuous CMCs also exhibit significant differences in
yield strengths, linear stress-strain proportional limits, and ultimate strengths.
Discontinuous whisker, in situ toughened, and particulate Nano composites
ceramics can reach yield strengths and ultimate strengths approaching 1000 MPa.
Applications
Carbon-carbon composites are a mature technology. The graphite-like
matrix maintains its strength to exceptionally high temperatures of 4000F
(2204C) in non-oxidizing environments. The historical use of carbon-carbon
composites can be traced to ICBM rocket nozzles over three decades ago. Over the
past decade and a half, carbon-carbon brakes for military and commercial aircraft
have developed into the largest single market for CMCs. The lightweight and high-
temperature stiffness-to-weight properties of carbon-carbon have continued to spur
funding of military demonstration projects such as solar array, radar antenna and
mirror support structures, heat shields, and radiators for spacecraft. Turbine engine
components, reentry vehicle nose tips, and hypersonic leading edge articles have
also received demonstration funding.
The development of very high conductivity carbon fibers coupled with lower
cost matrix densification techniques offer promise as printed wiring board or
multichip module substrates, thermal planes and other heat dissipation
components. A wide range of abrasive and corrosive wear applications are
emerging for these types of composites. Protective sleeves for molten Al mixer
shafts, hot gas filters, fire proof floor tiles and a host of other application sare
emerging .Most of these applications are thermal-structural environments in
turbine and rocket engines where metallic alloys cannot meet the performance
and/or durability requirements and where carbon-carbon composites would ablate
due to oxidation.
The afterburner divergent flaps and seals for fighter aircraft turbine engines
and divert propulsion and attitude control nozzles for exo-atmospheric interceptor
missile rocket engines are prime examples. The next generation, reusable launch
vehicle will likely use CMCs for the thrust cells and the ramp of the aero spike
engine. CMCs are presently being evaluated for leading edges, nose section, inlet
cowlings, and the nozzle of future hypersonic vehicles. Future turbine engine
applications may include combustors, shrouds, stators, vanes, and other augmenter
components for turbine engines. Heat shields to protect metallic structures are also
being considered in many aircraft applications.
Industrial applications include porous radiant burner tubes, immersion heater
tubes, heat exchangers, tube hangers for oil refining, brakes for racing motorcycles,
diesel engine valve guides, and/or corrosion resistant containment shells for
chemical pumps.
These carbon nanotubes are actually a unique allotropic form of carbon with
an exceptionally great hardness, electric conductivity and tensile strength. These
physical properties make these nanotubes find a large number of applications in the
modern science. Now there are different shapes and different occurrences of these
allotropes in nature and these can also be synthesized in laboratory. More
importantly, these vary in their thickness as well as these can be single celled and
multi layered at the same time. In this manner, it would be exceptionally sheltered
and reasonable to say that carbon Nano tubes have been one of the fundamental
logical developments of the present period conveying a gigantic change and office
to the researcher group specifically and to the entire humankind by and large.
Following the carbon Nano tubes have extremely recognized electronic
properties, a few employments of the carbon Nano tubes have been found. Also,
because of their properties in the environment of heat and their rather
commendable strength attributes, the nanotubes have been used for various
purposes. The nanotubes are usually rolled into tubes and they are known to have
hexagonal shapes, having been discovered in the early 90s. In the field chemistry,
they are regarded the strongest and probably most resilient bonds and they are even
stronger than the bonds that hold diamond in one piece. The structure of these
nanotubes is quite unique in comparison to the structures of other elements in
terms of not just structure but also properties such as thermal as well as electronic.
The component in this way responds rather distinctively to these conditions when
contrasted with alternate components.
Carbon nanotubes are molecular-scale tubes of graphitic carbon with
outstanding properties. They are among the stiffest and strongest fibers known, and
have remarkable electronic properties and many other unique characteristics. For
these reasons they have attracted huge academic and industrial interest, with
thousands of papers on nanotubes being published every year. Business
applications have been somewhat ease back to grow, in any case, principally in
view of the high generation expenses of the best quality Nano tubes.
There are various angles that call for utilizations of Carbon Nano tubes for
case the making of space lifts. Subsequent to the component is much more
grounded than the standard components such as steel, it develops as the most
suitable strategy in the production of structures that are high and space lifts.
Originally, cells were created with elements like human hair, silicon as well as
plastic. However, today, there is the intention to create cells with Carbon
Nanotubes. This will create another of the applications of Carbon Nanotubes that
will have emerged from the precious element.
Employing materials made from carbon nanotubes to reduce the
weight of aircraft like the one shown below while retaining or even
increasing the structural strength.
Using carbon nanotubes to make the cable needed for the space
elevator, a system which could significantly reduce the cost of
sending material into orbit.
Using carbon nanotubes to build lightweight solar sails that use the
pressure of light from the sun reflecting on the mirror-like solar cell to
propel a spacecraft. This solves the problem of having to lift enough
fuel into orbit to power spacecraft during interplanetary missions.
Working with Nano sensors to monitor the levels of trace chemicals in
aircraft to monitor the performance of life support systems.
Mechanical
Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in
terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results
from the covalent sp2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000,
a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 giga-
pascals (GPa). Further studies, such as one conducted in 2008, revealed that
individual CNT shells have strengths of up to ~100 GPa, which is in agreement
with quantum/atomistic models. Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a
solid of 1.3 to 1.4 g/cm3, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kNmkg1 is the
best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel's 154 kNmkg1.
Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which
means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of
approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo before
fracture by releasing strain energy.
Although the strength of individual CNT shells is extremely high, weak
shear interactions between adjacent shells and tubes leads to significant reductions
in the effective strength of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotube
bundles down to only a few GPas. This limitation has been recently addressed by
applying high-energy electron irradiation, which crosslinks inner shells and tubes,
and effectively increases the strength of these materials to ~60 GPa for multi-
walled carbon Nano tubes and ~17 GPa for double-walled carbon nanotube
bundles.
CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow
structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo buckling when placed under
compressive, torsional, or bending stress.
Geometry of carbon Nano tubes
Rollup Vector (n, m)
n-m=3d
Chiral Angle
Thermal properties
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the
tube, exhibiting a property known as "ballistic conduction", but good insulators
laterally to the tube axis. Measurements show that a SWNT has a room-
temperature thermal conductivity along its axis of about 3500 Wm1K1;
compare this to copper, a metal well known for its good thermal conductivity,
which transmits 385 Wm1K1. A SWNT has a room-temperature thermal
conductivity across its axis (in the radial direction) of about 1.52 Wm1K1.
This is about as thermally conductive as soil. The temperature stability of carbon
nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 C in vacuum and about 750 C in air.
Fiber Material Specific Density E (TPa) Strength (GPa) Strain at Break (%)
Conductive plastics
Structural composite materials
Flat-panel displays
Gas storage
Antifouling paint
Micro- and Nano-electronics
Radar-absorbing coating
Technical textiles
Ultra-capacitors
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips
Batteries with improved lifetime
Biosensors for harmful gases
Extra strong fibers
Physical processes
These are the processes, which make use of physical principles of carbon
conversion into nanotubes. These include popular process of carbon nanotubes
production such as arc discharge and laser ablation. Due to their wide spread
popularity they are by far the most widely used processes for nanotubes production
for experimental purposes.
There are two processes in the physical process
Arc discharge process
Laser ablation process
Disadvantages of Physical processes
Both arc-discharge and laser ablation produces some of the most high-
quality nanotubes but suffers from following disadvantages which limit their use as
large scale industrial processes.
1) They both are energy extensive methods-a large amount of energy is needed to
produce arc or laser used for ablation processes. Such a huge amount of energy is
not only impossible but also uneconomical for large scale production.
2) Both methods require solid carbon/graphite as target which has to be
evaporated to get nanotubes. It is difficult to get such large graphite to be used as
target in industrial process which limits its exploitation as large scale process.
3) Both processes grow nanotubes in highly tangled form, mixed with unwanted
form of carbon or catalysts.
Thus CNTs produced by these processes require purification to get purified
and assembled forms. The designing of such refining processes is difficult and
expensive. All the above mentioned factors severely limit the use of both arc-
discharge and laser ablation as large scale processes for production of carbon
nanotubes.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
Reaction process and reactor design is simple, reaction is easy to control and
manipulate.
Raw materials are abundant and available readily in the form of gases.
Due to absence of expensive and difficult to produce targets and huge
amount of energy needed, process is cheap in terms of unit price.
Process is capable of producing CNTs directly onto substrates which ease
out the process of further collection and separation and eliminates post
refining processes to a large extent. Some refining is required in some cases
for further purification.
Process is unique for the production of vertically aligned nanotubes. No
other process can produce aligned Nano tubes.
Process can be designed for continuous operation (HiPco) and easily scaled
up to large industrial process due to its nature of operation similar to
chemical unit operations.
When the aircraft flies the higher pressure acts on the entire body, but
comparatively the maximum force acts on the wings, fuselage and rudders. The
inspection method will be able to detect the flaws which in more naked and even if
it is in microscopic level. The hidden cracks in the body are very hard to find out.
The defects are very hard to be healed in this kind of situation, so thatll lead to a
great disaster which includes the loss of human lives and the high tech equipment.
In order to overcome this scenario, the self-healing technology would be a great
one to the aviation field. The materials strength is no lesser to a composite
material, where the strength and stiffness would be greater than that.
Material Composition
% of
Metal Description
composition
Magnesium/Aluminium The alloys are used in a major composition as
70
alloys it becomes a good conductor.
It adds more strength and stiffness to the
Carbon Nano tubes 10 material, as carbon items are one of the
strongest
It acts as the self-healing material in this
Epoxy resins 20
composition
The Epoxy Resins and Carbon Nano tubes cant be used entirely throughout the
materials, since the cost factor plays a vital role. The self-healing materials will be
having the epoxy resins in form of microcapsules which has carbon Nano tubes in
it. The addition of carbon Nano tubes in the materials adds more strength to it. The
epoxy resins will be present in such a way like honey comb structure. So that it is
present everywhere to. So where ever the crack is formed the epoxy resins will fill
them on their own during the inspection time based on the pressure gradient getting
developed across that area. The epoxy resins are melted when the temperature of it
crosses its melting point. The entire thing happens in such a way that the inspection
is done in a shorter duration with the self-healing. This inspection method is done
without affecting the strength and stiffness of the material.
Procedure:
The current passes between two conducting materials, so the cathodes and
anodes are placed on both the ends of the part (wing, fuselage, etc.). The current is
made to pass through them and this kind of arrangement is done on both ways
vertically and horizontally. This current passing path are formed in the path of grid
lines which has very less gap in between them, in order to be more precise in the
inspection. Firstly the current is made to pass through the part in a direction. If the
crack is parallel to the gridlines, itll be hard to detect and heal it.
So thats the reason why the inspection is done on either ways. When a crack
is found on the aircraft part during the inspection, the gridlines gets disconnected.
Apart from that region the current passage will be spontaneously passing in the
other gridlines. So, wherever the current is getting cut-off at that terminal the
resistance will get created due to the continuous supply of voltage. The RTD is
placed on the apparatus to detect the temperature around the disconnected
terminals. That temperature must be greater than the melting point of the epoxy
resins. When the voltage is increased the resistance will get increased and it will
offer more heat, since temperature and resistance are directly proportional. The
voltage is kept on adjusted until it reaches the melting point of the epoxy resins.
The temperature around that terminal is increased by this way to melt the epoxy
resins. The temperature is sensed by the RTD sensors.
Wing root
Wing Trailing (Cathode)
edge (Anode)
Wing Leading
edge (Cathode)
Wing model to be tested
The inspection is an affordable one and better one in various aspects except
the materials
More caution is needed towards the material and deposition of the
composites in it
More importance is needed in the composite deposition pattern which makes
more convenient one for healing
The RTD operated only in a particular range (up to 700 degree Celsius)
The sensors should be more precise since these are microscopic operations
SPECIAL INSPECTIONS
During the service life of an aircraft, occasions may arise when something
out of the ordinary care and use of an aircraft might happen that could possibly
affect its airworthiness. When these situations are encountered, special inspection
procedures should be followed to determine if damage to the aircraft structure has
occurred. The procedures outlined on the following pages are general in nature and
are intended to acquaint the aviation mechanic with the areas which should be
inspected. As such, they are not all inclusive. When performing any of these
special inspections, always follow the detailed procedures in the aircraft
maintenance manual. In situations where the manual does not adequately address
the situation, seek advice from other maintenance technicians who are highly
experienced with them.
Hard or Overweight Landing Inspection The structural stress induced by a
landing depends not only upon the gross weight at the time but also upon the
severity of impact. However, because of the difficulty in estimating vertical
velocity at the time of contact, it is hard to judge whether or not a landing has been
sufficiently severe to cause structural damage. For this reason, a special inspection
should be performed after landing is made at a weight known to exceed the design
landing weight or after a rough landing, even though the latter may have occurred
when the aircraft did not exceed the design landing weight. Wrinkled wing skin is
the most easily detected sign of an excessive load having been imposed during a
landing. Another indication which can be detected easily is fuel leakage along
riveted seams. Other possible locations of damage are spar webs, bulkheads,
nacelle skin and attachments, firewall skin, and wing and fuselage stringers. If
none of these areas show adverse effects, it is reasonable to assume that no serious
damage has occurred. If damage is detected, a more extensive inspection and
alignment check may be necessary.
Severe Turbulence Inspection/Over G When an aircraft encounters a gust
condition; the air load on the wings exceeds the normal wing load supporting the
aircraft weight. The gust tends to accelerate the aircraft while its inertia acts to
resist this change. If the combination of gust velocity and airspeed is too severe,
the induced stress can cause structural damage. A special inspection should be
performed after a flight through severe turbulence. Emphasis should be placed
upon inspecting the upper and lower wing surfaces for excessive buckles or
wrinkles with permanent set.
Where wrinkles have occurred, remove a few rivets and examine the rivet
shanks to determine if the rivets have sheared or were highly loaded in shear.
Through the inspection doors and other accessible openings, inspect all spar webs
from the fuselage to the tip. Check for buckling, wrinkles, and sheared
attachments. Inspect for buckling in the area around the nacelles and in the nacelle
skin, particularly at the wing leading edge.
Lightning Strike
Although lightning strikes to aircraft are extremely rare, if a strike has
occurred, the aircraft must be carefully inspected to determine the extent of any
damage that might have occurred. When lightning strikes an aircraft, the electrical
current must be conducted through the structure and be allowed to discharge or
dissipate at controlled locations. These controlled locations are primarily the
aircrafts static discharge wicks, or on more sophisticated aircraft, null field
dischargers. When surges of high voltage electricity pass through good electrical
conductors, such as aluminum or steel, damage is likely to be minimal or
nonexistent. When surges of high voltage electricity pass through on-metallic
structures, such as a fiberglass radome, engine cowl or fairing, glass or plastic
window, or a composite structure that does not have built-in electrical bonding,
burning and more serious damage to the structure could occur.
Visual inspection of the structure is required. Look for evidence of
degradation, burning or erosion of the composite resin at all affected structures,
electrical bonding straps, static discharge wicks and null field dischargers. Fire
Damage Inspection of aircraft structures that have been subjected to fire or intense
heat can be relatively simple if visible damage is present. Visible damage requires
repair or replacement. If there is no visible damage, the structural integrity of an
aircraft may still have been compromised.
Since most structural metallic components of an aircraft have undergone
some sort of heat treatment process during manufacture, an exposure to high heat
not encountered during normal operations could severely degrade the design
strength of the structure. The strength and airworthiness of an aluminum structure
that passes a visual inspection but is still suspect can be further determined by use
of conductivity tester. This is a device that uses eddy current and is discussed later
in this chapter. Since strength of metals is related to hardness, possible damage to
steel structures might be determined by use of a hardness tester such as a Rockwell
C hardness tester.
Flood Damage
Like aircraft damaged by fire, aircraft damaged by water can range from
minor to severe, depending on the level of the flood water, whether it was fresh or
salt water and the elapsed time between the flood occurrence and when repairs
were initiated. Any parts that were totally submerged should be completely
disassembled, thoroughly cleaned, dried and treated with a corrosion inhibitor.
Many parts might have to be replaced, particularly interior carpeting, seats, side
panels, and instruments. Since water serves as an electrolyte that promotes
corrosion, all traces of water and salt must be removed before the aircraft can again
be considered airworthy.
Nondestructive Inspection/Testing
The preceding information in this chapter provided general information
regarding aircraft inspection. The remainder of this chapter deals with several
methods often used on specific components or areas on an aircraft when carrying
out the more specific inspections. They are referred to as nondestructive inspection
(NDI) or nondestructive testing (NDT). The objective of NDI and NDT is to
determine the airworthiness of a component without damaging it, which would
render it un-airworthy. Some of these methods are simple, requiring little
additional expertise, while others are highly sophisticated and require that the
technician be highly trained and specially certified.
i. Eddy current flaw detector with impedance plane display and frequency
control between 3khz and 50khz.Preliminary instrument operating frequency
may be adjusted considering the thickness of test item during calibration
procedure from Table-01
Table 01: Reference standard and frequency selection for back surface corrosion loss
for clad 2024-T3/T4 &7075-T6 AL alloys
Thickness of aircraft
Thickness of reference standard Test frequency
structure [layer- 1] in
[layer- 1] in inches range [kHz]
inches
This procedure is used to detect fatigue cracks in the fuselage plating under
external repair doubler and other repaired aluminium structures when specified.
This procedure will also detect cracks in the outer row of fastener holes common
to the external doubler and the fuselage plating. The crack must be oriented
normal with the repair edge to be detected.
Ultrasonic Inspection
A linear phased array (PA) transducer usually consists of 64 elements that
can be independently driven. By incorporating suitable time delays, it is possible to
steer the beam to any required angle (Fig. 3a) and/or focus it to any particular
depth (Fig. 3b). Electronic scanning consists of moving a beam in space by
activating different active apertures selectively where each aperture is made up of
several elements of a phased array probe.
Ultrasonic detection equipment makes it possible to locate defects in all
types of materials. Minute cracks, checks, and voids too small to be seen by x-ray
can be located by ultrasonic inspection. An ultrasonic test instrument requires
access to only one surface of the material to be inspected and can be used with
either straight line or angle beam testing techniques.
Two basic methods are used for ultrasonic inspection. The first of these
methods is immersion testing. In this method of inspection, the part under
examination and the search unit are totally immersed in a liquid coolant, which
may be water or any other suitable fluid.
The second method is called contact testing, which is readily adapted to field
use and is the method discussed in this chapter. In this method, the part under
examination and the search unit are coupled with a viscous material, liquid or a
paste, which wets both the face of the search unit and the material under
examination.
There are three basic ultrasonic inspection methods:
(1) Pulse echo
(2) Through transmission
(3) Resonance.
Eddy current inspection circuit
Pulse Echo
Flaws are detected by measuring the amplitude of signals reflected and the
time required for these signals to travel between specific surfaces and the
discontinuity. The time base, which is triggered simultaneously with each
transmission pulse, causes a spot to sweep across the screen of the cathode ray tube
(CRT). The spot sweeps from left to right across the face of the scope50 to 5,000
times per second, or higher if required for high speed automated scanning. Due to
the speed of the cycle of transmitting and receiving, the picture on the oscilloscope
appears to be stationary.
Block diagram of basic pulse-echo system
Through Transmission
Through transmission inspection uses two transducers, one to generate the
pulse and another placed on the opposite surface to receive it. A disruption in the
sound path will indicate a flaw and be displayed on the instrument screen. Through
transmission is less sensitive to small defects than the pulse-echo method.
Resonance
This system differs from the pulse method in that the frequency of
transmission may be continuously varied. The resonance method is used
principally for thickness measurements when the two sides of the material being
tested are smooth and parallel and the backside is inaccessible. The point at which
the frequency matches the resonance point of the material being tested is the
thickness determining factor.
Development of Indications
When a discontinuity in a magnetized material is open to the surface, and a
magnetic substance (indicating medium) is available on the surface, the flux
leakage at the discontinuity tends to form the indicating medium into a path of
higher permeability. (Permeability is a term used to refer to the ease with which a
magnetic flux can be established in a given magnetic circuit.) Because of the
magnetism in the part and the adherence of the magnetic particles to each other, the
indication remains on the surface of the part in the form of an approximate outline
of the discontinuity that is immediately below it. The same action takes place when
the discontinuity is not open to the surface, but since the amount of flux leakage is
less, fewer particles are held in place and a fainter and less sharply defined
indication is obtained. If the discontinuity is very far below the surface, there may
be no flux leakage and no indication on the surface. The flux leakage at a
transverse discontinuity and at longitudinal discontinuity is shown in the below
figures.
Radiographic
X and gamma radiations, because of their unique ability to penetrate
material and disclose discontinuities, have been applied to the radiographic (x-ray)
inspection of metal fabrications and nonmetallic products. The penetrating
radiation is projected through the part to be inspected and produces an invisible or
latent image in the film. When processed, the film becomes radiograph or shadow
picture of the object. This inspection medium and portable unit provides a fast and
reliable means for checking the integrity of airframe structures and engines.
Radiographic inspection techniques are used to locate defects or flaws in
airframe structures or engines with little or no disassembly. This is in marked
contrast to other types of nondestructive testing which usually require removal,
disassembly, and stripping of paint from the suspected part before it can be
inspected. Due to the radiation risks associated with x-ray, extensive training is
required to become a qualified radiographer. Only qualified radiographers are
allowed to operate the x-ray units.
Inspection of Composites
Composite structures should be inspected for delaminating, which is
separation of the various plies, de-bonding of the skin from the core, and evidence
of moisture and corrosion. Previously discussed methods including ultrasonic,
acoustic emission, and radiographic inspections may be used as recommended by
the aircraft manufacturer. The simplest method used in testing composite structures
is the tap test.
Tap Testing
Tap testing, also referred to as the ring test or coin test, is widely used as a
quick evaluation of any accessible surface to detect the presence of delaminating or
de-bonding. The testing procedure consists of lightly tapping the surface with a
light hammer (maximum weight of 2 ounces), a coin or other suitable device. The
acoustic response or ring is compared to that of a known good area. A flat or
dead response indicates an area of concern. Tap testing is limited to finding
defects in relatively thin skins, less than 0.080"thick. On honeycomb structures,
both sides need to be tested. Tap testing on only one side would not detected-
bonding on the opposite side. Electrical Conductivity Composite structures are not
inherently electrically conductive. Some aircraft, because of their relatively low
speed and type of use, are not affected by electrical issues.
Manufacturers of other aircraft, such as high-speed high-performance jets,
are required to utilize various methods of incorporating aluminum into their
structures to make them conductive. The aluminum is imbedded within the plies of
the lay-ups either as a thin wire mesh, screen, foil, or spray. When damaged
sections of the structure are repaired, care must be taken to ensure that the
conductive path be restored.
Not only is it necessary to include the conductive material in the repair, but
the continuity of the electrical path from the original conductive material to the
replacement conductor and back to the original must be maintained. Electrical
conductivity may be checked by use of an ohmmeter. Specific manufacturers
instructions must be carefully followed.
Especially for developing of efficient sensor arrays, the combination of the key
features of the GMR sensors is important:
High, frequency-independent sensitivity to the magnetic field,
Small geometrical dimensions (in comparison with inductive sensors of the
same sensitivity),
Simplicity in use, low power consumption (in comparison with other sensor
technologies).
Based on the experience with this probe design [2], [3], a GMR sensor array
with one transmitter coil (excitation coil) and 16 GMR elements as receiver has
been realized. Fig.2 shows the selected arrangement of the array elements.
TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Contact Sensors
Examples,
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Bimetallic Thermometers
Noncontact Sensors
Thermometers
Bimetal Thermometer
In the bimetal thermometer, two metals (commonly steel and copper) with
different thermal expansion coefficients are fixed to one another with rivets or by
welding. As the temperature of the strip increases, the metal with the higher
thermal expansion coefficients expands to a greater degree, causing stress in the
materials and a deflection in the strip. The amount of this deflection is a function
of temperature. The temperature ranges for which these thermometers can be used
is limited by the range over which the metals have significantly different thermal
expansion coefficients. Bimetallic strips are often wound into coils and placed in
thermostats. The moving end of the strip is an electrical contact, which transmits
the temperature thermostat.
There are two main types of RTDs, the traditional RTD and the thermistor.
Traditional RTDs use metallic sensing elements that result in a linear relationship
between temperature and resistance. As the temperature of the metal increases,
increased random molecular movement impedes the flow of electrons. The
increased resistance is measured as a reduced current through the metal for a fixed
voltage applied. The thermistor uses a semiconductor sensor, which gives a power
function relationship between temperature and resistance.
There are 4 major categories of RTD sensors. There are carbon resistors,
film thermometers, wire-wound thermometers and coil elements.
Carbon resistors are the most commonly used. They are inexpensive and are
accurate for low temperatures. They also are not affected by hysteresis or strain
gauge effects. They are commonly used by researchers.
Film thermometers have a very thin layer of metal, often platinum, on a plate. This
layer is very small, on the micrometer scale. These thermometers have different
strain gauge effects based on what the metal and plate are composed of. There are
also stability problems that are dependent on the components used.
Coil elements are similar to wire-wound thermometers and have generally replaced
them in all industrial applications. The coil is allowed to expand over large
temperature ranges while still giving support. This allows for a large temperature
range while decreasing the drift.
As shown in Figure 1, the RTD contains an outer sheath to prevent
contamination from the surrounding medium. Ideally, this sheath is composed of
material that efficiently conducts heat to the resistor, but resists degradation from
heat or the surrounding medium.
The principle behind RTDs is based upon the Callendar Van Dusen
equation shown below, which relates the electrical resistance to the temperature in
C. This equation is merely a generic polynomial that takes form based upon
experimental data from the specific RTD. This equation usually takes on a linear
form since the coefficients of the higher-order variables (a2, a3, etc.) are relatively
small.
For many metals, over a certain range of temperature, the relationship can be
expressed by the formula. Assuming we know the resistance (R0) of a material at
0oC, then we can find its resistance (Rx) at another temperature (Tx), using the
following equation:
Rx = R0 (1 + alpha Tx)
The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear
approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and
100 C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is called alpha, and its unit is
ohm/ohm/C.
These different alpha values for platinum are achieved by doping; basically
carefully introducing impurities into the platinum. The impurities introduced
during doping become embedded in the lattice structure of the platinum and result
in a different R vs. T curve and hence alpha value.
The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:
High accuracy
Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitability for precision applications
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature
changes and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller
temperature range and stability.
Resistors (and other elements with resistance) oppose the flow of electric
current; therefore, electrical energy is required to push current through the
resistance. This electrical energy is dissipated, heating the resistor in the process.
This is called Joule heating (after James Prescott Joule), also called ohmic heating
or resistive heating. The dissipation of electrical energy is often undesired,
particularly in the case of transmission losses in power lines. High voltage
transmission helps reduce the losses by reducing the current for a given power.
On the other hand, Joule heating is sometimes useful, for example in electric stoves
and other electric heaters (also called resistive heaters). As another example,
incandescent lamps rely on Joule heating: the filament is heated to such a high
temperature that it glows "white hot" with thermal radiation (also called
incandescence). The formula for Joule heating is,
Where, P is the power (energy per unit time) converted from electrical
energy to thermal energy, R is the resistance, and I is the current through the
resistor.
THE CALLENDAR VAN DUSEN EQUATION
To check any minor cracks on the aircraft parts its very easy to check to
find the cracks and rectify it by itself in this approach. For checking those and
calibrate frequently to predict the failure (crack). We plan to execute on checking
of aircraft calibration and checking aircrafts, this cathode and anode electron
passage approach is very useful to making connectivity on the minor/major cracks
to fix it.
However, due to the gap between basic research and the requirements of
real world applications, small Nano tubes are facing technical difficulties such as
dispersion, chirality selection, and handling. Therefore, it is important to transfer
the basic findings to industries and to commercialize the novel technologies
rapidly.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we've reviewed the viable routes to apply and make a study on
the applications of carbon Nano tubes (single and multi-walled), with an electric
conductivity applications in electrochemical systems to fix the cracks in the
aircraft. The unique electronic properties of Nano tubes make them also good
conductive material in the electronic industry, so that silicon-based technologies
could be replaced or supplemented by Nano carbons. The accessible applications
of carbon Nano tubes range from electronics, field emission displays, energy
storage devices, functional fillers in composites, and biomedical applications.
These have attracted both commercial and academic interest.
So we are concluding that by passing electric current on the aircraft parts which is
manufactured by the healing material will heal the hidden cracks on that instant;
this is been possible with the Nano tubes technology and epoxy resins.
REFERENCES