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5H A P T E R
Interpretation of Liquid
Penetrant Indications
Sources of Discontinuities in
FIGURE 4. Thermal cracks and shrinkage in cast motor
housings. Forgings
If the ingot or billet is used for forging, a
variety of discontinuities can be produced,
usually because of improper handling of
the metal under the hammer or to
working at too low a temperature.
Common discontinuities are laps and
folds. Forging bursts, both external and
internal, can also occur. Figure 5 shows a
forging lap.
In the case of die or drop forging, laps
and surface tears and bursts may be
produced. In die forgings, excess metal is
forced out between the two halves of the
die forming the flash and this excess
metal is subsequently trimmed off. If not
properly done, flashline cracks or tears
may be formed. Another type of forging
discontinuity is the internal rupture
Sources of Discontinuities in
Machined and Ground Surfaces
Sometimes machining operations, as for
instance too heavy a cut with improper
tools, may cause surface damage, leaving
discontinuities in the form of surface
tears. Grinding of surfaces for accurate
dimensions or for finish is a prolific
source of surface cracking, especially on
hardened steel surfaces. Parts that have
been hardened may have residual internal
Persistence of Liquid
Penetrant Indications
One good way to estimate the size of
discontinuity is by the persistence of the
indication. If it reappears after the
developer has been removed and
reapplied, there must be a reservoir of
liquid penetrant present. In case of faint
or weak indications where there is some
doubt as to the type or even the existence
of a discontinuity, it is good practice to
repeat the entire liquid penetrant test. If
the indication reappears, it is probably
due to a small discontinuity rather than
to incomplete cleaning.
Types of Specifications for FIGURE 12. Crack in stainless steel tube: (a) fluorescent liquid
penetrant indication; (b) cross section.
Liquid Penetrant Testing
(a)
Specifications and standards applicable to
liquid penetrant testing may be divided
into two broad classes: (1) those dealing
with techniques and (b) those dealing
with materials. Each of these groups can
be broken down further. Some of the
subgroups are below.
Techniques
Specifications and standards may apply to
the following types of techniques:
1. broad procedural guidelines; (b)
2. company procedural guidelines;
3. procedural guides for specific types of
products or for industries;
4. procedures for testing specific articles,
specified by a purchaser or by process
specifications internal to the
company;
5. procedures specified for overall
inspection of a companys products;
6. specifications for certification of
operators;
7. standards for acceptance or rejection,
set up by buyer or by company for
quality control;
8. repair station requirements;
9. equipment specifications; and
10. instructions for operating specific
types of equipment or individual
special units.
Materials
by comparing it with standard film but
Specifications that apply to materials may the many factors affecting liquid
be of the following types: penetrant testing have retarded the
1. specifications designed for use in establishment of standards for this
purchasing liquid penetrants and process. Differences in indications may be
other materials and due to personnel or technique, as well as
2. specifications designed for testing and to variations in discontinuities. The
evaluating performance of liquid inspector must know the technique used
penetrants and other materials. and its effect on liquid penetrant
indications. Possible causes of inadequate
liquid penetrant indications are shown in
Table 4.
Lack of Standard Liquid
Penetrant Indications
There are as yet no standard liquid
penetrant indications for comparison.
Radiographers can judge the seriousness
of a discontinuity revealed on X-ray film
Defect fine crack or cold shut general porosity porosity large flaws
Fabrication prior anodize or chromate embedded grease rough surface
Cleaning wet, acid, or caustic oily or greasy scale or rust
Temperature too low
Washing inadequate inadequate
Lighting inadequate
Inspector poor sighta poor sighta
a. Inadequate vision of inspector may be due to (1) inattention, (2) maladaption to darkness or (3) poor vision acuity,
which may be due to vitamin A deficiency.
Indications of
Miscellaneous Parts
Many test laboratories handling a wide
variety of work do not have the advantage
of inspecting large quantities of any one
item. Most of these commercial
laboratories are performing tests to
government specifications and
consequently, the liquid penetrant
inspectors are trained and tested. There is
no substitute for experience, which is
gained only by seeing which
discontinuities caused which indications.
(a)
Cracks Occurring during
Processing of Metals
Hot and cold working of metals and alloys
can induce cracking. Hot short
materials can crack when hot working
stresses exceed loads that can be
supported at grain boundaries. Cold
working to excess leads to cracking as well
as work hardening. Heating and cooling
(as when hardening by quenching parts in
water after removal from hot furnaces)
can lead to thermal stress and quench
cracking.
Forging Cracks
Forgings may have indications of cracks,
often at the juncture of light and heavy
sections or in thin fins. As in castings,
cracks are regarded as rejectable.
Indications similar to those from cracks
are produced by forging laps, discussed
elsewhere in this chapter.
(b)
Cracks in Sheets or Tubing
Formed parts such as sheet or tubing or
castings that have been straightened may
crack at the point of maximum stress.
Such cracks may be very small; there are
usually several in close proximity and
they are generally considered rejectable
discontinuities.
Machining Marks
Machining practice may produce cracklike
indications from dull tools, chatter marks
and similar tool marks. Such indications
are ordinarily not intense and are not
considered sufficient cause for rejection.
Grinding Cracks
Grinding cracks are minute, often Fig. 15a were taken under normal light;
invisible to the unaided eye and are cause the photographs in Fig. 15b show the
for rejection. The type of precision part same tools, processed with water washable
that must have a ground surface cannot liquid penetrant, under ultraviolet
tolerate any surface cracks, however small. radiation. These cracks would soon
While grinding cracks are extremely fine progress to failure if the tools were used.
and may be shallow, they usually occur in Notice that the indications are bright and
a definite network that is easily identified. well defined because the cracks are deep
Extensive grinding cracks are shown in and rather tight lipped.
the two carbide tipped cutting tools
illustrated in Fig. 15. The photographs in
(c)
from these areas, this porosity is probably cause for rejection unless they can be
harmless. lapped out within the acceptable
dimensional tolerance.
Cracks in Valve Heads
Some valves are faced with special alloys Stress Corrosion Cracks
to increase their resistance to heat and Another crack that is caused by operating
wear. Because this facing is nonmagnetic, conditions is stress corrosion cracking.
cracks can be detected only by liquid Deep drawn parts used to contain
penetrant testing (Fig. 20). Such cracks are chemicals and items for maritime service
are especially likely to crack from stress
corrosion. Stress corrosion cracking does
not necessarily start from an edge or stress
FIGURE 18. Fatigue cracks in aluminum piston head.
raiser. Indications of these cracks often
appear in a pattern at the area of
maximum stress and are easily identified.
Stress corrosion cracks are considered
cause for rejection.
Heat Checks
The third type of crack that may show up
on maintenance overhaul is the heat
check, occurring when surfaces are
overheated. Like grinding cracks (which
are initiated in the same way by local
overheating), heat checks are usually quite
shallow but occur in definite, recognizable
network. These indications may or may
not, be cause for rejection, depending on
the use of the part.
(a)
(b)
Seams
FIGURE 21. Forging laps in aluminum forging. Seams in bar stock, laminations in sheet
or plate and seam conditions in forgings
give liquid penetrant indications similar
to those from extrusion discontinuities.
Seams are often extremely narrow, having
been compressed and elongated in
manufacture. Indication lines are usually
quite straight, easy to recognize and in
the longitudinal direction. They may be
only short lines when examined
transverse to the direction of rolling.
Seams are usually bases for rejection
(Fig. 22).
Extrusion Discontinuities
Depending on the orientation of the
surface being examined, an extrusion
discontinuity may cause continuous or
dotted liquid penetrant indications. A
typical extrusion discontinuity is an internal
unsound area, longitudinally squeezed
during extrusion and sometimes
breaching the surface (Fig. 23). If the
extrusion is sectioned and a longitudinal
surface examined, the extrusion
discontinuity will show up as a line, like a
crack. If a cross section is inspected, liquid
penetrant indications will appear as short
lines or dots. An extrusion discontinuity
is usually considered a basis for rejection
in aircraft applications but may be
acceptable for other service where only
longitudinal strength is required.
Gas Holes FIGURE 25. Leak testing of welded seam with fluorescent
liquid penetrant: (a) spray application of liquid penetrant to
Liquid penetrant indications of gas holes interior wall at weld seam; (b) spray application of developer
are round blobs of rich color or to exterior wall at weld seam; (c) leak indications in welded
fluorescence. Large gas holes are bases for seam shown by fluorescence.
rejection, not only because they reduce
strength but also because they produce a (a)
rough surface. Small gas holes may not be
rejectable discontinuities, because they do
not have the serious effect on strength
that a crack or a lap does. If pressure
tightness or smooth surface is required,
then even tiny pinholes are considered a
basis for rejection. Figure 24 shows
fluorescent liquid penetrant indications of
extreme porosity in a casting.
Shrinkage Cavities
Porosity resulting from shrinkage cavities
may produce rounded liquid penetrant
indications or may give the appearance of
MOVIE. cracks. Usually, shrinkage cavities have a
Porosity in dendritic pattern that helps the inspector
casting. identify them. For high stress
applications, shrinkage cavities are (b)
rejectable discontinuities. These are cases
where the amount of shrinkage and its
location on the part do not detrimentally
affect service; in such cases the part is
acceptable.
(c)
Porosity in Ceramics
Liquid penetrant testing is a good way to
locate porosity in ceramics. The
appearance and interpretation of
indications are the same as in metals,
with the one extra caution that special
attention must be paid to cleaning
because most ceramics are somewhat
porous.
Evaluation of Nonrelevant
Indications
One technique that an inspector can use
to help identify a nonrelevant indication
is wiping off the indication with a solvent
dampened lint free swab or cloth and
reapplying the developer. The original
developer dwell time must be repeated;
however, the inspector should monitor
the bleedout to help evaluate the
indication. If there is no bleedout, the
original indication can be considered
nonrelevant or false. This technique may
also reveal multiple relevant indications
that had previously merged into one or
had been hidden by excessive bleedout
from an adjacent nonrelevant indication
during the developer dwell.
Evaluating Indications to
Determine Causes of
Discontinuities
It is possible to examine an indication of
a discontinuity and to determine its cause
as well as its extent. Such an appraisal can
be made if something is known about the
manufacturing processes to which the
part has been subjected. The extent of the
indication or accumulation of liquid
penetrant, will show the extent of
discontinuity and the breadth and
brilliance will be a measure of its depth.
Deep cracks will hold more liquid
penetrant and therefore will be broader
and more brilliant. Very fine openings can
hold only small amounts of liquid
TABLE 5. Typical aerospace manufacturers liquid penetrant testing acceptance and rejection criteria.
High
Material and Stainless Iron Temperature
Discontinuity Aluminum Copper Magnesium Nickel Steel Alloy Titanium Alloy
Bar Stock
cracks N N N N N N N N
seams N N N N N N N N
Castings
cold shuts Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
cracks N N N N N N N N
porosity A A Q A A A A A
sand blisters A A A A A A A A
shrinkage Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Extrusions
blisters N N N N N N N N
broken surface N N N N N N
deep scratches Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
die drag Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
die weld cracks N N N
cracks N N N N N N N N
inclusions Q Q N Q Q Q N Q
metal pick up A A A A A A A A
pitting A Q N Q Q A N Q
Forgings
cracks N N N N N N N N
inclusions Q Q N Q Q Q N Q
laps N N N N N N N N
Formed Part
cracks N N N N N N N N
inclusions Q Q N Q Q Q N Q
metal pick up A A A A A A A A
orange peel Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Heat Treated
cracks N N N N N N N N
scale A A A
Machined parts
cracks N N N N N N N N
grinding cracks N N N N N N N N
tool marks Q Q N Q Q Q N Q
Plate
cracks N N N N N N N N
inclusions Q N N Q Q Q N Q
laminations N N N N N N N N
pitting A Q N Q Q A N Q
scratches A A N A A A N A
Sheet
cracks N N N N N N N N
inclusions Q Q N Q Q Q N Q
laminations N N N N N N N N
pitting A Q N Q Q A N Q
scratches A A N A A A N A
A = Acceptable.
N = Not acceptable.
Q = Questionable.
Grade E Allows same flaws as Grade B, Allows same bleedback as in Allows same indications as in
plus four negative flaws per Grade B, plus four bleedback Grade B, plus diameter 0.4
side of 0.4 to 1.5 mm (0.016 indications per side of 0.4 to to 1.5 mm (0.016 to 0.06 in.)
to 0.06 in.) diameter and an 1.5 mm (0.016 to 0.06 in.) limited to four places per area
estimated depth 0.5 mm diameter if clearly separated a designated if clearly separated
(0.02 in.) or 25 percent of the minimum of 6 mm (0.24 in.) a distance 3 mm (0.12 in.)
local drawing thickness, apart apart and each does not
whichever is least, if clearly Allows indications 0.8 mm exceed 20 percent of the
separated a distance 6 mm (0.032 in.) diameter if spaced local drawing specified
(0.24 in.) apart 3 mm (0.12 in.) apart thickness
Negative flaws of diameter Allows indications of diameter
0.8 mm (0.032 in.) allowed 0.8 mm (0.032 in.) if
if spaced 3 mm (0.12 in.) spaced 3 mm (0.12 in.)
apart
Stock surfaces, Negative defects allowed to For any grade, bleedback Unlimited flaws allowed to
all grades depth of machining stock allowed to depth of depth of machining stock
Negative flaws of 0.1 mm machining stock Negative flaws of 0.1 mm
(0.004 in.) diameter shall be Negative flaws of 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) diameter shall be
considered not interpretable (0.004 in.) diameter shall be considered not interpretable
and shall be acceptable considered not interpretable and shall be acceptable
regardless of location if clearly and shall be acceptable regardless of location if clearly
separated by 2.5 mm regardless of location if clearly separated by 2.5 mm
(0.1 in.) separated by 2.5 mm (0.1 in.)
Cracks, folds, cold shuts, or (0.1 in.) Cracks, folds, cold shuts, or
linear flaws (width 1/3 its Cracks, folds, cold shuts or linear flaws (width 1/3 its
length) are not allowed linear flaws (width 1/3 its length) are not allowed
length) are not allowed
(b)