PROCESS DESIGN STAGE

OF LPG DISTILLATION

(Ortloff, 2009)
Group 3
Daniel Blumenow
Clarence Brown
Sayedul Islam
Piotr Kucia
Kessigen Mooroogen

Executive Summary
The following report presents the detailed production route for processing liquified petroleum gas to
obtain its products of butane and propane. The developed piping and instrumentation diagram
illustrates the transporting system, isolation system, control handles, manual valves, safety
instruments and the necessary control system to be implemented over the plant. The equipment
required for the separation included heat exchangers, a distillation column, air coolers and a flash
drum have been included. Comprehensive discussion of how the specific units operate and how
the control for these units have be established and implemented in the P&ID.
The value for the total capital cost was found to be 1,803,820, the fixed cost of production was
2,884,000 and the cost of raw materials is 371,448,000 The overall revenue per annum has
been calculated at 440,519,520 (Office of National Statistics, 2017) (Brignall, 2012) (Bhanvase, et
al., 2007). With the use of these values the cash flow analysis is carried out to calculate a pay-back
time for the process to be six year. (NIST, 2017) (Branan, 2005) (Engineers Guide, n.d.)
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Process Outline ...................................................................................................................................... 44
1.2 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 44
2.0 Sizing of Unit Operations ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Approximate Distillation Column Sizing .................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2 Number of Stages ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Column Diameter.............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.4 Column Height .................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Heat Exchanger Sizing.............................................................................................................................. 6
Sizing shell and tube heat exchangers .................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Air Coolers Sizing ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Air coolers sizing .................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Optimizing pipe diameter .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.4 Flash Drum Sizing................................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Assumptions ................................................................................................................................... 10
Mass balance ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.5 Pump Sizing............................................................................................................................................ 11
2.5.1 Assumptions made ......................................................................................................................... 11
2.5.2 Calculation of frictional losses ........................................................................................................ 11
2.5.3 Net Positive Suction Head .............................................................................................................. 12
2.5.4 Evaluating power cost .................................................................................................................... 12
2.5.5 Pump characteristic ........................................................................................................................ 12
3.0 Process Control .......................................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Distillation Column ................................................................................................................................ 13
3.1.1 Restraints on Distillation Column ................................................................................................... 13
3.1.2 Composition Control....................................................................................................................... 13
3.1.2 Temperature Control ...................................................................................................................... 14
3.1.3 Feed Composition Disturbances ..................................................................................................... 14
3.1.4 Pressure Control and Air-Cooled Condenser .................................................................................. 15
3.1.5 Level Control ................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1.6 Preheaters Control and Internal Exchanger ................................................................................... 16
3.1.7 Steam Flow controller .................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.8 Further Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 16
3.1.9 Other Considerations...................................................................................................................... 16
4.0 Economic Evaluation ................................................................................................................................. 20
4.1 Breakdown of the Equipment Cost ....................................................................................................... 20
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 4.1.1 Distillation costing .......................................................................................................................... 20
4.1.2 Heat exchangers and Air coolers ................................................................................................... 21
4.1.3 Flash drum ...................................................................................................................................... 22
4.1.3 Flash Drum .......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1.4 Pump Costing ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2 Summary................................................................................................................................................ 22
4.3 Overall Costing for Plant ........................................................................................................................ 22
4.3.1 Fixed Capital costs .......................................................................................................................... 23
References ....................................................................................................................................................... 26
Appendix .......................................................................................................................................................... 29
Appendix I .................................................................................................................................................... 29
Viscosity Calculations .............................................................................................................................. 29
Appendix II ................................................................................................................................................... 29

Nomenclature
Symbol/abbreviation
Maximum vapour velocity
Plate spacing
Density of liquid mixture
Density of vapour mixture
Mass fraction of component i in mixture
Density of component i
N Number of ideal stages
Molar average liquid viscosity
Efficiency
Distillation Column Diameter
Nusselt Number
Reynolds number
Mean Temperature Difference
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
Temperature Correction Factor
Linear velocity
Inside fluid film coefficient
Outside fluid film coefficient
Overall coefficient based on the outside area
of the tube.
Heat Transfer Area
Cross sectional Area between tubes
Specific heat Capacity
Bundle diameter
Shell diameter
Equivalent Diameter
Shell-side mass flowrate per unit area
Tube-side mass flowrate per unit area
Number of tubes in shell bundle
1 Constant
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 0 Tube outside Diameter
Dimensionless temperature ratio
Dimensionless temperature ratio
Tube pitch
Shell-side fluid mass flowrate
Viscosity at Bulk fluid temperature
Thermal Conductivity of fluid
Heat transfer factor
Prandtl Number
Shell side Heat transfer coefficient
Maximum allowable vapor velocity
Value of mesh pad mist
Liquid Density
Vapor Density
Gas Volumetric Flowrate
. Mass flowrate
Diameter
Temperature of Surface
Heat transferred in a unit time
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Effective Tube Length
Number of Tubes per bank
Face velocity of air
Pressure drop across heat exchanger
Fan Efficiency
Pump efficiency
Energy Cost
Friction Factor
Pipe Length
Pipe inside Diameter
Fluid Velocity
Relative roughness
Pressure
Gravitational Acceleration
Height of liquid above pump suction
Work done
Difference between elevation
Pressure loss in suction pipe
Fraction of cross sectional area available for
gas flow
Height
Volume
Size parameter

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1.0 Introduction
The plant was based on the specifications of the first task needing to process 33 tonnes of LPG per hour.
The primary need for LPG stream was for the products consisting of hydrocarbons propane and butane
which are commonly used as a fuel for heating and cooking, also used in household refrigerators, and in
pressurised flammable equipments such as lighters and aerosols. This reports compromises with three
major elements. The design and selection of the major components including the distillation column, heat
exchanger, air cooler and flash drum. There is also the P&ID which is developed to consider engineering
details and controls for the plant and lastly evaluation into the costing and evaluation of the projects final
feasibility into its profitability.

1.1 Aims and Objectives

This report aims to develop a working process from a flow sheet to a feasible process. The objectives
for this report include:

Outlining the design, reason for selection and the cost for the reactor required for the process
Producing a detailed P&ID developed from the process flow sheet
Explain and justify the control and instrumentation that has been implemented for the process
Assess the economics of the operating process in likely process profitability

2.0 Sizing of Unit Operations

2.1 Approximate Distillation Column Sizing
Once the number of stages is known, an estimate for the column sizing can be made. This will be a
rough estimate of the capital cost for project evaluation.

2.1.2 Number of Stages

In a multicomponent distillation as within the design, the limits for the two key components which are
preferred for the separation will be set. The light key (LK) will be propane and the heavy key (HK)
will be butane. The number of stages for a separation at a given reflux ratio can be determined using
the Erbar-Maddox correlation. The minimum number of stages is required for further calculations.
The Fenske equation (Eq. 2.1) is used to estimate the minimum number of stages:

( ) = ( ) . 2.1 (, 2005)

is the ratio of the concentration of any component i to the concentration of a reference component
r

log[( ) ( ) ]

Rearranging Eq. 2.1 gives = log( )
. 2.2
is the ratio of the average relative volatility of the light key to the heavy key. The data for the
volatility of the components at a specific temperature were obtained from the Depriester chart
(Sinnott, 2005) and are displayed on the table below.
Equilibrium constants
Top Bottom Average
Temperature (C) 47 102
Propane 1 2.4 1.7
Butane 0.35 1 0.675

14.30 11.22
log[( ) ( ) ]
0.49 0.53
Hence, = 1.7 = 6.95 7
log( )
0.675

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From plates-reflux correlation of Erbar-Maddox,
7
At a reflux ratio of 2, = 0.56 = = 12.4 13
0.56

Now, the real number of contacting stages is to be calculated taking into account the stage efficiency.

= = . 2.3 (, 2005)

An estimate of the overall column efficiency in % (also known as the overall plate efficiency) can be
evaluated via the OConnells correlation. This is given as:

= 51 32.5 log( ) . 2.4 (, 2005)

The average molar viscosity, (mN s/m2) has been calculated using Eq. 2.5 below and the values
displayed in table X:
1 1
() = [] ( ) ( ) . 2.5 (, 2005)

Where the viscosity is in mNs/m2 and the temperature in K.
VISA and VISB are constants in the viscosity equation and their values have been obtained for the
different components at an average temperature of 348.15 K (75C) from literature. A breakdown of
the calculations can be found in Appendix I to get an average molar viscosity of 0.1073 mN s/m2.
1.7
From Eq. 2.4, the efficiency can be calculated as: = 51 32.5 log (0.1073 0.675) = 69 %

Sinnott (2005) believes that overall column efficiency is normally in the range 30% to 80%, indicating
that the value obtained for the design is sensible. From the number of ideal stages, i.e, 13, one stage
will be the reboiler and hence, the number of actual physical stages is (Branan, 2005):
131
From Eq. 2.3 = = 17.4 18
0.69

The physical number of trays will be increased, due to offload conditions such as change in feed, to
20 trays. Experience is a critical factor which determines the extra number of trays (Branan, 2005).

2.1.3 Column Diameter

The vapour flow rate is the main factor which dictates the column diameter. The vapour velocity must
be below that of the velocity which would cause excessive liquid entrainment. The maximum
allowable vapour velocity can be calculated using Souders and Brown equation:
1
2
= (0.1712 + 0.27 0.047) ( ) . 2.6 (, 2005)

Normally, plate spacing ranging from 0.15 m to 1 m are used. An initial estimate for the plate spacing
of 0.5 m and height of tray of 50 mm will be assumed (Sinnott, 2005). Liquid density and vapour
densities have been calculated as 451 3 and 39.9 3 respectively (Younglove and Ely,
1987).
Assumption: The liquid and vapour densities were calculated based on the component with the
highest mass fraction in stream 9 and 3 respectively. The density of the liquid and vapour mixture
can be calculated as follows:

= ( ) . 2.7 ( , 2005)

The column diameter can therefore be calculated using Eq. 2.8:

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 4
= ( ) . 2.8 (, 2005)

The vapour rate is evaluated as: = (1 + ) = 15.15(1 + 2) = 45.45 1 = 12.625 1

4 12.625
. 2.8 = ( ) = 1.7
39.9 0.146

The column diameter has been rounded up to the nearest standard head size. For column towers
above 1 m, Sinnott (2005) points out that plate spacing of 0.3 to 0.6 m are used. Hence, the initial
estimate made has been justified. For a quick approximation, the diameter can be roughly estimated
as follows:
, = 0.52 . 2.9 (, 2005)
Where the duty is in MM/Btu/hr and the diameter in ft. Hence, from the mass and energy balance
report submitted, it was concluded that the reboiler duty was 3.1 GJ hr-1 ( 2.94 MM/Btu/hr).
Consequently, as a rule of thumb, a rough diameter has been calculated as:

. 2.9 = 2 2.94 = 2.4 = 0.73 ( )

Hence, it can be concluded that the diameter obtained from Eq. 2.8 is sensible.

2.1.4 Column Height

Therefore, = [0.5 20 + 0.05 20 + 1.7 + 3] = 15.7 16
16
The height to diameter ratio has been computed as: = = 9.4
1.7

Sensible diameter to height ratios are below 20, indicating that the ratio obtained is realistic (Sinnott,
2005).
Table 2.2: Summary of parameters of distillation column
Parameter Specification
No. of ideal stages 13
Overall Plate Efficiency 69%
Actual physical No. of trays 20
Column diameter 1.7 m
Height of Column 16 m

2.2 Heat Exchanger Table 2.3: Specifications of heat exchangers

sexexexchangers
The specifications for the heat exchangers have all Heat Heat
been calculated from the energy balance in the Heat Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger
previous report submitted and displayed in table 2.3. 1 2
Inlet Water
The chosen design for the heat exchangers is the 100 40
Temperature (oC)
shell and tube design as it provides a cheap, flexible Outlet Water
and can withstand very high pressures without 47.8 92
Temperature (oC)
excessive cost. It is also the most widely used model Duty (x109 J s-1) 1.41 1.44
of heat exchangers and is easy to clean due to its Efficiency (%) 95 95
design. (Cheremisinoff & Cheremisinoff, 1993)
Triangular tube layout as they provide higher heat transfer efficiencies and surface area per unit
length but this does come with the drawback that they are more difficult to clean than square tube.
Triangular pitch with 30o layout is better for heat transfer and surface area per unit length as it
provides the greatest tube density. (Sinnott, 2005)

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2.2.1 Heat Exchanger 1
2.2.1.1 Tube Side
The prime objective is to determine the surface area required for the duty shown in table 2.4

By the standards of the American Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, TEMA, the
preferred tube diameters vary from 16 mm to 50 mm. The initial estimate for the diameter has been
chosen as 19 mm to start the design calculations and this value will be revised if needed. To give an
adequate corrosion allowance, a tube thickness of 1.7 mm will be used.
Table 2.4: Initial estimates for
the the tube specifications
The log mean temperature difference has been calculated as Tube side Specifications
= 23. The value of the correction factor could then be Inside 19
calculated by working out the values of R and S for one shell pass diameter/mm
and 2 tube passes for starting and will be revised. Outside 30
diameter/mm
(100 55.4) (47.8 37.8)
= = = 23.14 Tube 1.7
100 55.4
l n ( ) l n (47.8 37.8) thickness/mm

Length/m 5
55.4 37.8
= = 2.90
100 49
55.4 37.8
= = 0.28
100 55.4
The correction factor is then obtained Ft= 0.82 (Sinnott and Towler, 2009)
So = 23 0.54 = 13.0
Hence, the area needed for heat transfer to occur over can be calculated with an initial estimate of
the overall heat transfer coefficient of 550 W -2 K-1 where Q was previously calculated as 371067 /
371067
- = (, 2005) & = 55013.0 = 32.4 2 and

-Surface area of a tube= 30 103 5 = 0.47 2

32.4
-No. of tubes required =0.47 = 70 ( )

The breakdown of the calculations can be found in Appendix II to calculate the heat transfer
coefficient, .

4200(1.35 + 0.02)0.8 4200(1.35 + 0.02 73.9)0.07220.8

= = = 1693 2 1
0.2 192

2.2.1.2 ON THE SHELL SIDE

An estimate of the number of tubes, is given as
1
= 1 ( ) . 2.10 ( , 2009)
0
Where = , = , , 0 = ,
The value of 1 will depend on the number of passes. Hence rearranging Eq. 2.10 gives:

1/1
= ( ) . 2.11
1

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The number of passes chosen was 8 and hence value of 1 = 0.0365 1 = 2.675 (Sinnot and
Tolwer, 2009)
Bundle diameter has been calculated as 503 mm. A 1.25 triangular pitch is chosen due to its greater
ability to carry out heat transfer (Sinnott and Towler, 2009). The detailed calculations for the heat
transfer coefficient on the shell side can be found in Appendix II.
0.017 0.005 227,525 14.50.33
= = 1396 2 1
21.3 103
1 1 1
Hence overall transfer coefficient = + . 2.12
0 0

1 1 1
The wall resistance and fouling factors are neglected, thus 0 = (1693 + 1396) = 765 2 1

Since the value calculated for the overall transfer coefficient being higher than the assumed value
used initially (550 2 1), the design proposed has sufficient area to accommodate the duty
(Sinnott and Towler, 2009). It is further reinforced that this is a sensible value since a similar value
of 714 2 1 is found in literature, Saunders (1989)

2.2.2 Heat Exchanger 2

The same procedure is repeated for the second heat exchanger whose specifications can be seen
in table 2.4 and we were able to find values for the different parameters for the heat exchanger.
The summarised values of the heat exchangers can be seen in table 2.6.
The key conclusions are summarised:
Table 1.6: Summary of the values obtained for heat exchanger 2
Heat Transfer Area/ 38
Number of passes 8
Number of tubes 82
Heat transfer Coefficient on tube side/ 1479

Bundle Diameter/mm 535

Bundle Clearance/mm 60
Shell Diameter/mm 595
Heat transfer Coefficient on shell side/ 1238

Overall Heat transfer Coefficient / 674

2.3 Air Coolers

First step in sizing air coolers is calculating area necessary for heat transfer, which can be done by
using the LMTD method. The LMTD has been calculated as: LMTD 9.7 based on the inlet and
outlet temperature of air and LPG determined from the energy balance.(log mean temperature
difference) can be calculated from inlet and outlet temperatures of air and LPG, which are known
from the energy balance. Therefore, for AC1, = 9.7
And for AC2: = 15.7.
Moreover, overall heat transfer coefficient was estimated to be 483 W/m2K for AC1 (air cooling of
light hydrocarbons with a condensation) and 454 W/m2K for AC2 (air cooling of light hydrocarbons
without a condensation) (Warren M. Rohsenow, 1998). Since heat duty is known from energy
balance, area can be calculated:
330000 265000
= (1) = = 70.4 2 and = (2) = = 37.2 2
4839.7 45415.7

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From this, pipe length in each heat exchanger can be calculated:
70.4 37.2
(1) = = = 150 and (2) = = = 79
0.15 0.15

For design of air cooler, pipe diameter is considered to be the same as for S3 (150mm), moreover
length of one tube is taken to be 6m, and number of tubes per bank in a bundle is 10 (Sinnott, 1996).
Moreover spacing between tubes is estimated to be 60mm (Sinnott, 1996). From this, bundle area
can be calculated:
= Eq. 2.13 (Sinnott, 1996)
Where Nbk is number of tubes per bank, pt is tube pitch and L is tube length. Hence:

= 150 0.06 10 = 90 2 and = 79 0.06 10 = 47.4 2

Moreover number of tubes can be calculated, if total length of pipes (from Eq. 2.13) is divided by
length of one tube (6m), what gives 25 for AC1 and 14 for AC2.
Lastly, power needed for air fan has to be evaluated, what can be done by using following formula:

= . 2.14

Where is typical face velocity of air (taken to be 2.5 m/s), is pressure drop across heat
exchanger (150Pa) and is fan efficiency (typically 70%) (Sinnott, 1996).Having that, power
calculated is 48kW for AC1 and 25kW for AC2.

Optimizing pipe diameter

The formula, which allows for calculation of optimal pipe diameter is as follows:
1
21011 2.84 0.16 2 4.84+
= [ (1+)(+)
] Eq. 2.15 (Sinnott, 1996)

So that:
- A is normal attainment for chemical plant, estimated for 8000hr (Sinnott, 1996)
- E is pump efficiency, estimated to be 60% (Sinnott, 1996)
- P is energy cost, taken to be 0.14/kWh (Energy Saving Trust, n.d.)
- Parameters F,B,n,a and b are functions of different economic factors (such as maintenance
costs), for simplicity bottom term (1 + ) ( + ) is taken to be 27 and = 0.55 for
carbon steel (Sinnott, 1996)
- G is a mass flowrate, its values for respective streams are known from mass balance
- Dynamic viscosity was estimated to be viscosity of propane, for top streams (0.0000074
Pa*s) and of butane, for bottom and feed streams, it was calculated as average viscosity of
all components (7*10^-6 Pa*s,7.44*10^-6 Pa*s respectively)
Table 2.7: Pipe diameters of each stream
- S1,S2 100mm
S3,S4,S6 150mm
S5 10mm1
S8 80mm

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 S7 100mm
S9,S10,S11 65mm
Densities were calculated using data from Perrys Handbook
(Robert H. Perry, 1934) (for simplicity top and feed streams were assumed to have constant
temperature of 38C and 55.4C respectively, what has negligible effect on density value)
Therefore, after substituting data into equation, pipe diameters can be calculated and then
rounded up to fit British Standard Pipe Dimensions (Graphskill Ltd, n.d.). The diameters values,
after rounding, are presented in table 2.7.

2.4 Flash Drum

The flash drum itself consists of a pressurised vessel with an inlet and two outlet points, one at the
top of the drum for the vapour stream and one at the bottom of the drum for the liquid stream. The
drum will also house a mesh pad which will minimise the entrainment of any liquid droplets in the
vapour as it exits the vessel.

2.4.1 Assumptions
Only ethane is vapourised;
To calculate the density of the heavy components (the remaining liquid components leaving
the flash drum in stream 6) data was used for a composition of pure propane in order to
simplify the calculation and obtain a density close to the true value.
Vertical flash drum
Mesh pad type mist extractor (Campbell, 2015)
Adiabatic operation - no heat lost to surroundings
The Souders-Brown equation (Brown, 1934) is a tool used to calculate the maximum allowable
vapour velocity in a vapour liquid separator. The equation is as follows:
0.5
= ( ) . 2.16

The value for a mesh pad type mist extractor is 0.107 (Campbell, 2015). At the specified
conditions in the flash drum:
= 20.236 3 and = 472.0 3 (NIST, 2017)
47220.236 0.5
= 0.107 ( ) = 0.506 1
20.236
The minimum vessel diameter can then be calculated by the following equation:
0.5
4

= ( ) . 2.17

For a vertical separator, FG = 1 (Campbell, 2015). The volumetric flowrate of the gas (ethane) in the
flash drum can be calculated by:
16.5
= = = 0.815 3 1 = 0.0002265 3 1 . 2.18
20.236
0.5
4
0.0002265
= ( ) = 0.024
1 0.506
This value for is very small compared to a realistic diameter for the flash drum in this process.
The reason for this is that only a very small fraction of the feed to the flash drum is vapourised and
separated. The Souders-Brown equation only takes into account the flowrate of the vapour
components in the flash drum. The actual diameter of the flash drum must be much greater than the
one calculated in order to allow for the flow of the liquid components through the drum. The flow of
liquid through the drum is clearly the prevailing factor that will determine its size.

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 The drum should be sized to provide about 5 mins of liquid inventory between normal liquid level
and the bottom of the vessel (Beychok, 2006). The mass flowrate into the drum is 45483 kg h-1. Of
this feed flowrate, 16.5 kg h-1 ethane is immediately vapourised, leaving 45466 kg h-1 of liquid.
Calculating the volumetric flowrate of the remaining liquid:
45466.29
= = = 96.32 3 1 . 2.19
472.0

Converting to a per minute basis: = 1.61 3 1

The volume of liquid in the drum after 5 minutes will therefore be:
5 = 1.61 5 = 8.05 3 2.20
The overall volume of the flash drum is therefore double the liquid volume while the drum is
operating. Assuming a cylindrical drum and a height to diameter ratio of 4:3:
3 2
= 4
. 2.22 & = 4
= 16.1 3 . 2.23
Substituting Eq. 2.22 into Eq. 2.23 and solving simultaneously gives:
= 1.72 = 2.3
2.5 Pump Sizing
2.5.1 Assumptions
Fluid enters to the distillation column at 17.5 bar pressure
Streams 7 and 8 branch out just at the pump outlet, hence flowrate used in calculations is for
S7
Pump is located at the bottom of a column, so that difference in height will be equal to the
column height
Length of the pipe from pump outlet to column inlet is estimated to be 20% higher than height
difference ( hence L=20.4m)
Flash drum is located at 15m above a pump
No valves at the column entrance
Vapour pressure of the mixture is equal to that of propane
Pressure at the inlet of a pump is equal to flush drum operating pressure

2.5.2 Calculation of frictional losses

Pressure drop in a pipe is given by a formula:
2
= 8 ( ) . 2.24
2
In which density and length are known, velocity can be calculated from mass flowrate (11.2 m/s),
and internal diameter was evaluated in previous section, so that only unknown is a friction factor,
which can be evaluated from Moodys diagram, if Reynolds Number and relative pipe roughness are
known. Reynolds Number is given by:
169 0.1 11.5
= = = 58000000 . 2.25
7.4 106
Absolute roughness for a steel pipe is known to be 0.000046m (Sinnott, 1983), hence relative
roughness can be evaluated:
0.000046
=
= 0.15
= 0.0003 . 2.26 (Sinnott, 1983)
Table 2. Pressure losses in fittings (Sinnott, 1983)
Pressure losses
in pipe diameters
2*90 elbow 46

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 Tee- 60 Using above data and Moodys diagram friction factor is obtained
junction and equal to 0.00175. Next step is to evaluate losses due to
Gate valve 7.5 various pipe fittings and valves. Pressure drop, given in pipe
(fully open) diameters is known from Table 1, so that additional pipe length
is calculated:
= (46 + 60) 0.15 = 15.9
Hence total length is: = 15.9 + 20.4 = 36.3
Total pressure drop can be calculated by plugging all data to Eq. 2.24, giving a pressure drop of
510317 Pa.

2.5.3 Net Positive Suction Head

NPSH can be calculated from: = + . 2.27
Where P and H are pressure and height differences, Pf are frictional losses in suction piping and Pv
is vapour pressure of substance pumped. Frictional losses in suction can be calculated using 2.24
so that:
18.45 169 382
= 8 0.00175 ( ) = 296000
0.15 2
Assuming only fittings are two 90 bends and fully open gate valve. After dividing the above value
by density and gravity acceleration, friction head is calculated to be 178 m. Applying the same
method to the mixture vapour pressure (taken to be 1000000 Pa) results in a vapour pressure head
of 602 m. Since pressure at the pump inlet is 15.5 bar, after putting the data into Eq. 2.27, NPSH is
given as 314 m.

2.5.4 Evaluating power cost

Work required by a pump is given by:
(1715.5)105 510317
= +

= 9.81 16 169
169
= 1492 1 . 2.28 (Sinnott, 1983)
After multiplying the above by mass flowrate (8.41 kg/s) and dividing by pump efficiency (60%), the
power required is calculated to be 21 kW. From the electricity price (0.05 /kWh) and during 350
operating days, the annual energy cost is 8,820.
2.5.5 Pump characteristic
Characteristic of a pump is volumetric flowrate, which pump supplies at given head, which consists
of static and dynamic head. Static head can be calculated from:
2 1 (17.515.5)105 510317
+ = + 16 = 136 . 2.29 and dynamic: = = 47.7 2.30
1699.81 1699.81

Hence, it can be seen, that pump selected must be able to supply flowrate of 0.05 m3/s at a head of
184 m and have minimum NPSH of no less than 314 m.

3.0 Process Control

Control is of utmost importance in the process, ensuring that the plant is safe and all requirements
are met. Control will be implemented throughout the entire process, as it will not only prevent failure
also help monitor the progression in the plant. Control is essential in any process because of:

Safety this will include alarms, monitoring equipment and alarms

Environmental considerations control of emissions and intelligent energy usage
Process specifications on-line control provides the ability for corrections to be made in the
case of disturbances entering the process
Profitability Control can be used to optimise the process yield and profit.

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From the piping and instrumentation diagram attached, the plant-wide control equipment can be
seen, however the control of different process units may be interlinked, depending on the desired
outputs.

3.1 Distillation Column

The 5 control variables (CVs) and the 5 manipulated variables (MVs) are listed for pairing up in this
5 5 square system. For each MV, an instrument variable is associated with the process variable,
as depicted in table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Unpaired CVs and MVs including the context (Smith, 2012)

CV MV ( Instrument Context) Process Context

Bottom level Distillate valve opening The distillate flow, D
Distillate composition Bottoms valve opening Bottoms flow, B
Bottom composition Reflux valve opening Reflux flow, L
Flash Drum level Air cooled condenser variable speed Heat transfer rate in condenser,
drive Qc
Column Pressure Steam valve opening Heat transfer rate, Qs
3.1.1 Restraints on Distillation Column
Total material balance: = + . 3.1
Since, the system is a steady state and the feed flow is constant, on a long term basis, any change
in the distillate flow must be compensated by an equal and opposite change in the bottom flow and
vice versa. The distillate or bottom flow can be independently set but not both, as shown by Eq. 3.1
(Luyben et al., 1985). Hence, the flow to be manipulated will be discussed in later sections.

3.1.2 Composition Control

The column must operate in such a way so that the product specification is met.
3.1.2.1 Initial Control Strategy for Distillate Composition
The distillate composition is to be controlled by either the distillate flow (D) or the reflux flow (L) and
then the level in the flash drum is controlled using the other flow. However, it is to be noted that for

the drum level, if 1, then the reflux flow is preferably not the MV and if 1, then the distillate
flow is not the MV (Smith, 2012). From the mass balance, it was concluded that
L= 30.30 tonnes hr-1 and D= 15.15 tonnes hr-1.
30.3

= 15.15 = 2 (reflux ratio). Hence it can be deduced that for level control, the preferred flow is the
reflux flow and the distillate flow is the MV in controlling the distillate composition.
Thus, from a material balance, 7( ) = 6 8 ( )
And 6 = 4 5
Hence, = 4 5 8 ( ) . 3.2
Hence, values of D and L are defined by the distillate composition controller and by the level
controller to satisfy the steady state mass balance as shown in Eq. 3.2. This initial control strategy
was implemented as shown Appendix II:
Assumption: The mass flowrate of stream 5 is negligible compared to the values of stream 4 and 8
as shown below:
5 0.02 5 0.02
= = = 0.0004 = = 0.001
4 45.47 8 15.15
However, when the control loops for the other CVs will be considered in the later sections, a new
control strategy will be applied to the distillate composition due to interaction between the loops.
13 | P a g e
When the composition control is being designed, it is essential that the composition to be controlled
is the one most affected by the control strategy implemented. The 2 compositions most heavily
affected are (Smith, 2012):

The heavy key (butane) in the distillate product so as to meet the specification for propane
product.
The light key (propane) in the bottom product as to meet the specification for butane product.
The off-key components are not (or are slightly) influenced by the controls for the column.
3.1.2.2 Control Strategy for both Distillate and Bottom composition
A constant heat input is provided by a constant flow of steam. The bottom flow is made constant (a
set point has been specified to the bottom flow controller), and hence, the bottom level in the tower
is therefore controlled by the heat input (flow of steam), as shown in the P&ID. Now from the overall
mass balance, the value of the distillate flow must be adjusted to satisfy Eq.1 (difference of feed flow
and bottom flow). Consequently, since the overall mass balance dictates the distillate flowrate, the
manipulated variable for the distillate composition can now only be the reflux flow, L. By keeping the
reflux flow constant, and allowing only small changes in the steam pressure, the bottom composition
controller will influence the product composition (Smith, 2012). The new control strategy is thereby
displayed in the P&ID. Smith (2012) believes that cascade control is used in distillation column where
the set point of a controller is specified by the output of another controller. A composition-to-flow
cascade is shown in the P&ID where the bottom composition controller is the set point to the bottom
flow controller. This leads to an in depth analysis where composition controller cannot operate if the
flow controller does not accept the set point from the composition controller (local).

3.1.2 Temperature Control

Pressure affects the stage temperature and
The stage temperature is affected by variations in off-key components (Smith, 2012).
In each separate section, there will be a control temperature stage: upper control stage and lower
control stage: the distillate composition is to remain constant by maintaining a constant value for the
temperature in the upper stage and the same applies for the bottom composition. The MV for the
temperature controller is the flow as flow controllers are faster. Hence, for the upper control stage,
the flow that is to be manipulated is that of the reflux. For the lower control stage, the manipulated
flow is that of the bottom product. A temperature-to-flow cascade is achieved where the output of
each temperature controller is the set point for a flow. For constant bottom flow, changes in the reflux
flow have negligible effect on the temperature below the feed stage. Hence, the bottom composition
is barely upset by measures taken by the upper stage temperature controller, therefore not affecting
the bottom composition controller (Luyben et al., 1985; Smith, 2012).

3.1.3 Feed Composition Disturbances

The feed flow is susceptible to changes in the feed composition. Practically, on-stream analysers for
the feed composition are rarely available. Hence, the degree to which the composition changes is
unknown. Hence, how the effect of that disturbance propagates within the column depends on the
whether the composition controls are manual or automatic. Since the responses form part of a closed
loop, the controller is on automatic and the distillate composition is maintained at a constant value.
The effect on controlling the upper stage temperature instead of the distillate composition is as
follows. An increase in composition of the light key in the feed can be addressed by keeping the
upper stage temperature (tray closer to the product stream) constant. The reflux flow can be reduced
at constant bottom flow. But for an increase in the composition of the heavy key in the feed, the
upper stage temperature cannot be kept constant as the reflux flow reaches its upper limit. To meet
the specification for the bottom composition, the bottom composition is used to manipulate the
bottom flow and adjust the column mass balance (Smith, 2012).

14 | P a g e
3.1.4 Pressure Control and Air-Cooled Condenser
The pressure in the column is controlled by varying the rate of condensation in the air-cooled
condenser. To investigate the nature of the control to be designed, a mass balance is carried out
around the vapour space (Smith, 2012).
Assumption: For the purpose of control analysis, an equation of state is used for approximation of
the column pressure (Smith, 2012).

: = ( ) ( ) . 3.3


From the equation of state: = = . 3.4 (, 2012)
Where P is the column pressure, z is the compressibility factor, V is the volume of column, R is the
gas constant, n is the moles of vapour in column vapour space and T is the column temperature.
Hence substituting Eq. 3.4 into Eq.3.3 leads to:

[ ] = ( ) ( ) . . . . 3.5

It follows that on an increase in pressure in the column, must lead to an increase in the condensation
rate. The simplest control approach could be varying the air flowrate. Another control strategy could
be to control the column pressure via the condensing steam at the bottom. However, this will not be
executed due to the impact on the bottom composition in doing so. Also, the output stream from the
condenser not being in the vapour state, the distillate flow will not be used to control the column
pressure (Smith, 2012). Moreover, the distillate flow is fixed anyway.
With the simplest strategy, the following options can be used to manipulate the air flowrate (Luyben
et al., 1985):

Variable speed drive: the fan is equipped with a speed controller and a variable speed electric
drive.
Louvers: the louvers can be closed or opened manually.
Hence, manipulation of the air flowrate is used to change the heat transfer rate in the condenser. It
should be considered that the flow of air through the condenser is restricted. Hence in controlling the
column pressure, there should be some mechanism to manipulate the rate of heat transfer in the
condenser. Hence alternatives to varying the speed controller could be the use of a butterfly valve
in the overhead vapour line. However, this cannot be used as a control approach as the condenser
is mounted on the top of column in the design.

3.1.5 Level Control

3.1.5.1 Flash drum level
The flash drum level is either manipulated using the input flow or one of the output flows. As the air
cooled condenser is mounted on top of the distillation column, the input flow to the drum can
therefore be used to manipulate the level in the flash drum since the tower pressure is being
regulated by air flow rate in the condenser (Smith, 2012). There is no need to manipulate either the
distillate or reflux flow in controlling the drums level as this will cause more interaction between the
loops.
3.5.1.2 Bottom level
Smith (2012) explains that the bottom composition loop can operate only if the bottom level control
in the tower performs adequately. Since the bottom composition loop is dependent on the level loop,
a high degree of dynamic separation between them is required. This can be achieved by tuning the
bottom level controller to make it response instantaneously. On the other hand, the bottom
composition controller is left unaltered rather allowing it to relax as that will lead to poorer
15 | P a g e
performance. Hence, the response of the bottom level is increased while the response of the bottom
composition is made sufficiently slow to enable dynamic separation. This is done to allow a margin
of stability and prevent cycling in the bottom composition.

3.1.6 Preheaters Control and Internal Exchanger

The heat is supplied to the distillation column through internal tubes. The tube bundles are horizontal
to minimise the tower height and the level of liquid must always be above the internal exchanger to
prevent overheating and the possible ignition of the LPG vapours, in turn causing an explosion
(Johnsen, 2005). The height of liquid present in the tower is the bottom level.
The heat transfer rate, = where is the latent heat of vaporisation of the steam and F is the
steam flow was used. Heat losses from the supply of steam are normally small and can be neglected.
An important issue to be considered is the consumption of steam. Since a relatively low flowrate of
steam (0.38 kg s-1) is used, the condensate can make its way to a drain. The valve on the steam
supply as shown in the P&ID is used to control the heat to the tower. This is achieved by varying the
opening of the control valve which changes the stream pressure and hence, the temperature
difference for heat transfer (Smith, 2012).

3.1.7 Steam Flow controller

The measurement of a flow is usually between zero and a maximum value and the set point is found
in the range. The steam flow controller will be used as an inner loop for the following cascade: bottom
level to steam flow cascade. One of the possible consequences of this interaction between the
control loops is: what happens if a steam flow set point higher that what can be achieved is specified?
As a result, one possible action is that the steam valve will be driven fully open by the steam flow
controller and the windup protection will be raised. On the other hand, the outer loop is unable to
increase its output any further once the controller output reaches its upper limit.

3.1.8 Further Analysis

For each of these control variables, a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller should be
configured. As it was discussed in sections X, the composition loops tend to be critical and they are
the slowest to respond from a process point of view. Smith (2012) believes that for a distillation
column, the CVs should be kept within limits by MVs on the same end of the tower. Hence the
following options are made available by that testament:
CV: Distillation composition, MVs: Reflux flow, L or Distillate flow, D
CV: Bottom composition, MV: Bottom flow B
However, at steady state, Eq.1 should be satisfied at all times. A restriction is imposed on the choice
of MV for the loop: as stated before, only B or D can be a MV and not both at the same time due to
the restriction as shown by Eq.1. The reflux ratio (L/D) could have also been used to manipulate the
distillate composition, however, from the relative gain array, identical results would have been
achieved if computed (Smith, 2012). Hence, the L and B configuration is retained, as discussed in
section X.
According to Smith (2012), in practice, it is desirable to control a product composition (such as
distillate one) with an energy term (reflux flow, L) and the other composition (bottom) with a flow
(bottom flow). A smaller degree of interaction between the control loops is then provided. Thus, all
control strategies proposed by Engineous is believed to function adequately and deal with any
disturbances which may occur.
Heat Exchanger and Air Coolers
When considering the control needed to be implemented to this system the most obvious control is
the need to be able to regulate and measure the desired temperature to achieve the objective of
sufficient heat transfer. This can be regulated by feedback control using PID control. As Figure 5

16 | P a g e
shows the implementation of a temperature sensor for the processed fluid, reading the temperature
T1 out. Through the application of proportional-integral control, the temperature of T1 out is fed to
fbTC, where the measured value is compared to the set point, thus producing control action in the
form of opening and closing the steam valves. This model is suitable as it is able to detect the
disturbance and react accordingly to regulate the temperature. (Yehia, 2016)
The biggest problem of air coolers is that air temperature
can vary throughout the year, or even throughout the day,
what will lead to lack of consistency in product
temperature, hence some kind of product temperature
control has to be implemented. Since temperature
variations in UK are not particularly high, the most optimal
form of control is to measure outlet product temperature
and accordingly adjust motor speed of a cooler, and hence
air flowrate (Sinnott, 1996).
Figure 1:Feedback control for heat exchanger (Yehia, 2016)
Flash Drum and Pump
The flash drum in this process operates
adiabatically at a set pressure of 15.5 bar (abs). There must therefore be a pressure controller on
the vapour line leaving the drum (stream 5) in order to regulate the pressure inside the flash drum.
A level of liquid must be maintained inside the drum and therefore a liquid level control valve must
be used on the liquid inlet line (Ponton, 2007). The level in the drum will be controlled by feedforward
control from the flow control valve on the inlet line. A control valve cannot be used on the liquid outlet
line to control the level in the drum as it would interfere with the control loops in the distillation column.
A liquid level indicator and alarm must also be used on the drum itself to alert operators to high or
low liquid level in the drum.
First of all, the pump has to be filled with liquid before the motor is launched. Therefore, a simple
liquid level sensor (such as a float) should be used. Moreover the float would be connected to an
alarm, which would sound if the liquid in the pump fell below a certain level during operation (O'Keefe,
1976). During the start-up procedure the gate valve is opened first, and the pump is filled with liquid.
When the pump is full, the motor is launched and throttling valve is slowly opened, until the desired
flow is achieved (EnggCyclopedia, n.d.) (Budris, n.d.). During shutdown, the throttling valve is closed
first, after which the pump motor is turned off. A Suction valve is left open the entire time (Budris,
n.d.).

3.1.9 Other Considerations

3.1.9.1 Start up and shut down
When there is no distillate flow, the tower is said to operate under total reflux. This may occur during
start up, shut downs and temporary interruptions. No product is being made while energy is still being
consumed (Smith, 2012). Two types of start-up can be identifies as wet and dry. In a wet column,
the tower can be started again by opening the steam valve (Luyben et al, 1985). The following
procedure is executed for start-up of a dry distillation column (Engineers Guide, no date; Luyben et
al., 1985):
1. After commissioning, to find out leaks in the system, it is pressure tested.
2. All the valves are on manual mode.
3. Line blowing: the column is flushed with nitrogen.
4. To remove the oxygen content, the column is then purged and the air speed drive switched
on.
5. All drains and vents are monitored.
6. Some feed is allowed into the column (feed tray may be changed), such that the bottom level
in the column is above the internal exchanger and the steam valve is then opened. Vapours
are produced which reach the condenser.
17 | P a g e
 7. The tower is operated under total reflux at start.
8. Might need to operate under a smaller reflux then if the drum level is too low. All the distillate
is pumped back to the feed tank.
9. Reflux valve is opened to maintain the top temperature and pressure drop in the column.
10. Feed is the introduced proportionally to the vapours produced.
11. Column is then operated at constant reflux till the pressure and temperature values reach the
operating values.
12. Feed flow is then surged up to the operating value and all control valves switched from
manual to automatic.
For the shutdown process (Engineers Guide, no date; Luyben et al., 1985):
1. The column feed flowrate is reduced using the feed flow rate control valve as shown on the
P&ID, while controlling the reflux flow rate proportionally.
2. The steam valve at the bottom is slowly closed and the air speed drive is then reduced when
no vapours are produced within the tower.
3. The feed flow is completely stopped with the reflux valve fully open.
4. All the liquid is then drained out from the column and the flash drum.
5. The column is brought to atmospheric temperature by flushing with inert nitrogen.
6. Flush out the gas valve to remove any remaining vapours (to a flare).
7. Check column for oxygen level and opened it to the atmosphere.
When starting up the heat exchanger the vent connection must be opened slowly and will only
circulate cold fluid for safety reasons. The entire cold side must be flooded before the closure of
the vents. Then the hot medium may be steadily introduced until all the passages are filled with fluid.
The vents may then be closed to allow for the operating temperatures to be reached.
When shutting down the system the disposal of the hot fluid must occur first. Then the circulation of
the cold fluid may then be stopped. This is very similar to the start-up and shutdown procedures for
air coolers (once the change from water to air is accommodated for), as they are simply modified
heat exchangers.
For start-up, the liquid outlet valve must be closed so that a liquid level can build up inside the drum
up to the set point liquid level (half the height of the drum) while the valve on the inlet line must be
set to open. The valve on the vapour line must be set so that the pressure in the drum is maintained
at 15.5 bar (abs). For shutdown, the inlet valve must first be closed to stop the flow of mixture through
the vessel. Liquid can then drain from the vessel through the liquid outlet line. The valves on the
outlet lines can be closed once the drum is empty.
3.1.9.2 Sampling
An example of sampling analyser is gas chromatograph. An analyser is used where a sample is
injected and followed by an analysis for that sample. This differs from a continuous analysis where
an output is produced throughout the entire time for the component by the analyser. The physical
location of the analyser is sometimes in an analyser house where it protected and operates at the
best conditions. Sampling brings a negative impact on the control performance. They delay
information transmission. The analysers are indicated on the product streams as shown on the P&ID.
However, it should be noted that sample points are not always found on the product stream. A
compromise must be achieved between the quality of the sample and the closeness of the sample
point to the product stream (Smith, 2012).
3.1.9.4 Material Selection
Carbon Steel was chosen as the material for the distillation column because depending on the
carbon content it is very strong and durable, resisting wear. Carbon steel can is resistant to corrosion
and it also remains intact under high pressures. It is also cheaper than stainless steel.

18 | P a g e
The outer material of the heat exchanger will be durable high strength and therefore the material
suitable for this is carbon steel. While the inner material requires the durability along with corrosion
resistance and thermal conductivity thus it was chosen to have the inner tubes made of a copper as
this is a relatively cheaper option. (Thomasnet, n.d.)
For the air coolers, the tube transporting LPG and fins attached to it should be made from material
with as high thermal conductivity as possible to maximize heat transfer, therefore the best choice
being copper (401 Wm-1K-1). Typical material for a fan in heat exchanger is carbon steel
(AirTurbinePropeller Co., n.d.), and this material will be used for the fan, as well as all remaining
components.
The operating conditions of the pump are quite safe and will favour longer pump lifespan. This is
due to lack of corrosive substances in a working liquid, near ambient operating temperature and
absence of abrasive particles, hence there is only small risk of corrosion and abrasion (Colin O.
McCaul, 1976). The impeller material chosen is nickel aluminium bronze, since high corrosion and
abrasion resistance is not necessary As a casing material, cast steel was chosen, instead of cheaper
cast iron, since the latter is very brittle and can undergo sudden catastrophic failure (Colin O. McCaul,
1976). The material for the shaft was chosen to be carbon steel, since high corrosion resistance is
not necessary. (Colin O. McCaul, 1976).
For the construction of the drum, carbon steel can be used as it will be able to house the
hydrocarbons with little risk of corrosion while also withstanding the pressure required inside the
drum for flash separation.
3.1.9.5 Commissioning
The purpose of commissioning is to:

Check the completeness of the system as per the design,

Flush the system for removing foreign particles,
Check the logics of the system thoroughly,
Check and calibrate it,
Check the capacity of the tanks and to plot the pump characteristic curves,
Check for leaks by carrying out Air hold test,
Check the insulation of the plant is adequate.

A method of commissioning a distillation column is to:

Clean all the equipment thoroughly,

Flood the column with demineralised water,
Check all control units and auxiliary equipment are fully functioning,
Ensure all operating personnel are comfortable with the operating column.

3.1.9.6 Insulation Requirements

Assuming the distillation column is operating at an average temperature of 75oC, insulation should
be considered for personnel health and safety. This is primarily for shift workers and on-floor
operators, in the case that they may have to work in close proximity to the column. Without insulation
this may result in injury. Insulation will also limit energy loss to the surroundings but this is far more
trivial than the safety of the workers.
3.1.9.7 Overpressure Protection
Overpressure can be avoided in distillation columns using relief equipment e.g. pressure relief
valves, bursting discs or vents. Relief devices are specifically sized for a process such that they are
capable of withstanding the highest discharge rate of all potential failures. However this design is
static, meaning that the pressure relief valve will always discharge at this flowrate, although it is

19 | P a g e
unlikely the maximum discharge failure will actually happen. As a precaution, a second, smaller relief
device is included in the process which is set at approximately 0.7 bar less than the main relief valve.
This valve is used to reduce the frequency and the extent of discharge of the main valve, dealing
with relatively smaller pressure increases (Cheah, 2000).
In order to prevent overpressure in the drum, there must also be a pressure relief valve installed on
the drum itself to prevent the pressure inside the drum from exceeding its design pressure. A
pressure indicator and high pressure alarm must also be installed on the flash drum itself in order to
alert operators to overpressure in the drum.

4.0 Economic Evaluation

4.1 Breakdown of the Equipment Cost
4.1.1 Distillation costing
To get an estimate of the distillation tower, the following parameters will needed: cost of trays, cost
of column and the cost of the internal exchanger in the column.
4.1.1.1 Cost of Column
The minimum thickness, t, for a cylindrical shell is given by:

= . 4.1 ( , 2008)
4 1.2
Where is the internal pressure, is the internal diameter of column, Sr is the maximum allowable
stress, E is the welded-joint efficiency. Sinnott and Towler (2008) believe that the design pressure is
taken as 10% above the operating pressure of 17.5 bars, which gives a value of 19.25 bars. The
maximum allowable stress for type carbon steel A285 Grade A at 102C is 89 N mm-2 and the density
of the carbon steel, , is found to be 7900 kg m-3 (Sinnott and Towler, 2008).
Assumption: The welds will be fully radiographed, implying that the efficiency, E=1.
1.925 106 1.7
. 4.1, = = 0.0186 0.02
(4 89 106 1) (1.2 1.925 106 )

Further calculations are required to calculate the shell mass of the column using Eq. 4.2:
= . 4.2 ( , 2008)
Where is the vessel length = 1.7 16 0.02 7900 = 13501
For a preliminary estimate at this stage of the design, the following correlation obtained from
Sinnott and Towler (2008) can be used to find the cost of the column.
= + . 4.3
Where is the purchased cost, S is the size parameter, a and b are constants which depend on
the investigated equipment and n is an exponent for that particular type of unit.
, = 400 + 230(13501)0.6 = 52,373
The use of an approximate correlation is justified since the value of S is found in between the
upper (69 200) and lower (150) limits for which the correlation is valid.
4.1.1.2 Cost of Trays
Using Eq. 4.3, a rough cost of the trays can be obtained:

= 100 + 120(1.7)2 = 339 , hence, the total cost of trays, 339 20 = 6787
Where is the cost for the sieve trays, which have a good separation efficiency, moderate
pressure drop and lower cost compared to bubble cap and valve trays (Sinnott and Towler, 2008).
The lower and upper values of S for the tray are 0.5 and 5 respectively, which again justify the use
of the correlation.

20 | P a g e
4.1.1.3 Cost of Internal Exchanger in Column
In computing the cost for the exchanger, the area of exchange has to be calculated first and
foremost.
= . 4.4 where is the area of heat exchange.
U=1240 W m-2 K-1 (Deosarkar et al., 2007) and, Q=860947, obtained from the energy balance and
has been evaluated as 64.52 C using the LMTD equation. From Eq. 4.4:
860947
= = = 10.75 2
1240 64.52
The cost of the internal exchanger will be approximated as a U tube and Kettle reboiler. Using Eq.
4.3, an estimate of the cost for that piece of equipment is determined where s is the heat exchange
area in this case.
= 14000 + 83(10.75)2 = 11,308, where is the cost of the reboiler.
From the 3 parameters of the distillation column, the total cost can be calculated:
= + +
= 52,373 + 6,787 + 11,308 = 70,468
A cost escalation has been performed for the column distillation cost using historical data. The total
cost just calculated is based on literature from 2008.
Cost index in 2008=216.5 & Cost index in 2017=275.1 (Office National Statistics, 2017)
2017
Hence, 2017 = 2008 2008 = 89, 500

4.1.2 Flash drum

For an estimation of the cost of the flash drum, it was assumed to be cylindrical in shape in order to
simplify the calculations. In reality the vessel will have a hemispherical top and bottom but this will
not make a significant difference to the cost calculations. The flash drum has been found to require
a diameter of 1.7 m and a height of 2.3 m. Assuming a cylindrical carbon steel vessel with a wall
thickness of 4 mm (Chen, 2014), the mass of the vessel can be estimated with a design pressure of
17.05 bars and same material as the distillation column:
1.705106 1.7
From Eq. 4.1 , = (489106 1)(1.21.705106 ) = 0.0082

From Eq. 4.2, = 1.7 2.3 0.0082 7900 = 795

The shell mass falls within the lower (160) and upper (250, 000) limits allowed by Eq. 4.3, so its use
is validated.
From Eq. 4.3, = 10000 + 29(795)0.9 = 12,220 where is the cost of the flash drum

4.1.3 Pump Costing

From literature, the same equations 4.1-4.3 are used to get an estimate of the pump. S is the
volumetric flowrate through the pump in L/s. S for a single-stage centrifugal pump ranges between
0.2 and 126. From Eq. 4.3:
= 6900 + 206(50)0.9 = 10,540

21 | P a g e
4.1.4 Heat exchangers and Air coolers
The total heat exchange area for the first heat exchanger was
calculated to be 32.4 2 while the second heat exchanger was
found to be 38 2 and therefore could find an estimate of the price
of the heat exchangers through figure 1. Through the heat
exchanger and the use of floating head the heat exchangers with
carbon steel, an estimate of the heat exchangers cost were
obtained.
For heat exchanger 1, from figure 4.1, the shell and tube heat
exchanger would be 18,000. However as this is considering
figures and prices from 2004, prices have been adjusted for 2017
and the total cost for a heat exchanger of this dimension is
26,100 having taken into consideration the value of inflation
being a factor 1.45.
For heat exchanger 2, from figure 4.1, the shell and tube heat
exchanger would be 16,000. With the same factor of inflation,
the cost of the heat exchanger is 23,200.
As area cooler 1 had an Figure 4.1: Heat exchanger area to approximate cost of
area of 70.52 , an heat exchanger
estimate of the cost is
$120,000 as read off the chart using extrapolation. When
converted to pound, this gives a value of 65,699.
For air cooler 2, the cost for the required area was found to
be $90,000 which was when converted to 48,387.
Table 4.3: Cost breakdown of the heat exchangers and air coolers
Equipment Cost of equipment
Heat Exchanger 26,100
1
Heat Exchanger 23,200
Figure 2.2: Value of air cooler due to the
total area required
2
Air Cooler 1 65,699
Air Cooler 2 48,387
4.2 Summary
The table below shows the cost of the operations units in the design.
Table 4.2: Unit cost breakdown

Equipment Cost ()
Distillation column 89,500
Heat Exchanger 1 26,100
Heat Exchanger 2 23,200
Air cooler 1 65,700
Air cooler 2 48,340
Flash drum 12,220
Pump 10,540
Total 275,600

4.3 Overall Costing for Plant

A rough estimate of capital and operating costs will be given introduced in this section as part of the
design stage.

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4.3.1 Fixed Capital costs
The fixed capital costs include the following (Sinnott and Towler, 2009):

Cost of the plant (Inside battery limits, ISBL)

Changes that are made to the plant (off-site costs)
Engineering and construction costs
Contingency charges
4.3.1.1 Lang Factor
The accuracy of the estimate will depend on the level of details, the precision of the data used and
the period of time spent in evaluating the costing for the project. Being in the early stages of the
design, the approximation used will be justified within the report. The capital cost for the plant will be
based on a technique proposed by Lang (1948), where the cost of the plant will be a function of the
equipment cost, including an installation factor known as the Lang factor.
= ( ) . 4.5
Where C is the total plant ISBL capital cost; this includes the engineering costs as well, ( ) is the
total cost for the units and F is the Lang factor.
From an initial estimate using Eq. 4.5, the ISBL cost has been calculated as 1,310,000 where
F=4.74 (Lang, 1948) and the total equipment cost, ( ), being 275,600
4.3.1.2 Factorial Method
This technique gives a better estimate of the fixed capital cost. From the costing of the different units
based on the sizing information, the cost associated with the different items as shown in the table
below can be calculated using Eq. 4.6. The table below also displays the typical factors used to
estimate the capital cost based on a fluid processing design.
= ( ) . 4.6 ( , 2009

Table 4.3: Fixed capital cost breakdown (Sinnott and Towler, 2009)
Item Factor Cost ()
ISBL cost (C) 3.3 909,000
Off-sites (OS) 0.3 82,680
Design and Engineering 0.3 82,680
(D&E)
Contingency (CO) 0.1 27,560
Hence the fixed capital cost can be calculated as (Sinnott and Towler, 2009):
( ) = (1 + )(1 + & + ) . 4.7
= 909,000 1.82 = 1,655,000
In table 4.3, the 4 factors of fixed operating investment has been explained (Sinnott and Towler,
2009):
ISBL costs: Includes the cost of all the cost of unit operations, bulk items like piping,
instrumentation and control equipment, civil works, installation labour costs. From this, the
following costs are also included namely: construction, field expenses, construction
insurance, labour benefits and miscellaneous overhead items
Off-sites costs: cost that is incurred based on modifications and changes of the existing
plant such as electricity, boiler, and cooling tower, only to list a few.
Engineering costs: This accommodates for the fees of contractors, cost of detailed design
and engineering services needed to execute the project.
Contingency costs: This allows for extra costs that need to be incorporated into the budget
from the cost estimate since the latter are uncertain values.

23 | P a g e
4.3.2 Working Capital
The working capital costs is the fund required to operate the plant, in additional to building it, starting
up and reaches steady state as in the design, where product specifications are then met. For the
level of the design reached, the working capital cost can be estimated as 15% of the fixed capital
(ISBL + off-site) for petrochemical plants (Sinnott and Towler, 2009).
= 0.15 (909,000 + 82,680) = 148, 820 . 4.8
4.3.3 Plant Operating Costs
4.3.3.1 Fixed Costs of Production
These are the costs incurred independent of the plant operating status. The plant will operate on a
shit basis with 5 shifts to accommodate for vacations and holidays. There will be 5 operators per
team/shift with an average wage of 46,000 each. Hence the operating labour cost is about
1,150,000. Eqs. 4.9 - 4.13, obtained from Sinnott and Towler (2009), the different costs are
computed and depicted in table 4.4 below. The land has been assumed to be rented as most projects
worldwide. A breakdown of the technique can be found in Appendix IV.
Table 4.4: Breakdown of fixed cost of production
4.3.3.2 Variable
Fixed Costs of Production Cost ()
Supervision 287,500 Operating Costs
These are the costs Direct salary Overhead 718,750 which are directly
linked to the plant Maintenance 36,380 turnover. The
accuracy of this Property taxes 13,640 section will depend
largely on the price Rent of land 13,640 data used. The
electricity cost has General Plant Overhead 654,000 been found to be
around 0.05/ kWh Allocated environmental charges 9,920 and the cost
associated with the Total heat exchangers and
2,884,000
air coolers are tabulated in (table 4.5)
with the plant running for 350 days a year due to maintenance purposes (Sinnott and Towler, 2009).
The pump energy has been calculated in Section 2.5. The total expenditure is 588,000 with a
breakdown of the cost in Appendix IV.
The utilities costs based on mass of water and steam used for the plant have been included in table
4.6 below. The price of water at a temperature of is 0.26 /t (Sinnott and Towler, 2009). It is to be
pointed out that in heat exchanger 1, the water inlet has to be at 100C, which could be achieved
through heat integration possibly. Air, at 1 bar is available freely on the plant. A breakdown of the
cost is found in Appendix IV, where the total utility expenses is 33, 145.
The total operating cost for the entire plant can be therefore can be calculated as follows:
= + . 4.14
= 2,844,000 + (588,000 + 33,145) = 3,505,000
4.3.4 Financial Evaluation of Plant
The incomes from the end products and side products are the revenues for this distillation plant.
= . 4.15 ( , 2009)
Based on sensible statement that the location of the plant is unknown, the raw material which is LPG
will be supplied at a price of 1.34 /kg (Brignall, 2012). Hence, with a feed flowrate of 33 tonnes/hr,
the cost of the raw material annually has been calculated as 371, 448,000 .The revenues generated
from the sale of the main product butane, propane and the side product, ethane are shown in table
4.7 below. It was deemed that the selling prices of butane and propane have to be halved due to the
purity of the product and side streams obtained.
Source for Annual
Price Half price
Product price of production rate Income (/year)
(/kg) (/kg)
product (106 kg/year)
Ethane 0.14 Groppe et al., 0.07 0.168 11,760
(2013)

24 | P a g e
 Propane 4.4 Confused about 2.2 120.12 264,264,000
energy (2017)
Butane 3.74 Confused about 1.87 94.248 176,243,000
energy (2017)
Total 440,519,520

According to Sinnott and Towler (2009), a simple method for analysis of the feasibility of the LPG
separation can be computed through figure 4.3 to obtain the payback time.

800
Economic Feasibility
600
Net Profit () x Millions

400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-200

-400

-600
Years
Figure 4.3: Payback time

The following assumptions have been used in calculating the payback time, (Sinnott and Towler,
2009):
1. all the investments are made prior to commissioning and returns begin immediately after the
plant is up and running
2. This does not take into account depreciation and taxes.
A payback time of 6 years is obtained as shown in figure 4.3.

5.0 Conclusion

25 | P a g e
6.0 References
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Available at: http://www.airturbine.com/fan-materials-finishes
[Accessed 23 10 2017].

Beychok, M., 2006. Geek Interview. [Online]

Available at: http://www.geekinterview.com/talk/579-design-vapor-liquid-separator-knockout-drum-flash-
drum.html
[Accessed 24 October 2017].

Bhanvase, B. A., Deosarkar, M. P., Shirsath, S. R. & Gaikwad, R., 2007. Internal reboiler in distillation
column. In: Chemical Engineering world. Nagpur: s.n., p. 86.

BOC, 2013. Safety Data Sheet: Propane, s.l.: s.n.

Branan, C. R., 2005. Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers. 4th ed. Oxford: Elsevier.

Brignall, M., 2012. Petrol or LPG ... do the fuel cost savings add up?. [Online]
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/money/2012/jul/13/petrol-lpg-fuel-cost-savings
[Accessed 13 July 2017].

Brown, M. S. a. G. G., 1934. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry - Design of Fractionating Columns,
Entrainment and Capacity. [Online]
Available at: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50289a025
[Accessed 17 October 2017].

Buckley, P. S., Luyben, W. L. & Shunta, J. P., 1985. Design of Distillation Column Control Systems. USA:
Elsevier.

Budris, A., n.d. POWER PRECAUTIONS: ANALYZING PUMP STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN BEST PRACTICES.
[Online]
Available at: http://www.waterworld.com/articles/print/volume-29/issue-8/departments/pump-tips-
techniques/power-precautions.html
[Accessed 21 10 2017].

Campbell, J. M., 2015. Gas-Liquid Separators Sizing Parameter. [Online]

Available at: http://www.jmcampbell.com/tip-of-the-month/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Sep_2015_Gas-
Liquid-Separators-Sizing-Parameter-MM083015.pdf
[Accessed 17 October 2017].

Chen, D., 2014. Pressure vessels. [Online]

Available at: https://processdesign.mccormick.northwestern.edu/index.php/Pressure_Vessels
[Accessed 25 October 2017].

Cheremisinoff, N. P. & Cheremisinoff, P. N., 1993. Heat Transfer Equiptment. New Jersey: PTR Prenttice
Hall.

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Colin O. McCaul, R. S. M. E. E. L., 1976. Materials of construction. In: Pump Handbook. s.l.:McGraw-Hill, pp.
5.3-5.65.

Ely, J. F. & Younglove, B. A., 1987. Thermophysical Properties of Fluids II, Methane, Ethane, Propane,
Isobutane and Normal Butane. Colorado: s.n.

Energy Saving Trust, n.d. Our calculations. [Online]

Available at: http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/about-us/our-calculations
[Accessed 17 10 1017].

EnggCyclopedia, n.d. Centrifugal Pump Start-up Procedure. [Online]

Available at: http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/2011/10/centrifugal-pump-start-up-procedure/
[Accessed 21 10 2017].

Engineers Guide, n.d. Distillation operator functions and duties for successful operation of a distillation
column like start up and shit down. [Online]
Available at: http://enggyd.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/distillation-operator-functions-and.html
[Accessed 25 October 2017].

Felder, R. M. & Rousseau, R. W., 2005. Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes. 3rd ed. New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons.

Graphskill Ltd, n.d. BRITISH STANDARD PIPE DIMENSIONS: METRIC TO IMPERIAL SIZE COMPARISON.
[Online]
Available at: https://www.graphskill.co.uk/content/19-pipe-dimensions-metric-imperial
[Accessed 17 10 2017].

Johnsen, J. K., 2005. Robust distillation column. s.l.:NTNU.

Knauf Insulation, 2014. Rock mineral wool safety data sheet. [Online]
Available at:
http://www.knaufinsulation.co.uk/sites/knaufuk/files/downloadfile/ki_dp_207_sds_rmw_pf_uk_en.pdf
[Accessed 24 October 2017].

NIST, 2017. Thermophysical properties of fluid systems. [Online]

Available at: http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/
[Accessed 17 October 2017].

NIST, 2017. Thermophysical properties of fluid systems. [Online]

Available at: http:/webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/
[Accessed 17 October 2017].

Office of National Statistics, 2017. RPI All Items Index: Jan 1987 = 100. [Online]
Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/inflationandpriceindices/timeseries/chaw/mm23
[Accessed 25 October 2017].

O'Keefe, W., 1976. Pump Controls and Valves. In: Pump Handbook. s.l.:McGraw Hill, pp. 7.3-7.29.

Ortloff, 2009. Ortloff Picture. [Online]

Available at: http://www.ortloff.com/pictures/1.jpg
[Accessed 25 October 2017].

Ponton, J., 2007. The ECOSSE Control HyperCourse: Module 2.3: Control of Separation Processes. [Online]
Available at:
http://homepages.ed.ac.uk/jwp/control06/controlcourse/restricted/course/third/course/module2-3.html
[Accessed 24 October 2017].
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Robert H. Perry, D. W. G., 1934. Perry's Chemical Engineering Handbook. 8th ed. s.l.:McGraw-Hill
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Sinnott, R., 1983. Chemical Engineering Design. s.l.:Elsevier.

Sinnott, R., 1996. Coulson & Richardson's chemical engineering. Vol.6, Chemical engineering design. 2nd ed.
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Sinnott, R. K., 2005. Chemical Engineering Design. 4th ed. Oxford: Elsevier.

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Available at: https://www.chemicalprocessing.com/articles/2007/properly-protect-centrifugal-pumps/
[Accessed 21 10 2017].

Smith, C. L., 2012. Distillation Control, An Engineering perspective. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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Available at: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-density-specific-weight-d_595.html
[Accessed 22 October 2017].

Thomasnet, n.d. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers. [Online]

Available at: https://www.thomasnet.com/about/shell-tube-heat-exchangers-26641001.html
[Accessed 22 October 2017].

U.S. Department of Energy, 2007. Energy Tips Pumping Systems, Washington: U.S. Department of Energy.

Warren M. Rohsenow, J. P. H. Y. I. C., 1998. Handbook of heat transfer. 3rd ed. s.l.:McGraw-Hill.

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[Accessed 19 October 2017].

28 | P a g e
7.0 Appendix
7.1 Appendix I
Viscosity Calculations
Component VISA T VISB 1/T 1/VISB log(Viscosity) Viscosity
(K) (K-1) (mNs/m2)
Ethane 156.6 348.15 95.57 0.0029 0.0105 -1.19 0.06
Propane 222.67 348.15 133.41 0.0029 0.0075 -1.03 0.09
Propene 273.84 348.15 131.63 0.0029 0.0076 -1.29 0.05
Ibutane 302.51 348.15 170.2 0.0029 0.0059 -0.91 0.12
Butane 265.84 348.15 160.2 0.0029 0.0062 -0.90 0.13
Ibutene 256.3 348.15 151.86 0.0029 0.0066 -0.95 0.11
1butene 256.3 348.15 151.86 0.0029 0.0066 -0.95 0.11
T2butene 259.01 348.15 153.3 0.0029 0.0065 -0.95 0.11
C2butene 268.94 348.15 155.34 0.0029 0.0064 -0.96 0.11
3M1butene 369.27 348.15 193.39 0.0029 0.0052 -0.85 0.14
IPentane 313.66 348.15 182.48 0.0029 0.0055 -0.82 0.15

Table: Viscosities of the different components at 75C (Sinnott, 2005) (Maybe Appendix)

Mass Flow Mass Mr Molar Mol Viscosity

Components (tonnes hr-1) Flowrate (kg mol-1) Flowrate Fraction (mNs/m2)
(kg hr-1) (mol hr-1)

Ethane 0.0165 17 0.03 549 0.0008 0.0001

Propane 14.8335 14834 0.04 336383 0.5158 0.0482
Propene 0.099 99 0.04 2353 0.0036 0.0002
Ibutane 1.287 1287 0.06 22142 0.0339 0.0042
Butane 11.715 11715 0.06 201552 0.3090 0.0393
Ibutene 1.155 1155 0.06 20585 0.0316 0.0035
1butene 0.99 990 0.06 17645 0.0271 0.0030
T2butene 1.3695 1370 0.06 24408 0.0374 0.0042
C2butene 1.3365 1337 0.06 23820 0.0365 0.0040
3M1butene 0.066 66 0.07 941 0.0014 0.0002
IPentane 0.132 132 0.07 1829 0.0028 0.0004
Total 33 33000 652208 0.1073

7.2 Appendix II
7.2.1 Sizing of Heat Exchanger 1
On the tube side,

Now for a 2 tube pass,

2
(19103 )
Tube cross sectional area = 4
= 2.84 104 2 and
29 | P a g e
 70
Number of tubes per pass = 2
= 35
Total flow area=2.84 10 4
70 = 0.0107 2
6.411000
= = 36000.0107 = 166.6 2 1
100+47.8
Mean temperature of water in heat exchange, = 2
= 73.9
Density of water at a mean temperature of 74.5 is approximately 997 3 (The
Engineering ToolBox, n.d.)
166.6
, = = = 0.167 1
997

The use of 2 shell passes and 8 tube passes can be implemented to increase the linear
velocity
The new value of Ft= 0.9 based on R (2.97) and S (0.283). The new calculated 20.8
and the same procedure is repeated; the new linear velocity obtained is 0.18 m/s.
An estimate for the transfer coefficient on the tube side is calculated:

4200(1.35 + 0.02)0.8 4200(1.35 + 0.02 73.9)0.07220.8

= = = 1693 2 1
0.2 192

On the Shell side

Using a split-ring floating head type, the bundle clearance obtained is 58mm from figure 2.1. Hence, shell
diameter, Ds= Bundle diameter + bundle diameter clearance=503 + 58 =560 mm.

From literature, Sinnott and Towler (2009) it can be found

that:
1 1
-The baffle spacing: = 5 = 5 560 =
112
-Tube pitch: = 1.25 0 = 1.25 30 = 37.5
( 0 )
-Cross flow area= = =

3 3
(37..530)10 56010 1.5610 3

37.5103
= 0.01262

331000 1
-Shell-side mass velocity: = = =
36000.0126 2
2 1
729
1.10
Equivalent diameter, = 0
(2 0.91702 ) = 32 and Figure 2.1: Shell inside diameter required for
different bundle diameters
Mean shell temperature= 46.6

Table 5.5: Properties of mixture

Properties of mixture
Density/ 3 472
Viscosity / 2 0.1073

Specific Heat Capacity/ 1 1 2.3

Thermal Conductivity/ 2 1 0.017

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 729 21.3 103
= = = 216,992 . 2.12
0.1073 103
2.3 103 0.1073 103
= = = 14.5 . 2.13
0.017

-With a baffle cut of 25%, the heat transfer factor, jh is obtained from figure below, figure , = 0.005

Figure 3: Chart of the different values for the baffles (Sinnott, 2005)

Hence, from the definition of the Nusselt number (Eq. 2.131) the following equation 2.14 can be rearranged
to find the value of heat transfer coefficient.
0.14
= = 0.33 ( ) . 2.14

0.14
0.33 ( )

=
. 2.14.1

Neglecting the viscosity term:

0.017 0.005 227,525 14.50.33

= = 1396 2 1
21.3 103

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7.3 Appendix III

Figure 4: Initial Control Strategy for distillate composition

7.4 Appendix IV
7.4.1 Fixed Cost of Production
= 25% . . 4.9
= 50% ( + ) . . . . 4.10
= 4% . 5
= 1.5% . 4.11
= 1.5% . 7
= 65% ( + ) . 4.12
= 1% ( + ) . 4.13

7.4.2 Energy Cost

Table 4.5: Energy Cost Associated with the equipment

Operation unit Energy Energy required Cost

required (106 kWh/ year) (/year)
(GJ/hr)
Heat exchanger 1 1.40 3.27 163,300
Heat exchanger 2 1.44 3.36 168,200
Air Cooler 1 1.20 2.80 140,000
Air Cooler 2 1.0 2.33 116,700
Pump - 0.1764 8,820
Total 588,000
7.4.3 Utility Cost

Table 4.6: Utility expenses

Operation unit Mass required Mass required Cost

6
(tonnes/hr) (10 kg/ year) (/year)
Heat exchanger 1 6.76 56.8 14,800
Heat exchanger 2 6.96 58.5 15,000

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Internal Exchanger 1.45 12.18 3,167
in distillation
column
Total 33,145

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