Detail aJ 2,13.
C H A P T E RT W O
The Indus(or Harappa)Civilization
( c a .z 3 o o t o r 7 J o B . c . )
Distinctive settlernentpatterns accompaniedby
cultural and techrological developmentsare well
documented from an early date in the north-
western regions ofthe South Asian subcontinent
and have recently been identified in the Ganges
Valley, However, the earliest known Indic
'civilization"l
conrplex which can be termed
in the stricrest.enseo[ the word i. the Indus.
or, as it is also called, the HaraPpa civilization.
Since early investigatorsoriginally thought that
the cities and toms of the culture were clustered
only in the Indus River Valley of Pakistan, it
was called the Indus civilization, a name which
is no longer considered truly descriptive. For
subsequent discoveries of sites belonging to
this culture have expanded its known geo-
graphic domain to include a region approx-
maiely the size of western Europe, reaching
from northem Afghanistan and the border
between Pakistan and Iran on the west, south
along India's western coast to the Gulf of
Carnbay, east into the Gangetic headwaters,
and north to the foothills of the Himalayas. It
is fully expectedthat future researchwill extend
the boundaries and definitions of this culture
even further. The city of Harappa, where the
civilization was first discovered,haslent its name
to the alternate designation for this culture.
However, this name also has limitations since
over one hundred fifty sitesfrom this civilization
have been found, five of which may be called
cities in the proper senseof the term. Thus, the
city of Harappa is not to be considereda unique
example, nor necessarilyeven one typical of the
civilization as a whole.
Although extensive archaeological explora-
tion and study has bcen carried out at HaraPpa
sites for much of this century,z information
about this ancient culture is still limited; many
basic questions about the people, their beliefs,
and pattems of life remain unanswered. Much
of what is surmised about the civilization is
IO FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CTVIIZATION
derived from our understandingof what occurs
"read
later in South Asia (we thus into" Indus
phenomena) or from cross-cultural analogies,
primarily with the fourishing civilizations of
contemporaneous Mesopotamia, with which
the Indus peoples were in contact. This latter,
while comprising an important analytic tool,
should not automatically suggestan indebtedness
of the Indus civilization to those of Mesopo-
tamia.
Becausesitesshowing experimental or forma-
tive stagesof developrnentfor the Indus culture
have been difiicult to identify, the antecedents
of the civilization remain elusive.In sorne cascs,
fooding and the rise of the water table have
obscured the lowest levels of Indus sites and
the early stages, which may have been the
formative ones, are inacccssible.For example,
Tn: Crrrrs,tuo Towr.ts
Many cities and towns of the Indus civilization
were laid out on rectilinear grids, with streets
oriented on north-south and east-west axes
(Fig. z.r). Such standardizationimplies a great
degree of civic planning and organtzatron, as
would be necessary in an urban environmenc
where large populations lived in relatively small
areas.The common building rnaterial at Harap-
pa sites was baked brick.6 A remarkable aspect
of the bricks is that they conform to specific
standards of size and quality throughout the
known geographical and chronological extent
of the culture. This uniformity indicatesa high
degreeoI centralizrtion.as weli as continuous
contact between various sites.Houses varied in
size, Some were probably several stories high.
Most display a similar plan with a squarecourt-
yard surrounded by a number of roon-rs, a
format which persiststirroughout South Asian
history and was later incorporated into both
domestic and religious architecture. The walls
closing oll the houses from the streets were
often high and apparently plain, broken only
by doorways, insuring tire residents'privacy and
protection. It is intercstingto note thrt doorways
leading into domestic compounds invariably
occur along small lanesor byways and are never
it hasbeen estimatedthat ar Mohenjo-Daro, one '1-:-,::i
of the great metropolisesof the Indus civiliza-
tion, the lower third of the site is unavailable
for study becauseof ground water. It is posible
that some sites will eventually reveal develop-
mental stagesof the civilization while other sites
that do not might reflect the spread of the
civiliz'ation at an advanced stage and its super-
imposition on other modes of life.3
Indus-type artifacts have been found in reli-
ably dated Mesopotamian strata ranging from
approxin.rately 23oo B.c. to about r8oo s.c.4
However, based on radiocarbon datess and
other archaeologicalevidence,the culture's main
period of florescence,its mature or urban phase,
is now believed to have taken place between
about zroo l.c. and r75o n.c,
been a trading por
the location of thr
Iocated along the main streetsor thoroughfares. makers, shell and
It is posible that thc n.ronotonyof the walls was workers in craftst
relievcd by painting or by other decoration
Judging from th
which has not survived. Houseshad bathroorns, peoples of the Ind
and the cities had sophisticated methods of to have erloyed a
drainage. Apparently, the urban citizen of the threats posed fior
Harappe culture led a comfortable life, even discussed the exte
by modcrn standards. nature al1dstreng
In addition to private dwellings and shops, a been found, but, J
number of large, apparently publlc, structures, is impossible to
including granaries and citadels, have been regarding the rel:
identified at vadous Harappa sites.At Mohenjo- life. The marked
Daro, a tank, gcnerally called the Great Bath, artifacts does see
has been unearthed (Fig. z.r, left). Becausewe remained stableo
know that in latcr Indic life and religion, phenornenon that
bathing is essentialfor ritual cleansing, it has of insulariry and
often been suggestedthat the Great Bath had new or different
religious significance, but there is no direct both. Wh e man
internal evidence of this. At Lothal, on the can also be noted
western seaboard of India, a large structure at Mohenjo-Darc
often identified as a constant-water-leveldock changes in the t
has been excavated.If this intriguing but con- artifacts, such as
troversialTstructureis a dock, it would represent great constancyf
an engineering Gat of great sophistication. lack of change
Further, it would provide concrete evidence of human nature its
a means of sca trade between the Indus and some important
other civilizations.8 That Lothal n.right have many of the emb

z.r. View of site showing Great Barh. Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.
FIarapp.period.
been a trading port city is further evidencedby
the location of the shops of metalsmiths,bead-
makers, shell and ivory workers, and other
workers in crafts there.
Judging fiom the archaeologicalevidence,the
peoplesof the Indus civilization have been said
to have enjoyed a peaceful existence,with few
threats posed fron the outside, Scholars have
discussedthe extent of city fortifications and the
nature and strength of the weapons that have
been found, but, lacking any historical texts, it
is impossible to make an accurate statement
regarding the relative peacefulnessof Harappa
liG. The marked homogeneity of many of the
artifacts does seem to suggest that the society
remained stable over a long period of tin.re, a
phenomenon that may indicate a high degree
of insularity and the ability to quickly absorb
new or different elements into the society, or
both. While many distinctions can be made, it
can also be noted that in nine excavatedlevels
at Mohedo-Daro, for example, no significant
changes in the type and character of many
arti&cts, such as brick size, occurs, indicating
great constancy for several centuries.Since this
lack of change alrnosc .eems to go against
human nature itself, future researchmay hold
some important answers. It is possible that
many of the cmbellishmentsthat could demon-
THE INDUS CIVIIZATION ''
'., -.rr r:: r., -'
strate the personality of the culture and indicate
greaterdifferenceswere made in easilyperishable
materials and have becn lost. Mcasuremenrson
excavated skeletal remains have shown that at
leastfour different racial types livcd at Mohenjo-
Daro,e and thus complete homogeneity in the
society is not to be expected. In {act, archae-
ologists are increasingly able to make distinc-
tions from site to site and over the course of
rime. Yet. the overnltelming impressiongivcn
by the buildings and structures of the Harappa
sitesis that of a controlled, conservative,well-
ordered,homogeneoussocietywith a centralized
government.
Although the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro
may have had some ritual purpose, and the
existenceofreligious ceremoniesis alsosuggested
by the discovery of a Gw fire altars at Harappe
sites, the lack of a major Harapp- structure
that can be identified positively with religious
ceremonies,such as a temple, is puzzling. Since
most of later Indic thought, art, and life is
dominated by religious concerns,and sincernost
other civilizations in comparable stages of
dcvclopment yield documentation of religious
beliefs, this is surprising. Clues to some of
the concepts fundamental to the Indus people
do exist, however, in the sculptures and seals
that have been found.
 I2 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION

shell rvhen it rv;t

ficial types chal
subcontinent or
Thc treatmentof
Indic fashion) an
extant examPles
strictly controlled
propensity for I
torrn\. 1Ills ltneai
also in the treatr
configuration on
costumeworn by
associationswith
example, the ga
lcft shoulderis a t
potanian art, tho
onc-shoulderedg
tume suggeststha
z.z. tsearded man. From Mohcnjo-Daro, Pakistrn. Mrture I-Iar- stylc of clothing.
ippa period. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c. Linestonc. FI: 19 cm. Nrrional ment rcinforcesth
Muscunr, Karachi.
contact, for this p
Egyptian, Mesop
Scurlturr not in later India
wherc as a moti
The sophistication and teclurological advance- The purposesof thesc sn-rrllsculpturcsarc as case,tl.retrefoil pr
nent evidencedin the organization and stmcture Lrnclearas thcir stylistic origins. It is not known fiom dre surlac
of the citics of thc Harappa civilization are also r''hethcr they were rnadc for secularor religious with a red paste'
seen in sculpttral works. Aside lronr sealsand ncccls,nor can thcir stylistic origins ancl prece- that it contribute
terra-cotta scrrlpttucs,so fcr,v stone and n-retal dents bc determined at prescnt. In general,they thc scuipture.The
. c u l p t r ' r e 'l r a v e c o r n e r o l i g l r t i n c x c a v J t i o n c do not appear to bc the tentative formuiations with its ends ha
(lcssthan two dozen are known) that the surviv- onc rvould expect in a bcginning art tradition, head,is a type se
ing examplesmLrstrepresentonly a tiny fraction Rath.-r, they reflcct a mature stagc of artistic reserved only fb
of the objects oncc proclucccl. A sculptural developn.rcntin whicl.r problems of proportion, thesefeatures,wh
traclition using nore ephemeral materials,slrch scalc,rclation offorms, and surfaceenhancemcnt on the South As
as wood, must have cxisted alongsideol and are alJcarefully workcd out. While the forn.rative seen to persista
certainly prior to, the use of stone and netal. stagcsremain undetermincd, th,-seworks can be some westetn A
All of thc sculpturcs found thrrs far are small contextualizedby comparison to Mcsopotamian direct contactbet
(the largestis only about forty centinretershigh), cxan-rplesaswell as to latcr Indic art. is not the only
and even those that arc brokcn rvorrld not have One sculpturc rcvcaling some af{initics to sharedcharacter
bccn sizablervhen complete. Interestingly, there Mesopotan-rian in-ragery is a carved limcstone a common debt t,
is considerablevariety in the typcs of stone used fragmcnt showing the head and shouldersof a continuun of ide
evcn among the few surviving exarlrples,sug- bearded man. It was found in one of the later formulation ofbor
gestirg that the Dlateials were selcctedbecausc Harappa-period levels at Mohcnjo-Daro (Fig. civilizations.
of their intrinsic beauty, not becausethey were z.z). Some scholars have suggested that the Thc individual
rvidely avaiiable in the region. In fact, the individual depicted rnight be a foreigncr, often beencalled
stonesuscd gencrally rvere not local to lorthwcst perhapsa Mesopotamian,sincethe high, straight vaious factors. :
India and Pakistan. It is likely that small pieces nose rvhich blcnds aln.rost imperceptibly into this casea headb
ofdiferent stoneswere imported through trade, the forchcad, thc full lips, and the narrow, a person of ran
pcrhaps as highly covetcd ra.,v n.raterials. slitlike eyes (one of rvhich was still inlaid with wearing of turba

shell when it was found) do not seemto leflect
facial types characteristic of the South Asian
subcontinent or that occur in later Indic art.
The treatment of the beard (itselfnot a typically
Indic fashion) and hair also differs fiom any
extant examples in South Asian art in the
strictly controlled striated patterns that reveal a
propensiry for linear rather than sculptural
forms. This lineariry and abstraction is evident
a]so in the treatment of the ear as a whorllike
configuration on the side of the head. The
costume worn by the figure may betray further
associationswith wcstern Asiatic culture. For
example, the garment that covers only the
left shoulder is a type cornmonly seenin Mcso-
potamian art, though the popularity of a similar
one-shoulderedgarment in later Buddhist cos-
tume suggeststhat it may rellect a purely Indic
style of clothing. The trefoil design on the gar-
ment reinforcesthe suggestionof western Asiatic
contact, for this pattern is found occasionallyin
Egyptian, Mesopotarnian, and Minoan art, but
not in later India, although it docs appear else-
where as a motif in Harappe art.10 In this
case,the trefoil pattern, which is slightly raised
from the surface of the sculpture, was {illed
with a red paste wherr the piece was found, so
that it contributed to a polychrome efect for
the sculpture.The headbandworn by the figure,
with its ends hanging down the back of the
head, is a type seenin later Indic art, but usually
"foreign"
reserved only for types. Together,
these features,which have no known precedent
on the South Asian subcontinent and do not
seem to persist as Indic characteristics,suggest
some western Asiatic associations.However,
direct contact between the cultures at this time
is not the only possible explanaton for the
shared characteristics.Similarities may illustrate
) comrnon debt to an underJyingor Preexi5ting
continuum of ideasll that was important in the
formulation of both the Indus and Mesopotamian
civilizations.
The individual portrayed in this sculpturehas
often been called a priest, an assertionbasedon
various factors. The presence of headgear, in
this case a headband, suggeststhat he may be
a person of rank, for in later lndic art, the
wearing of turbans, crowns, and even simpler
THE INDUS CIVIIZATION ,J
2.3. Seated figure. Frorn Mohenjo-Daro,
Pakistan. Mature Harappa period. Ca.
2roo rTJo B.c. Alabastcr. H: 29.2 cm.
Nalional Muscum, Karachi.
headgear is generally associated with high-
ranking individuals. The meaning of his one-
shouldered garment is unclear in the Indus
contcxt. but ir may have hed religiorrsassocia-
tions as suggested by its popularity in later
Buddhism. Further, the half-closed appear-
ance of the slitlike eyes has led to the sug-
gestion that the individual is practicing medi-
tation, perhaps of a type known in later Indic
religious traditions. But such an identi{ication
must remain speculativeuntil a fuller picture
of the Harappa culture emerges.
Another sculpturefiom Mohenjo-Daro, made
of alabaster, shows further associationswith
Mesopotamianart (Fig.2.3). This male frgure
wears a garment that completely masks the
lower portion of his body. His seatedposture,
obscured by the garment, seemsto be a cross-
legged pose witb the left knec slightly raised or
held high by the left hand. The body is quite
thin, and the arms and hands in particular lack
substanceand solidity. While the head is missing,
a strandfalling behind the right shouldersuggests
long hair or a wig. At first glance, the figure
indeed seemsto resemblea number of sculptures
from Mesopotamia. Closer examination reveals
that the rounded forms, the posture, and the
treatment of drapery and hair, while posibly
basedon similar or common aestheticpredisposi-
tions, cannot be mistaken for Mesopotamian
14 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

2.4. Male figure, three views. Fron Harapp:, pakisran. Mature

Harappe pcriod. Ca. 2roo-r7jo n.c- Red stoDe. H: 9.3 crn.
National Muscunl, Ncrv Delhi.

types. Yet, like the prcvious sculpture, this the head and limbs. This feature is not seen in Although from
carving does not suggest the forms of later later Indic stonc sculpture, but is a comrnon static and frontal,
Indic art, either. Thus, while apparently related Harappa terra-cotta technique, The carving suggeststhat the f
to western Asiatic traditions, both seem to relates stylistically to some later Indic works, as if the weight o
expressan aspectof the Harappa civilization. but distinctionsare also present.Thus, the work resting on one lr
In striking contrast, other sculptures have rnay bc acceptedwith some certainty as a pro- createsa feeling o
been found at Harappa sitcs that bear no duct of thc Harappa civilization. Hopefully, imbalanceand thr
resemblance whatsocver to western Asiatic future scientific cxcavationswill unearth sin.rilar tion that reinforce
forms.I hc.eworks.along with rhe vastmajoriry pieces to verify this. Plece.
of Harappa artifacts, clearly document the Perhapsthe urost striking aspectof this small The unadornec
cultural indepcndence of the civilization. Fur- stanre is its naturalism. The body is subtly generateda grea
thermorc.rnrny ofthese objecrsoffer inrriguing modclcd and softly contourcd. Gentle transi- fact of the nudity
evidence of continuities bctwcen Harappa tions betwecn onc part of the body and another genitalsdoesnot r
sculpture and later Indic art. Perhaps the best arc created through sculptural means, rather fertility. The san
figurative cxample showing both the independ- than with the usc of line. For example, the {igureswhosehips
ent tradition of the Harappans and its ties to abdorninal and pectoral regions swell in a three- I o not deptcl rne
later Indic art is a small red stone statue of a dimensioualnanner and arc not defined by any body would sign
'I
nude male figure that was found at Harappa outlite or linear den-rarcation.In contrast to the and a negation.
(Fig. z.a). Unlortunarcly. becauserhe piece preceding exan.rples of Harappa sculpture, describe the hur
was not excavated under controlled conditions, thcre is a total absenceof linear design, abstract undue attention i
there is no archaeologicalproof of its eariy date. patterns, and other surface enhancement. In any case,the rea
Some have claimed that it dates from a later much of later Indic sculpture, while some mystery, for in
period.lz However, several cogent argunents linear patterns r.night be present, such as in Indic art, total r
for a Harappa-period date havc been put forth, drapcry depictions, a major emphasisis on the rather than the
including the fact that the sculpture has drillcd forns of the body, achieved, as here, through the human forn
socketsto receive dowels for the attachnent of sculpturalmeans. ments character

2.5. Female figurc, fronr and back views. From Mohcnjo-Daro,
Pakistan.Mature Harapp, period. Ca.2loo ITjo s.c. Bronze.
lI: rr.j cm. National Museum, Nerv Delhi.
Although from the front the figure sccms
static and frontal, the asymmetry of the back
suggeststhat the figure was meant to bc shown
as if the weight of the body was more heavily
resting on one leg than on the other. This
createsa feeling of implicit movement through
imbalance and thus provides a senseof anima-
tion that reinforcesthe overall naturalism of the
PleCe.
The unadorned nudity of this figure has
generateda great deal of discussion.The n-rere
fact of the nudity and tl.redepiction of the male
genitalsdoesnot nccessarilyindicatc sexuality or
fertility. The same would be true of fernale
figureswhosc hips and breastsmight bc apparent.
To not depict the sexual featuresof the human
body would signify a deliberate artistic choicc
and a negation. To represcnt them is simply to
describe the hun-ran form, unless, of course,
undue attention is placed on their depiction. In
a n y c a s e t. h e r e a 5 o nf o r r h c r r u d i t y r e r r a i n s. r
mystery, for in both Harappa art and later
Indic art, total nudity is by far thc exception
mthcr than the normal manner of presenting
the hun.ran form, although thc clinging gar-
ments characteristic of m"ny styles of South
THE rNDUS CrVITZATTON 15
Asian art almost suggest nudity. It is perhaps
becauseof the nudity, as wcll as the accident of
having lost the limbs and head in both cascs,
that this figurc is so often discussedin rclation
to the Lohenipur torso of the Maurya period,
around the third century a.c. (Fig. 4.ir). This
comparison has becn emphasizcdby thosc who
favor thc view that the piece from Harappa is
not a product of thc Harappa civilization. The
points of cornparisou are superficial, howcvcr,
for in tcchnique (the Maurya piece has a. char-
acteristichighly-polished surfacc),thc mcthod of
dcpicting body transitions, and the presenceof
the socketsin the Harappa piece, thc sculptures
difller. Thc nudity of tl.re Maurya sculpture
might be related to a spccific religious cult.
Wherlrerrhis js lnre lor t he Harapp.rpiccc can
only ren.rainspeculativeat tlis tinc, for we do
not knorv who the sculpturc rcpresentsor what
purposeit served.In later Indic contexts,when a
figure is shown without clothing, as in the case
"Sky-clad"
of Digatrbara or Jain figures, it
is generally not for the purpose of glodfying
thc human body, but rather rs a syn.rbol of
world renunciation and victory over the usual
needs of the physical body. It is possible that
 OF INDIC CIVIIZATION
16 FOUNDATIONS
a similar reason explains this figure's nudity.
A well-prcscrved statue of a female figure
provicles a rare example of metal sculpturels
from the Harappa civilization. Quite difierent
in style fiom the red stone torso, it also shows
links to later Indic art (Fig. 2.5). Found at
Mohenjo-Daro in one of the later strata, this
small image is probably of a date late in the
history of the site. Thc piece is stylistically
quite unlikc either thc western Asiatic-type
forms or the more typically Indic forms thus
far describedin Harappa art. It nray rePresent
still another strand in this early rrt tradition.
Like thc red stonc figure, the body is nude, but
here the bodily forms are abstractcdinto long,
thin, pipe-like elemcnts and have none of the
softly modeled fcshinessof the red statue. The
elongated,lanky limbs scem to show a disregard
for naturalistic proportions, yet the ovcrall
effect is one of liveliness and animation. This
efect is largely achieved through the jaunty
po.ture. with both Iegs bcnt "nd rhe lefr leg
placed slightly forward while the bcnt right
arrn rests on thc right l.rip. This vitality has led
to the conrnon assumption that this figure
represents a dancer, a suggestion colored by
attempts to interpret carly Indic works in light
of later Indic civilization. It would bc of great
interest if this figurc is a dancer, for this would
demonstratea precedent for the later emphasis
on dance in South Asia. Howcvcr, such an
assertionis strictly speculativc,for it is impossible
to determine whether the implicd moven.rentof
the figure is that of a dance.
Although rhc girl is nudc. .]te is not un-
adorned. Shc wearsa nccklaceand hasnumerous
banglcs on her arrns. While it is most Lrnusual
to find an unclothed fernale in the whole range
of Indic art, jewelry is almost universally worn
by figures both female and male-throughout
thc many centudcsoftraceable Indic art. In gcn-
eral, it is thc absence,not presencc,ofjewelry
that is the morc notable condition. A lack of
jewelry is often a delibcrately choscn means of
making a statement about an individual, such
as, for example, thc fact that he or she is a
rcligious mendicant. (The absencc of jewclry
may thus proviclc a clue to the meaning of the
red torso from Harappa,) Jewelry eventually
came to servc both decorative and symboiic
fuirctions in Indic art, but whether anything q
nrorc than simple adornment is intended hcre
is unknown. As in tl.repreccding sculpture, the
nudity does not necessarilyimply sexuality or
fcrtility, since tl.rere is no cr.nphasison sexual
characteristics.(Perhapsbecauseof her adoles-
r
centlike lankiness, no onc has suggestedthat
"mother
this girl is a goddes.") Other features
of intercst include the hair, which is ticd into a
bun at the nape of thc neck in a style similar to
that worn by many South Asian womcn evcn
today, ancl thc facial characteristics,including
the hcarrylips and high forchcad. These physical
features arc often said to be typical of the
Dravidians, the people who arc prevalent today
in south India and who may havc bccn the
principal inhabitantsof thc Harappa civilization. I
Thus, this sculpture documents diffcrcnt forr-ns 2-6. Fcmalefigure
and trends than do thc stone sculptures and Mature Herapptp
cotla.H: ca.15crr,J
hrrther 'uggcstsrhe brerJrh of Hrrapps Jrr.
Numerous tera-cotta figures hrve been
recovcrcd from Harappa sites, but these di{Ier
"mother
considerabiy in stylc and decotation fion.r thc called g,
stonc and nretal pieces. Thc terra cottas are of this designat
usually norc crudely executed and, sincc they occasionallyoccu
are far more comlnon! may representa popular hip or at the br
art form. Il as has been suggested,stone for suggestsplegnan
sculpture was o{tcn imported, thc usc of that notherhood may
rnore prccious rnateial, and of mctal (which go so far asto sa
would require a rclativcly sophisticatedtechnol- figure is the con
ogy), may have been associatedwith thc clite of it is actualor pote
the society, whilc the ubiquitous terra cotta of the divine nr
could have servedthc artistic nccdsof the people insupportableat I
as a whole. assune that the l
A common subject in tcrra-cotta figures is subject in terra
the fenale. Thcse sculptures bear little rcscm- and Harappa tim,
blancc to the metal girl just dcscribcd,but it is of motherhooda
important to rcmembet that any apParent and the continuit
differences have not yet bcen correlatecl to of any divine sta
possiblc artistic developments over time and this early emphas
from place to placc within the Harappa civili- be a strong basis1
zation. Thc most corllnon typc of fen-Lalchas on women in tl
wide hips, pcllctlikebreasts,tubular limbs, and consequently the
abundant .jewelry adornn.rcntsincluding ncck- Nonetheless, the r
lace, girdlc, earrings,and frequently an elaboratc imagcry at this e
headdres (lig. 2.6). Terra-cotta figures are A potential et
generally smali and schematicallyrcndcrcd. Like femalesdepicted:
their pre-Harappa coLlnterparts,these are often by other objec

2.6. Ferule fisure. From Mohcnjo-Daro,
Matule Harappt pcriod. Ca. 2roo-r7jo
cota. H: ca. rJ cm. National Museum, Ncw Delhi.
"motber
called goddesses," though
of this designation is qucstionable.
occasionallyoccurs, a sm^ll child
hip or at the breast, or a bulging
sug:lests prcgnancy, at least the
motherhood may bc verified. One
go so far as to say that inplicit in
figurc is thc concept of notherhood, whether
it is actual or potcntial. However, the asscssn-rent goals of later Buddhist and Hindu thought.
oI thc divine n.rurre -thc goddes' a'pect r'
insupportable at this date. Perhaps it is best to
assun-rcthat the popularity of the fen-raleas a
subject in terra-cotta art from prc-Har:rppa
ancl Harappa times is associatcdwith the idcas
o f r r r o t h e r h o o..nl d l t c n c el e r t i l i t y .p r o c r e r r i o r r .
and the continuity of lifc, although thc presence
of any divine status is unknown. It is truc that
this early emphasison the fbmininc asPectmight
be a strong basisfor thc later importance placed
on women in thc major lndic religions, and
consequently tl.reir pror.ninence in Indic art.
Nonctheless,thc meaningsassociated
i m a g e r y . r tt h i ' e . r r l yd a t er e m . u nu n c e r ( , i t t .
A potential cmphasison the sexuality of the
fcmales depictcd in the terra cottas is reinlorced
by other objects recovcred fiom Harappe
THE INDUSCIVITIZATION 17
sites. A definite referenceto procrcatron secms
to be intcndcd in a numbcr of carvings that
represent the phallLrs (lliga). While somc of
these are abstract and may only bc infcrred to
rcpresent the phallus, others are qrite natural-
istic (Fig. u.7). Ring stonesbclieved to represent
tlre fernale generativc organ (yoni) also have
becr.rfound. Since few have been unearthedin
specific associationwith a /iiga, somc scholars
have discrcdited rhe interpretation of these
objects as iligas and yorls. Howcver, a convinc-
ing alternativc hypothesis has not been oli-ered,
:rnd bec.lrr.elingas,Lndyorrlsarc corrrrrronin
later Indic art, theseobjects m"y be acceptedas
early exan.rples.A rcligious cmphasis on pro-
creation is a phenomenon associatedwith early
agricultural societiesdcpeirdcntupon thc bounty
of nature for their well-being and survival.
Pakistan. iater Inclic iconography, it is also
Judging frorr"eternal"
B.c. Terra
"universal"
possible that or symbolism
is intcndecl by such objects. Thc lozl night
"born
representthe cloor through rvhich onc is
again," thcreby relating to the concept of
thc aptness countless rounds of rebirths (sarrsara),which
When, as figures in latcr Indic thought. The liriga would
appcars on the representthe procreativc.aspcctof thc universe
abdomcn (latcr, of the Hindu god Siva) and thc ncans by
concept of wlrich thc cndless cycles of birtl.r, deatl.r,and
ruight cvcn rebirth occur. The rcalization of nonduality,
cvery fcmale symbolizcd by the cornbination of n.Laleand
female principles, reprcscntsonc of thc cssential
with fcmale
2-7. aiigd. Fron Mohcnjo-Drro,
Pakistan. Hxrappt period. Ca.
23oo r7Jo B.c. Stone. whcre-
aboutsof original unknown.
 ,d FOUNDATIONS OI INDIC CNIIIZATION
2.8. Buil. From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan- Mature
Harappa period. Ca. 2rocFrzjo B.c. Terra cotta. l{:
cr. 7 cm. NarionalMu'eurn, Neu Delhi.
Perhaps such symbolism grew out of beliefs
distirguishable
as early as the Harappaciviliza-
tlon.
Srars
Over two thousand sealsand seal impressions
have been found at Harappa sites.The majority
of sealsare made of steatitethat has becn coated
with an alkali and then fired to produce a white
lustrous surface.l4Usually, the sealsare square
in shapc and have a perforated boss at the back
for handling and suspension(Fig. 2.9). They are
generallysmall, averagingonly a fcw centimeters
across.Despitc their srnall size, sealssometimes
have elaborateinraglio designsshowing animals,
plants, geometric fomrs, and even s'ceneswith
humans or humanoids, as well as writing. The
decipherment of the writing on the Indus seals
is perhaps the rnost vexing problcm for the
interpretcr of this ancient civilization, for its
decipherment could sumnarily prove or dis-
prove the numerous thcories that have bccn put
forth about the culture. Approximately four
huldred diflerent signshave been cataloguedfor
this apparently pictographic script. To date,
there has been no confirmed decipherment,
although many announcements to that effect
have been made.15The analysis of the script
and languagcis importrnt bccauseit miy con-
Iirm the identity of at lcast sorneof the Harappa
people.For example,ifit relatcsto the Dravidian
languages,it would support the commonly
Another aspectof fertility symbolism in the
Hartppa culture seems to exist in thc many
representationsof bulls. On Indus seals,bulls
outnumber all othcr motifs. Bulls are com-
monly found as isolated sculpturesas well (fig.
2.8). Often, the reprcsentations are highly
naturalistic. Severaldiferent varicties of bovine
animals arc easily distinguishable. Thcse may
represent some of the domesticated animals
that werc highly valucd in society and that
came to have great economic irnportance to
thcir owners. The bull, as potential sire of
generations of offspring, n.right have come to
have a synbolism associatedwith both wealth
and Grtility. The importance of this animal
may bcst be explained by examining somc of
the sealsthat have been recovered from various
Harappe sites. homs of the anima
unicom is not beir
form of the anima
bovine creature,re6
the number ofhorn
held view about an in.rportant Dravidian com- "manger"
The is
ponent of the civilization, though this would objectsof this type
not prcclude the existence of othcr linguistic the excavationsof
and ethnic groups anong the Harappa peoples. been used in religi
Thc decodcd language lnight also provide a or may simply have
key to thc interpretation of the sealsand their implicationsof the <
designs. However, the seals n-ray have been fiequently shown r
used as the personal marks of idcntification of animal are alsouncl
their owners and may contain only proper names In this seal,the s
or titles of individuais rather than explanatory anatomicalprecisio
rnaterial. As far as can be determined, the script are clearly visible
as it survivcs did not develop over the ccnturies scemsto be reserve
in which the Harappa cllture fourished. Its in the seals,while hr
origins and devclopments are thereforc as in a schematicand
enign-raticas the words it records.lo was evident from
Elcphants, rhinoceroses, and other anirnals naturalism could al
appear on thc seals,but the predominant zoo- hun.ranfigure, at L
morphic motif is a profile represcntationof an texts. Obscrvation
anir.nalstanding in front of what has been called seen in the differe
a manger (Fig. z.ro). Since the animal appearing animals on Indus s
on such scalsis depicted with only one horn, it specificallydefined
has often becn identified as a unicorn. Although zebu (Fig. 2.9), an
the Indic context does provide somc validity to Harappa cave pain
the identification, for a one-homed creature secondis a bisonlik
(ekalrhga)is known in the latcr Jain religion,l? as if fecding from a
thc fact that the hcad of the animal is invariably example shown (Fig
depicted in a strict profile, suggeststhat the two represented type
 THE TNDUSCrVITZATTON 19

2.9. Sealwirh bull design,tluec views. Fron Mohenjo-Daro, Pe-

kiscan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca. 2roo-t7Jo B.c. Steatite.2.8 x
2.8 x r.3 cln. Departne[t of Archacoiogyof Pakistan,Karachi.

horns of the animai simply overlap, and that a

unicorn is not being showu at all. Indeed, the
form of tl.reanimal's body indicatesthat it is a
bovine crcature, regardlessof any peculiarity in
the number ofhorns.
"manger"
The is also difiicult to interpret, for
objects of this type have not yct been found in
the excavationsof Harappa sites. It may have
been used in religious ceremgniesor sacrifices
or nay sirnply have been a fecding trough. The
implications of the double-ribbed pad or harness
frequently shown across the shoulders of the
anin-ralarc also uncicar.
2.ro. Sealwith horned animal. From Mohenjo-Daro,
ln this seal,thc subtlcty of n.rodelingand the Pakistan.Matlrrc Harappa period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c.
anaton-ricalprecision cvidenced in the best seals Steatite.H: J.7cn. National Museurn,New Delhi.
are ciearly visible. Interestingly, naturalism
seemsto be reservedfor the carvings of animals
in thc seals,while hun.rrnsarc norn.rallydepicted
in a schematic and abstractedfashion. Yct, as
was cvidcnt frorn thc sr-nallrecl male statue,
naturalism could also be a cl-nracteristicof thc
human figure, at least in sonie Harappd con-
texts. Observation of natural forn-rs is further
seen in the clifercntiation of various bovine
anin-ralson Inclus seals,for at least three other
specifically defined types appear. The first is a
zebu (Fig. z.o). ln rnirrrll corrnror in pre-
Harappt cavc painting as well (Fig. r.z); the
secondis a bisonlike creaturecommonly shown
as if Geding ftom a trolrgh, though not in the z . r t . S e a is h o l v i n g b u l l . F r o u M o h e n j o - l ) a r o , P a k i s t a n .
exampleshown (Fig. z.rr); thc third is a seldom Matore Hrrappa pcriod. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c. Steatite.
rcprescntcd type with widespread, arching H: ca. 4 cn1. National Muscum, Karachi.
 2d FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

horns, perhaps a water buffalo. These tiny shown either ha

carvings are oftcn exccuted with great verisi- might be a comp
militude, indicating the artists' intimate visual creature)or wear
knowledge of the anatorny of the anin.nls and prised of horns,i
their possession of sophisticatcdartistic methods of the beast'sch
of r.nodelingtheir forms. "bull-man"
bc a
The emphasis on bovine animals in the In Mesopotamia
Harappa civilization may partly bc explained in drcssby a ruler w
cconomic tctn-rs.An agricultural socicty would divinity to him; t
have depended heavily on such animals as a indicatestill anoth
sourceof milk, possibly r.ncatand lcather, and as the Indus cultur
bcasts of burden. The females of the spccies The tripartite .fc
would be in-rportant as propagators of firture 2.12. Seal sho$'ing a 1og/n. From Mohcnjo-Daro, distinctively Hara
gencrations and as insurers of wealth's abun- Pakistln. Mature Hamppt period. Ca. zroo-r75o l.c. indicated, homei
dance. Nonetheiess,bulls rathcr than cows are Slealite. H: 3.4 cn. National Muscunr, New Delhi. importance in Ind
invariably depicted on the seals and in ftee- pa times, in cont
standing Harappa sculptrue. Wc know from shelter paintings
later Hindu iconography that the bull becamethe suggesr wesrem
vehicle (uahana)of Siva and also a symbol of gesturesused within the same contcxt. While important not to
sexualenjoyment. Therefore, perhapsthe prow- individual asanas and mudras ca,ne to have nections,or to in{
ess of the bull is also used in the Harappa specific comn.runicxtive content, it is dilicult of one culture to t
contcxt to symbolizeprocreativeand progenitivc to go beyond tl.re simple obscrvation that this Since the later
powers and thc rcsultant abundanceof the hcrds. and other {igurcs on sealsin similar or related associatedwith tl
Thc possibleassociationbetween early depic- configurations may bc pcrforming a religious has lent support tr
tions ofbulls and later Siva forms is strengthcned exercise or ritual. Meditation and the use of as a prototype of
by the occurrence of liitgas in the Harappa asanasand mudras are usualiy associatedwith dificult to discer
coltext, for thc linga eventually becamc an yoga and yogic practices.Yoga, which r.neans sculpture,it is por
"to
almost universal sign of the god Siva. Also, a literally yoke," refers in the broadest scnse faces,is ithyphalli
number of n-ralc figurcs on several Harappd r o b c l i c f r . r n dp r . t c r i c eb. y w h i c l r a p r r . r i r r o r r e r or has a tigerlike
"yoke"
seri. have , haractetistic< tlut srrggestassocia- attempts to or unify l.rimself with the featuresagain can
tions witir later Siva inagery. Thus, it is possible divine or universal. It is a pan-sectarianconcept nography, as can
that sonc of the beliefs and practices of thc associated with virtually every major Indic to be involved in
Harappa civilization scrved as a foundation for rcligion, including Buddhisn.r, Jaitisn, and four animalssurrc
aspectsof later Indic religion. The best,example Hinduism. Thr-rs,the apparcntreGrenceto yogic elephant, a tiger,
"proto-Siva"
of what has bcen cailcd thc on practiccs in thc Harappa civilization does not have been related
Indus seals shows a male figure seated in a necessarilysignify the roots of any one specific which he is Lord r
posturewith the solcsofhis {bet prcsscdtogether, sect; it might represent a corlmon source for While many of
his legs splayed to each side (Fig. z.rz). The a l l . I r i , i n r p o r r a n tro n o t e t h a r t h e l o g i c c o n - conrpellingargun
.rms extend away fion.r the body and the cepts, as well as the use of asanasand turltas, Si.'o"'i.ooo-g,"piy
thumbs rcst on his kneeswhilc the fingcrs point probably rcllcct indigenous developmcnts in -it is important to
downward. Neither the leg position nor the - 'r' - 'r' - - rhJt cJn be characteristics are I
arm position is one that someone would traced to westcrn Asiatic sources.Becausethese At this early date
casuallyassume.l{ather, theseare highly formal sccln to occrlr in a well-developed stage rvhen rlton pool of relig
gesturesand may rcpresent a specific asaaaand {irst encountered in Harappa art, it nlust bc of the Indic syste
-fhe 'ieat")
nfulra. terrr' asalw (literally reGrs assun.rcdthat a lcngthy period of evolution the arrangemento
ro the diffcrcnt lcg position. or:itting postures precededtl.rem. central figure sugg
usually assumedby a persouperforming mcdita- In contrast, a few elementsof this sealsuggcst diagram knom r
tion or other religious practices in later Indic al nities to conceptsand forr.nsfound through- religions.le The sp
culture. The terlli' mudrz refers to the hand out westem Asia. For example, the figure is antelopes(one ofl

shorvn cithcr having horns (in which casc, hc
might be a composite, part-hunan, part-animal
creature)or wearing a hcaddress,whic[ is con-
prised of horns, ir.nplying the adoption of somc
of the beast'scharactcristics.Thc figure rnight
"bull-lnatr"
be a in concept, if not in actuality.
In Mesopotarnia,thc wearing of a horned head-
dressby a rulcr was believed to inpart powcr or
divinity to l.riur; thc horns shown here may thus
indicate stili another tie, even ifindirect, betwecn
thc Indus culture and ar-rcicntMesopotauria.
The tripartitc form seen here seen-rsto be
distinctively Flarappan, and, as has already been
indicatcd, horned creatures clcarly had grcat
importancc in Indic culture, evetr in pre-Harap-
pe timcs, in contexts like thc Stonc Age rock
shelter paintings, which do not necessarily
suggcst western Asiatic contacts. Thus, it is
important not to ovcrstresssuch possib)econ-
nections, or to infer from them an indebtedncss
of one culture to thc other.
Since the later Hind11 god Siva is sttongly
associatedwith dre bull, the l.rorned heaclclress
haslcnt support to .intcrprctations of this figure
as a prototype of Siva. In aclclition,rvhilc it is
difiicult to discern thcsc featureson such a tiny
sctilpture,it is possiblethat thc figure has three
faces,is ithyph:rllic, and either wears a tiger skin
or has a tigerlike upper torso.18Each of these
f."tor., "g"ir-, can be rclatc.l to iater Sive ico-
nography, as can the fact tl.rat the figurc sccnrs
to be involved in yogic practices.Further, thc
four animals surrounding the ccntral figure, an
elephant, a tigcr, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo,
h a v cb c e n r e l . r t e dt o S i v . r ' sP r ' u p . ' t ia r p e c r i. n
which he is Lorcl of Bcasrs.
Whilc rnaly of thesefeaturcssccn-rto provide
. . o n r p e l l i nJgr g u n r c n t \f o r r c l a t i n gr h c ' c . . r il o
5 r v . r c o n o g r a p l r y, n d i n d c c di r p r o b r b l y, l o r s
it is inportant to rerlenber that rnany ofthese
characteristics are not exclusive to thc god Siva.
A r t h r ' c r r l y d a l e .r h c y n t i g l t t i r d i c r r c . , c o r n -
mon pool of religious iders lrom u'hich rnany
of thc Indic systclns developed. For examplc,
the arrangcment of thc four animals around the
centralfigurc suggestsa na4dala, a cosmological
diagram known in Saivism and other Indic
rcligions.leThe specific placcnent of a pair of
antelopes(one of which has broken off) beneath
THI INDUS CIVIIIZATION 2]
thc dais upon which thc figurc sits is prinarily
associatedwith later Buddhist iconography.
The seat itself, ancl its nore cllborate countcr-
part, thc thronc, is usedin latcr Indic rcligions to
signify the high rank of the person who sits
upon it. It is probably inost accurxtc to assrnlc
"bull-n.ran"
that tl.re and the acconpanying
clcmcnts of this famous seal relatc to many
conceptsfound in later lndic religioussystems,
inciuding Saivisur, but that these ideas arc lot
1 < tc r c l u . i v el o r n ) o r c o f t l t . r n .A . s u c l rt.r r e
scalis an important docul-ncntof a wholc rangc
ofconcepts funcllmental to tl-Lercligiots outlook
of a nuniber of Indic sects.What is cspccially
important about this scalis that, in contrastto
r l r e i n d i ri d r r . r l . c r r l p r r r r c f. o L r n d a r H . r r . r p p a
sites,whose meaningscould only be discussed
in thc most spccnlativc tcrn-rs, in this small
composition, we have definite proof of Harappa
religious practices, involving pcrhaps an carly
forln of yoga and possibly identity transferralin
lvhich a humatr takes on certain, probably
syn-rbolic,charactcristicsof othcr crcatures.
It is notable that g'hile the designsof some of
thc bull scals,or tbosc showillg othcr anirr-rxls,
repeat amon! the corpus of Indus sea1s,t)ris
exalnple and othersshowing hurnan-typc figurcs
in rvirichrcligiousactivityis clefinitclyportrayed,
seen to have been uniqne. As a group, such
sealsconprise only a handful of the thousands
o f r c " l s t l r , t h " v c b e " r r r r n , . ' r r l r c ;, rl H . r r r p p . r
sites.Perhaps these I'ere the personal propertl'
of a ferv high-ralkir.Lgindividuals in the socicty,
w h i l " r h c o r h c r .r ' r , 1 l r r v eb e e n . 'g e n e r i rcl p c
c o r r ' o n r o w h o l cc ] n . " ro f p c o p l c .
Anothcr scal shou's a figure with a sinilar
headdress stalding in a U-shapcdtrcc (Fig.z.r3).
Thc lcavcsarc those ofa lildl tree, which occurs
on Pottcry asa notif as early as the pre-Harappa
period. However, while thc neaning of this
t r e c i n e . r r l i e rc o n c c x c i. . r r r r L n o w r ri'r m . r y
havc bccn depicted only becauseof tl.rebear,rty
and symnetry of its leaves-it rnight bc assun.rcd
that its depiction hcrc is n.rore significant. Thc
ptpal ftee is one of the few idcntifirble plant
s p c c i c ro n H . r r . p p a. c , 1 . . l r ) p c r \ i \ l e n c er r r
symbol in South Asia,.particularly in Buddhisrn,
whercin it bccanc Sakyamuni Buddha's tree
of enlightenment,may not be ncrcly acciclcntal.
22 TOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

epic, in which tl
beast. However,
from the motif a
this interpretation
like forms on the
female, which wc
Enkidu imposibl
side, along with
was undoubtedly
nicate an event
everyday experi
still enigmatic.
2.r3. Sealshowing cerernonywith figuresand bull. 2.r4. Seal showing serpenrsand frgures honoring a Two other se
FrornMohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.MarureHarappa period. 1,ogir.From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappt complexities of
Ca. zroo-r75on.c. Stearite.H: ca. 3 4 cm. National period. Ca. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Faicnce.H: ca, t-z cnt? first shows three
Museun,Karachi. Presentwhereaboutsunlnown.
form (Fig. z.16),.
of the three anim
pattern. That a s
When used on seals,the plpal seernsto appear (Fig. z.ra). In this case, the seated central figure may be inferred b'
in religious contexts,zoIn this seal,for exan.rple, appears without headdress but in the same of a number bear
a complex ceremony is taking place, in which a yogic posture described in Figure z.rz. He is ple chosenshows
kneeling devotee propitiates the homed figure being propitiated by two kneeling figures, one pattems are also 1
in the tree. The kneeling figure also wears a to eithcr sidc, both of whon are backed by fiom a center, lil<
homed headdress,which suggcststhat he may serpentsrising up from the ground like cobras shoulders.Irl late
be assuming some of the characteristicsof the about to strike. The obvious resemblanceof this directionaland co
figure in the tree-perhaps a deity-by means group to later Buddhist votive scenesin which such forms. The
of identity transGrral. Behind the kneeling serpentdeities(r?agas)pay homage to the Buddha itself noteworthy
{igure is a bull, whose role here is unknown, has been noted.2zIndeed, the parallel is so close monly used by tJ
but the bull's presence reinforces a religious that the iconographic format must have con- sociated with p<
associationfor bulls (as do the homed head- tinued from this early date to later periods, Asia. Yet its app
dresses) in the Indus context. The row ofstanding although the specific meanings might have the presumeddate
figures along the bottom of the seal may also changed. into ancient India
be participantsin the events and they too wear Another seal that posesn-rany questions and have been borr<
elaborateheaddrcsscs.If identity transferral, by o{l'ersintriguing possibilitiesdepicts an anthro- Harappan usage,
which the devotee seeks unification with a pornorph and a zoomorph, each of which is tacts between the
divine essence,is truly indicated by a cor.nposi- a cornposite of several forms (Fig. 2.rJ). The pans commenced
tion such as this, this would indicate a very zoomorph is essentially a horned tiger with of the latter's civi
early source for the concept of union between clearly defined facial features, feline paws and that Indo-Aryan
the individual and the univcrsal that perrneates ears,as well as stripes and a tail, while the an- populating the Inc
later Indic thinking. In fact, this concept so thropomorph seemshuman becauseofits upright Regardlessof
strongly relates to the philosophical thinking posture and the use of its forelimbs like arms interpretations of
expressedin a body of tcxts known as the rather than like the legs of a guadruped. The generalmight see
Upanisads, believed to have been conposed lower half of the body, including the cloven or other substa
around 8oo-45o 8.c., that it might be suggested hoofs, the tail, and the horns on the head, all between the Indt
that the Upanisadscould rellect the finaiization appear to be bovine, resernbling those features culture, all of the
of conceptsthat had bcen extant since Harappe of rnlrry bullr on other 1(als.Because its gesrurcs in the realm ofpos
times.2l might be intcrpreted as an attack upon the it hasnot beenpo
A small faience scal is also startling for its zoomorph, it has been suggcstcdthat this scene relative chronolo
apparcnt rclationship to later Indic concepts representsan cvent in the Sumerian Gilgamesh developmentalas
 THT INDUS CWIIZATION 2'

epic, in which the bull-man Xnkidu attacks a

beast. However, since the precise form differs
from the motif as found in Mesopotamian art,
this interpretation is unverified. Further, breast-
like forms on the chest suggest that the {igure is
Gmale, which would make the identification as
Enkidu imposible. In any case,the tree at the
side, along with the two composite animals,
was undoubtedly carefully selectedto commu-
nicate an event outside the normal scope of
everyday cxperience,though its meaning is
still enigmatic.
Two other seals further demonstrate the 2.r5. Sealshowing compositecreaturesand tree. From
complexities of Harappa iconography. The Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca.
first shows three tigers interlinked in a circular 2Ioo-rZJo B.c. Steatite. H: ca. z-4 cm? National
forrn (Fig. z.16), with the central shoulder mass Museurn,New Delhi.
of the three animals developed into a complex
pattem. That a specific diagram was intended
may be inferred by comparing this sealwith one
of a number bearing abstractdesigns,The exam-
ple chosenshows a srastlla (Fig. z.r7), but other
patterns are also found in which forms radiate
from a center, like that formed by the tigers'
shoulders. In later Indic art and architecture,
directionaland cosmic significanceis attachedto
such forms. The presence of the svastileais in
itself noteworthy, since it is a symbol com-
monly used by the Aryan peoples usually as-
sociated with post-Harappa times in South
Asia. Yet its appearancein a context prior to 2.16. Seal \irith interlinkcd tigers. From Mohenjo-
rhepresumeddateof the lndo-Aryan migrations Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappaperiod. Ca.2toa-r75o
into ancient India suggeststhat the motif rnay B.c. Steatite.H: ca. 2-4 cm? National Mr1seum,New
Delhi.
have been borrowed by the Aryans fiom
Harappan usage, or more probably, that con-
tacts between the lndo-Aryans and the Harap-
pens commenced rnuch earlier than the demise
of the latter's civilization. Indeed, it is possible
that lndo-Aryans were among the people
populating the Indus civilization.
Regardlessof how plausible some of the
interpretations of Harappa seals and art in
generalmight seem,without written verification
or o*rer substantirl proof of the continuity
berween the Indus civilization and later Indic
culture.all of rheseintcrpretationsmust remain
in the realm ofpossibility only. In this discussion,
2.r7. Seal with sl,astikdd,esigr.r.
From Mohenjo-Daro,
it hasnot been possibleto take into account the Pakistan.Mature Harappe period. Ca. 2roo rTJo B.c.
relative chronological position of the objects, Faience.r.5 X r.6 cm. Deparlnent of Archaeologyof
developmentalaspectsof the Indus religion and Pakistan,Karachi.
 OF rNDrC CIVITZATTON
24 IOUNDATTONS
culture, nor cven interregional ramifications of pcoplc were concerned with ideas that go
thc dcvelopments. The range in style of the beyond evcryday cxpcrience even though they
sealsculpturesalone suggcstschronological and/ may have borrowed hcavily frorn it. These two No one can say
or geographicalvariations. predispositionssimiiarly coexist in the fabric of demiseof the Indr
In sorne cases,such as the reprcscntationsof later Indic thought. While they might now severalfactors,inr
the bulls (Figs. 2.9, ztr), Harappa sexlsshow a appear to be contradictory, it will be shown cultural evolution
remarkable degree of naturalism that rcllccts that they are not. In Act, their reconciliation is Some outposts o{
closeobscrvation of the physical world. Other one of the hallmarks of ancicnt India's artistic and no singlefate
seals,such as those depicting cornpositeanimals and philosophic creativity. of all settlementsi
(Fig. z.r5), clemonstratc that thc Harappa While a general d
be cited as the en
or urban phase,a
PoTTERY iarly in the south
sphere, seemsto
The same complexity and multiplicity of inter- designs range from simple to conplex and l.c. It has been t
pretation sccn in the sculpture and sealsof the from abstract to representational.The motifs deforestationof tl
Indus civilization is encounteredin the study of are often crowded into an overall pattcrn on the land lesshabitz
the painted pottery. Likc the other Harappe the surface of a vessel. An intersecting circle tions to migrate ta
art forrns, painted pottery displays affinities to design(Fig. z.r8a) had great popularity. Further, climatic changes<
both Mesopotamia and to later Indic culture the motif apparently persists,for it resurfacesin were man-madeor
while maintaining a great deal of individuality. monumental architecture of the Maurya period changesare still J
Most Harappa painted pottery is a black-on- in the third century D.c. (Fig. a.l), suggesting Mohenj o-Daro, flc
red ware, although some polychrorne wares are thc basic continuity of Indic civilization. Leaf perennial problem
also known. Harappa painted pots generally motifs, especially the pipal (Frg. z.r8b), suggest threat of continuin
display a varied assortmentof motifs, including des to both prc-Harappa and later Indic forms the gradual aband
animal, vcgctal, and geometric forms. The and may have been used symbolically. ological evidence
generations of in
suffered fiom fre
the damage was
rebuilt in a sho
decline in the urbar

2.r8. Pottery motifs. A) Intcrsectingcircle ,rotif on painted pot.

Frorn Mohenjo-l)aro, Pakist:n. Harapp, period. B) Painredpot
(black on red) r'ith pipal leafdesigrr.Harappeperiod.

Tnr Ecrrpsr or tnl
No one can say for ccrtain what caused thc
demiseof the lndls civilization. Most probably,
sevcral factors, including thc natural processof
cultural evolutiou, combined to ellect its end.
Some outpostsof the society outlastcdothers,
and no single fate was rcsponsiblefor the demise
of all settlementsin this widespreaclcivilization.
Whiie a gcncraldate of around rTJo B.c. may
be cited as the end of thc civilization's lnaturc
or urban phasc, activity xt somc sites,particu-
iarly in the soutl.rem rcgions of the Harappa
spherc, sccms to have continucd to about 8oo
n.c. It lras been thcorized that desiccationand
deforestation of the lower Indus rcgion made
thc land lesshabitable, possibly causing popula-
tions to migratc to the eastand south. Whether
climatic changes did occur and whether they
were man-madcor the natural result ofgeological
changes are still highly arguable points.z3 At
Mohenjo-Daro, fooding apparently had been a
perennial problem; therc, it is likely that thc
threat of continuing scvereinunclationshcralded
thc gradual abandonttrent of the site. Archae-
ological cvidcnce reveals that thc last few
generations of inhabitants at Mohenjo-Daro
suflcrcd from frequent fooding. Each tirne,
the darrage rvas repaired or thc dwellings
rebrrilt in a .hoddier nranncr. \uggesting a
dcclinein the urbanizedcivilization itselfin what
THI INDUS CMIIZATION 25
Ilrlus Ctvlrlz,arlor,t
"post-urban"
l.rasbeen called a phase.zaOther
sites seem to have been abruptly abandoned
with no obvious signs of r.natcrialdcclinc prior
to clesertion.A commonly supplied explanation
for this phenomenon is that incrcasingnulnbers
of foreigners can-rcinto the area, causing a shift
in population distribution.
Scholars have debated thc exxct natLlre of
these nigrating peoples, but most agrcc that
incursions by peoplcs fron-r the northwest oc-
curred around the secondquarter of thc second
millennium 4.c., regardless of whcther they
contributed to thc dcmisc of the Harappa
civilization or not. Most probably, thesc incur-
sions did not corne at once, nor did they repre-
sent a unified effort by thc ncwcomcrs or onc
marked by violence.zs Rather, it is believed
that theseshifts in population took placc ovcr a
periodof.evcral hundredyerr,..rlTecting v;riorrs
places unequally. Of thc scvcral ethnic, racial,
and linguistic groups thxt may have been
involvcd in thc displacernent of the Harappa
peoples, at least one component was made up
of Aryans who probably cntcrcd the Indic lands
fiom thc Iranian rcgion. The heritage of tl.rese
Indo-Aryans or Indo-Iranians26eventually be-
came a dominant aspcctof n-ruchof subsequent
Indic civilization.
 a

THE ART OF AN(

w1

:"'-.rr!a-\jj{>.

,.I:: a:3;'1.''

t,
ANCIENT INDIA
Buddhist,
Hindu,Jarn
by SusanL. Huntington
with contributions by John C. Huntington

WEATHERHILL
New York . Tokyo