Pergamon Atmospheric Environment Vol. 31, No. 23, pp.

3941 -3953, 1997

('~ 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
PII: S1352-2310(97)00231-8 1352-2310/97 517.00 + 0.00

MIXING HEIGHT ESTIMATION FROM SODAR DATA

-- A CRITICAL DISCUSSION*

F. B E Y R I C H
Brandenburgische Technische Universitfit Cottbus, Fakult~t IV - Lehrstuhl ffir Umweltmeteorologie,
PF 10 13 44, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany

(First received 27 September 1996 and in final form 3 May 1997. Published September 1997)

Abstract Sodar measurements have been used to estimate the mixing height for about 20 yr, nevertheless
the issue is still the subject of controversial discussion. The paper attempts to critically examine the methods
and results of mixing height determination from sodar data that have been reported in the literature. The
theoretical base, the methods suggested, the automatization of algorithms, and the intercomparison of
sodar-based mixing height values with data from independent measurements and models are briefly
discussed. An assessment is given of sodar capabilities in comparison with other profiling techniques. It is
concluded that sodar data may be used to derive reliable mixing height information in many situations
which are of special relevance for environmental monitoring, namely in stagnant weather situations with
low mixing height values between about 50 and 500-1000 m, depending on the type of the sodar. However,
the algorithms available up to now for their automatic evaluation appear not yet reliable enough to be
recommended for operational purposes, and a control of the output by a trained analyst is advisable.
Simultaneous operation of sodars and other remote sensing systems (lidar, wind profiler) is shown to be
a promising way to overcome the range limitations of sodars and to allow continuous mixing height
estimation throughout the complete diurnal cycle. ~ 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Key word index: Atmospheric boundary layer, mixing height, acoustic sounding.

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N measure different atmospheric parameters and have

The height of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)
is a fundamental parameter characterizing the struc-
ture of the lower atmosphere, and its knowledge is of
particular importance for various applications such as
environmental monitoring and the prediction of air
pollution, weather forecasting (e.g. for fog and temper-
ature prediction), or as a scaling parameter for the
description of vertical profiles. Despite this import-
ance, no overall accepted definition or criteria for its
practical determination have been formulated until
now. Two main reasons are thought to cause this
deficit: First, the structure of the ABL is determined
by various processes (turbulence, radiation, baroclin-
ity, advection, divergence and associated vertical
motions, etc.) which may influence the vertical profiles
of different mean and turbulent atmospheric para-
meters in a different way. Especially in the stable
boundary layer (SBL) these processes often are of
comparable magnitude. Secondly, most definitions
and criteria are based on the characteristics of avail-
able data; different profiling systems, however, do
* Based on an invited paper presented at the 8th Interna-
tional Symposium on Acoustic Remote Sensing, Moscow,
27-31 May 1996.
a different height resolution and measurement
accuracy.
With respect to environmental applications, the
ABL-height is often identified with the mixing height
(MH). It is one of the most important parameters
governing the dispersion of atmospheric pollutants,
and concentrations of trace gases and aerosols strong-
ly depend on it, even near the surface (e.g. Maughan,
1979; Park et al., t990; Pekour and Kallistratova,
1993). As for the ABL-height in a broader sense, there
is no overall accepted definition for the M H at present
too (see, e.g. Holzworth, 1967; Arya, 1981; Baxter,
1991). A possible suggestion is to define the M H as the
height of the layer adjacent to the ground over which
pollutants or any constituents emitted within this layer
or entrained into it become mixed by convection or
mechanical turbulence within a time scale of about one
hour or less (as adopted, e.g. by Beyrich et at., 1996a).
It should be remarked, that this does not necessarily
imply a uniform distribution of the admixture with
height.
According to this definition, M H determination
would require to observe the dispersion process of
a non-buoyant, non-reactive tracer gas which is a very
expensive task and therefore not suited for opera-
tional purposes. Even mean concentration profiles of
trace constituents are not generally available on

3941
3942
Table l. Criteria and methods for an experimental determination of the ABL-height suggested in the literature
ABL-height based on profiles of mean variables
(wind, temperature, humidity, concentrations)
Height of a zone with significant wind shear
Base of an elevated inversion or stable layer
Height at which a rising parcel becomes neutrally buoyant
Height at which moisture or aerosol concentration
suddenly decreases
Height at which single plume vertical velocity vanishes
Height of the low-level jet axis
Upper boundary of a layer of significant wind shear
Top of the surface inversion or stable layer
Height of the first discontinuity in the temperature,
humidity, aerosol or trace-gas concentration profiles
a routine base, and profile measurements of turbu-
lence parameters are also not performed operation-
ally. In addition, concentration profiles are not
exclusively determined by turbulence, and a misinter-
pretation is therefore possible if chemical reactions,
(plume) advection or the origin and displacement of
reservoir layers are not carefully taken into account
(e.g. Russell et al., 1974; Coulter, 1979). Experimental
M H determination is therefore based in most cases on
profile data of mean meteorological variables (wind,
temperature and humidity), i.e. the same database is
used as for the operational determination of the
ABL-height. It is thus necessary to clarify the relation
between these two terms.
A large number of definitions or criteria to estimate
the ABL-height has been suggested over the past
decades based on vertical profiles of both mean
(temperature, humidity, wind, trace gas/aerosol con-
centration) and turbulent (fluxes, variances, turbulent
kinetic energy, Ri-number, structure parameters) at-
mospheric parameters (see Table 1 for a survey list,
and Seibert et al., 1997 for a more detailed summary).
In general, the vertical mixing of pollutants is forced
by convective or mechanical turbulence, while on the
other side stable stratification acts to suppress mixing.
Thus, any ABL-height definition based on turbulence
parameters could be considered as a candidate for
a MH-definition as well, and the terms "Turbulent
ABL-Height" and "Mixing Height" are considered to
be equivalent. At the same time, this precludes the
universal application of scales like the top-height of
the nocturnal surface inversion or the level where the
wind vector first becomes parallel to the geostrophic
wind as appropriate measures for the MH, since these
scales do not exclusively depend on turbulence. On
the other hand, if convective or mechanical turbulence
are clearly dominating the structure of the ABL, even
mean profiles may serve to provide M H values, like
F. BEYRICH
ABL-height based on profiles of turbulent variables
(fluxes, variances, TKE, structure parameters)
CBL
Height where the turbulent heat flux changes sign
Height at which the turbulent heat flux has a negative
maximum
Height at which TKE dissipation rate or vertical velocity
variance significantly decrease
Height of an elevated maximum of acoustic/electromag-
netic refractive index structure parameters
Similarity methods based on profile measurements within
the mixing layer
SBL
Height at which some turbulence parameter has reduced
to a few percent of its surface layer value or decreases
below a certain threshold value
Height at which the Ri-number exceeds its critical value
Height of maximum gradient or curvature in the vertical
profiles of variances or structure parameters
the inversion base height in a convectively well-mixed
ABL. Thus, it depends on the relative magnitude of the
processes governing the structure of the ABL whether
the terms "ABL-Height" in general and "Mixing
Height" can be considered equivalent or not.
Thus, the M H determination from measurements
or from models requires vertical profiles of atmo-
spheric parameters which should satisfy the following
conditions:
The profiles should cover the layer between the
earth's surface and about 2-3 km (or even higher,
especially over deserts) above ground considering the
typical height range over which the M H varies during
its annual and diurnal cycles.
The profile data should have a vertical resolution of
about 10-30 m to avoid relative uncertainties of more
than 10-20%, especially for low MH-values (less than
200 m).
The data should be available with a time resolution
of 1 h or less in order to describe the non-stationary
evolution of the MH, especially during the morning
and evening transition periods.
The available output parameters should preferably
characterize the intensity of turbulence or the result of
mixing processes.
The most c o m m o n database to determine the M H
for operational purposes are radiosoundings which
have been performed for long-time periods in many
countries, and the data of which are transmitted with
quite a short-time delay via international telecommu-
nication networks. They are therefore, in addition to
operational application, especially suited for clima-
tological and continental or global-scale studies.
Radiosonde measurements include all basic meteoro-
logical parameters (pressure, temperature, humidity,
wind), but they do not directly measure turbulence.
 Mixing height estimation from Sodar Data
During the last decade, remote sensing systems (lidars,
sodars, wind profiling radars) became introduced into
operational application, and nowadays they represent
themselves as an alternative for M H estimation. The
basic advantage of these systems is the possibility of
continuous operation.
A m o n g the remote sensing systems, sodar is the
most widespread, and it has been used to estimate the
M H for more than 20 yr. However, the suitability of
sodar data to provide reliable M H values is still
discussed controversially. Many authors clearly em-
phasize the potential of sodar measurements to deter-
mine the M H or the height of the turbulent ABL (e.g.
Arya, 1981; Garratt, 1982; Kaimal et al., 1982; Singal,
1988), but H a n n a (1992) critically remarks: "Have you
ever carefully looked at time series of MH-observa-
tions by doppler acoustic s o u n d e r s - - I believe that
they are very unreliable".
It is the basic aim of this paper to examine the
current status of sodar application for MH-estima-
tion. Based on a short introduction into the theoret-
ical base for the interpretation of sodar data, the
criteria and rules which have been suggested to
deduce the M H from sodar measurements will be
discussed. Further on, intercomparison results of
sodar-based MH-values with independent data from
measurements and models will be summarized.
Finally, some conclusions are drawn considering also
sodar in relation to other vertical profiling techniques
actually available.
2. MIXING H E I G H T ESTIMATION F R O M SODAR DATA
2.1. Theoretical base
Within the theory of sound propagation, in a turbu-
lent medium (Tatarskii, 1961; Ostashev, 1992; for
a summary, see also, Neff and Coulter, 1986) it has
been shown, that the measured acoustic backscatter
intensity, S, corrected for attenuation, is proportional
to the acoustic refractive index structure parameter
C 2. C 2 basically depends on the temperature struc-
ture and may, to a first approximation, be replaced by
the temperature structure parameter, C 2, which is
defined by
C~ = ( I T ( x ) - T(x + Ax)]2)Ax -z'3, (1)
where T(x) and T ( x + Ax) are the temperatures at
points x and x + Ax, respectively, and the angle
brackets denote an ensemble average. C 2 character-
izes the intensity of small-scale inhomogeneities of the
temperature field. These can originate from either
turbulent fluctuations or fine-scale temperature layer-
ing. Due to interference effects only those in-
homogeneities in the order of magnitude of Ax equal
to one half of the acoustic wavelength (that is between
around 5-10 cm for c o m m o n sounding frequencies)
significantly contribute to the backscattered signal
intensity. This is normally well within the inertial
3943
subrange of the turbulence spectrum. Therefore,
S gives some information about the turbulence struc-
ture of the ABL. However, C 2 is not an easy-to-
interpret turbulence parameter, but it reflects in a
complex way the contributions of local fluxes of heat
and m o m e n t u m as well as of gradients in temperature
and wind. Especially in the SBL, the local fluxes as
well as changes of the local gradients may be due to
different processes and phenomena and, hence, the
dominance or negligibility of one or the other may
cause similar C2-profiles under completely different
conditions or completely different profiles in appar-
ently comparable situations. This fact must be con-
sidered as the main reason for the great variety of
sodar records especially from the SBL and of most of
the problems in their interpretation.*
In addition to backscatter intensity, Doppler
sodars provide information on the profiles of the
horizontal wind vector, vertical velocity (w) and verti-
cal velocity standard deviation (a,z.). The latter repre-
sents the vertical component of the turbulent kinetic
energy. It could be therefore employed for MH es-
timation either directly or making use of well-estab-
lished similarity relationships or scaling laws (e.g.
Stull, 1988). However, quantitative assessment of both
w- and a2.-sodar data is not without problems since
the measurement accuracy achieved up to now is in
the range of the typical values of these parameters
except for the case of strong convection. The wind
profile is also determined from external parameters
and seems not to be suitable as the only indicator for
MH-estimation. It may be, however, used as an addi-
tional supporting criterion.
2.2. Criteria jbr the direct estimation of the mixin9
height from sodar profile measurements
The M H depends on the intensity of buoyant
and/or mechanical turbulence production as well as
on the background stratification (in particular, the
existence of stable or inversion layers representing
* Under conditions of weak winds and strong radiative
cooling where turbulence is small and the stratification is
strong, the contribution to C 2 from just the mean temper-
ature structure may be comparable to that of turbulence.
Measurements of C~- under stable conditions in the height
range between 50 and 150 m indicate a typical magnitude of
1 0 - ' * - 1 0 - 3 K 2 m -2/3. With a temperature gradient of the
order of magnitude of 0.5 to 1 K/10 m (note that the height
range is between 50 and 100 m) transformed to a vertical
distance of Ax = 0.1 m, it follows from equation (1) that
C 2 ~ 1 * 10 -4 ... 5* 10 -4 KZm -2!3, i.e. in the same range.
Helmis et al. (Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorolooy 22
(1983) 1594-1601) present few case studies of simultaneous
measurements of finescale temperature differences in the
horizontal and vertical direction which do not show signifi-
cant differences. This could be interpreted in a way that the
contribution of stratification to C~-is small compared to that
of turbulence. These measurements, however, were made in
an urban environment, and therefore, presumably do not
represent conditions of strong stability and weak turbulence.
3944 F. BEYRICH

800 . . . . . 400

i71 ....
600 300
i.t
E E
r-
- 400 "=- 200
.E t""
._~ _m
O~
T -1-
200 100
%''"', a)
~ m b)
- - ' . . . . = r " " " I I i

O0 5 10 1 20 0 5 10 15 20
400 400 " v " " , . . . . , . . . . 11 -

r '
-

. . . . ilm . . . . . . . . " " "

300 300

E E
- 200 "~ 200
.,(:

O~ (D
-i- "1-
100 100

0 0 ..... .-:-:"... 1,! ...... :'.

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

Fig. 1. Profiles of potential temperature (solid line), wind speed (dashed line) and sodar backscatter
intensity (square symbols)for the differentstructure types of the ABL (see text for explanation)--the figures
are based on data from the SADE-94 experiment at Melpitz, Germany: (a) --11.10.1994, 12:00 LT,
(b) --10.10.1994, 18:00LT, (c) 30.9.1994,23:30 LT, (d) --24.9.1994, 1:30 LT, the MH values derived from
the temperature and sodar backscatter intensity profiles (hT-,and hs, respectively)as well as the top of the
surface inversion (h~) are indicated in the figure.

a barrier to the vertical exchange of constituents). As The problem is much more complex for the SBL
shown above, information on both the intensity of where the profiles of mean and turbulent ABL-para-
turbulence and the presence of stable layers can be meters may exhibit quite a different shape dependent
derived from the backscatter intensity profile on the actual situation--even over flat homogeneous
measurements Therefore, most rules that have been terrain (e.g. Stull, 1988). In situations of weak wind
suggested to derive the MH from sodar data are based and strong radiative cooling (Fig. lb) the profiles of
on the interpretation of the backscatter intensity data, most atmospheric parameters show a nearly continu-
which is additionally supported by the fact, that S- ous curvature with strongest gradients close to the
profiles are available even from the simplest one-an- ground, and any MH estimation based on such pro-
tenna echo sounders. Depending on the raw-data files will be subject to quite a large uncertainty. If the
analysis procedure they sometimes also have a better wind is not too weak, a two-layer structure of the SBL
height coverage than wind profile data. Moreover, has been frequently observed (Fig. lc), especially in
information on the ABL-structure can be derived al- the temperature profiles. The lower part of the SBL is
ready from the shape of the profiles or from the influenced from both turbulence and radiative cooling
relative magnitude of the S-values, hence, accurate resulting in a nearly linear increase of with height,
quantitative data are not always necessary. and weak radiative cooling alone governs the upper
Experimental as well as numerical modelling stud- part which is characterized by a still positive but
ies on the vertical profile of C~ in the convective much weaker temperature gradient (see also, e.g.
boundary layer (CBL, e.g. Wyngaard and LeMone, Garratt and Brost, 1981; Andr6 and Mahrt, 1982). In
1980; Burk, 1980, 1981; Fairall, 1984) have shown Fig. lc, the top of the lower part is identified at
a pronounced secondary maximum at the top of around 80 m and denoted by hT while the overall
a well-mixed CBL or slightly above (see also Fig. la). surface inversion top (hi) is situated at about 200 m. If
Based on these results, a clearly-defined criterion the wind becomes even stronger (in relation to radi-
can be formulated to derive the MH from sodar ative cooling--which might be further limited, e.g. due
S-profiles. to a partially cloudy sky) even a kind of mixing layer
 Mixing height estimation from Sodar Data
Table 2. Criteria for the direct estimation of MH from sodar profile data
ABL-regime SBL
From the sodar- Upper boundary of the ground-based echo layer
gram in the sodargram plot (e.g. Wyckoff et al., 1973;
Russell et al., 1974; Arya, 1981;
Pekour, 1990; Pahwa et al., 1990)
From digitized Decrease of S below a certain threshold
data (Holets and Swanson, 1984;
Tombach and Ettenheim, 1985)
Elevated (secondary) maximum of S
(Beyrich and Weill, 1993--SBL type III)
Maximum of OS/Oz (Beljaars and Agterberg,
1988; Piringer, 1988; Beyrich and Weill,
1993--SBL type II)
Maximum curvature in the zone of strong
decrease of S with height (Beyrich and Weill,
1993--SBL type I)
Minimum of S above a zone of strong decrease
(Klapisz and Weill, 1985; Dupont, 1991)
Maximum of ~V/~z (Jones et al., 1984)
(although not being well mixed) may be observed
close to the ground (Fig. ld, where the top of the
mixing layer is identified at around 130 m).
A much more complicated structure can be caused
by terrain influences, non-stationarity, baroclinity,
advection, breaking gravity waves, and other effects.
Hence, there is no universal shape of the C~-profile to
be expected under stable conditions (see, also Wyn-
gaard and Kosovic, 1994). This is confirmed by
a small number of experimental and modeling studies
on the C2-profile in the SBL (e.g. Caughey et al., 1979;
Burk, 1980; Cuijpers and Kohsiek, 1989; Coulter,
1990). Interpretation of S-profiles with respect to the
SBL-structure therefore has to consider the actual
shape of these profiles and the governing processes.
For a long period of sodar application, time-height
diagrams of backscattered sound signal intensity
(sodargrams) were the typical output, and basic rules
given in the literature were limited to the interpreta-
tion of these types of data records. Since digitized
sodar data became available, detailed quantitative
information on the ABL-structure could be obtained,
but different criteria for the analysis of the S-profiles
with respect to MH-estimation are still under dis-
cussion. It appears that some of these criteria have
been derived from an empirical comparison with other
(mostly non-turbulent!)height scales for a limited num-
ber of cases (e.g. Piringer, 1988; Marzorati et al., 1988;
Dupont, 1991). A summary of the criteria proposed to
derive the MH from sodar data is given in Table 2.
The problem of MH determination under stable
conditions from the S-profiles has been discussed in
detail in Beyrich and Weill (1993). They have demon-
strated that the relationship between a sodar derived
value for the stable MH and any other height scale
strongly depends on the stage of the SBL-evolution.
They concluded in accordance with the discussion
3945
CBL (with elevated layer)
Lower boundary of an elevated echo layer
(Frisch and Clifford, 1974; Kaimal et al., 1982)
Centre of an elevated echo layer, in case of
strong height variability: upper envelope
(Noonkester, 1976)
Secondary maximum of S
(Weill et al., 1978; Beyrich, 1995)
Maximum of ~S/c3z
(Holets and Swanson, 1984; Beljaars and
Agterberg, 1988)
Strong decrease of a2. (Best et al., 1986)
above that different criteria have to be applied to
derive an MH-value from S-profiles depending on the
actual shape of these profiles (see also, Table 2). This
implies that different rules might have to be used
during different time phases of even one night to
deduce the stable MH from sodar data.
2.3. M i x i n 9 height determination in a deep C B L
exceedin 9 the sodar probin9 ranye
Direct determination from the S-profiles is re-
stricted to situations when the MH remains within the
technical range of the sodar, i.e. lower than
500-1000 m in most cases. This is a serious limitation,
since especially in summer the direct use of sodar
information is thus confined to the early morning
hours. Different attempts have been reported in the
literature to use either statistical methods, extrapola-
tion schemes, similarity theory results, or numerical
models to obtain at least an estimate of the MH also
for a deep CBL. A summary of these methods is given
in Table 3 along with some remarks on their limita-
tions. The different methods are discussed in more
detail in Beyrich (1995).
In the past, great promise has been set on the use of
similarity relationships to estimate the deep-convec-
tive MH from sodar measurements of a2. These
methods rely on scaling laws describing either the
vertical profile ofa 2, as a function o f z / h (where z is the
height of the measurement and h is the MH) or relat-
ing the averaged cr2-value in the central part of the
mixing layer to the convective velocity scale, w,,
which in turn is a function of h. The use of such
methods is demonstrated, e.g. in Weill et al. (1980),
Melas (1990, 1993), Marzorati and Anfossi (1993), and
Seibert and Langer (1996). However, in addition to
the problems listed in Table 2, the quantitative accu-
racy of sodar-based a2w-values has been found to be
3946 F. BEYRICH

not good enough for an operational use of the sim-

.-=~'8 ilarity methods.
The use of simple mixed layer models is a common
0
way to simulate the bulk characteristics of the CBL
including its depth. These models contain a rate equa-
tion for h which is derived from a parameterization of
a simplified turbulent kinetic energy budget equation
(e.g. Driedonks, 1982; Batchvarova and Gryning,
1991). Beyrich (1995) demonstrates that the model-
simulated MH evolution can be improved if the em-
pirical constants in the MH growth equation are
_.,oo
adjusted to minimize the root-mean-square difference
between the model results and direct sodar obser-
F vations of the early morning mixing layer growth
phase. A similar model adjustment to observations
o
but based on radiosonde data is performed within the
meteorological pre-processor of the Danish opera-
tional dispersion model (Olesen et al., t987). Compar-
N,,=_~ = ing these two approaches, sodar data should allow
,-1
a more reliable adjustment using measurements
r.,,)
from a few hours in the morning rather than relying
on snapshot-like information from one single
radiosounding.
Comparing some of the methods listed in Table 3
against each other and with radiosonde data, Beyrich
(1995) concluded that the model adjustment method
performed best concerning both the universal applica-
-~ bility and the statistical intercomparison results.
0

o 0 2.4. Automatic algorithms for mixing height estimation

O
from sodar data
~ ~ '~ ',~,
~ ~~ ~ Certain attempts have been made to automatically
~- ~.~ analyze the ABL structure and to determine the MH
.~ i~ from sodar data, especially in view to commercially
,.9,
o offer corresponding routines for operational applica-
0
tion. This is a non-trivial problem of automatic pat-
tern recognition which has not been fully solved up to
o ~,.'~ ~ ~ now. Difficulties mainly arise from
._ -- ~ .~ "~
t~o~ the diversity of structure patterns which may be
b,-, observed and which are not easy to classify,
the non-stationarity of the ABL-structure which
makes it difficult to derive conclusions from averaged
profiles (the standard output of most commercial
sodars),
the fact that completely different meteorological
situations may result in similar instantaneous pictures
of the ABL-structure (the S-profile), and
the non-ideal shape of most measured profiles mak-
ing it necessary to objectively differentiate between
primary and secondary profile features.
,..~,.., ..~ ~ . ~ , o.~,.__,~
Basically, automatic MH determination from sodar
data is a two-step procedure (e.g. Tombach and Etten-
heim, 1985):
'~ r,.;

(1) detection of the structure type of the ABL (SBL

with/without low-level jet, CBL capped by a low-level
.= ~ -g
elevated inversion, deep CBL, near-neutrally stratified
ABL, complex structured ABL),
 Mixing height estimation from Sodar Data
(2) determination of the MH according to certain
criteria for the different structure types.
Corresponding procedures are described, e.g. by
Holets and Swanson (1984), Jones et al. (1984), Tom-
bach and Ettenheim (1985), Beljaars and Agterberg
(1988), Chaudhuri et al. (1992), REMTECH (1994), or
Kalogiros et al. (1996). In most of these studies, per-
formance of the algorithms is verified by comparison
with the subjective sodargram analysis, agreement
concerning both the structure-type recognition and
the estimated MH-value (with an accuracy of
10-20%) is typically found in 60-80% of the cases.
Baxter (1991) performed an intercomparison study
with independent estimates of the M H and concluded
that "hand reduction of the facsimilb data estimated
a more accurate mixing height than did the automatic
routine". Although most manufacturers of acoustic
sounders nowadays offer special routines for MH
determination within their data evaluation software,
they still recommend to critically examine the esti-
mated values by inspection through a trained analyst
(Radian, 1996, personal communication) or even sup-
ply special options for off-line manual re-analysis
(Underwood, personal communication).
3. C O M P A R I S O N OF SODAR DERIVED M I X I N G HEIGHTS
WITH I N D E P E N D E N T DATA
3.1. Observations in the convective boundary layer
(literature survey)
Comprehensive experiments to compare MH-
values derived from different measurement systems
(radiosonde, sodar, radar, lidar, aircraft) under con-
vective conditions have been described, e.g. by Russell
et al. (1974), Noonkester (1976), Coulter (1979), Kai-
mal et al. (1982), and Baxter (1991). These studies
show that relative differences of the order of 10% or
even less can be noticed provided that the capping
inversion is not too weak and has a well-defined base.
On the other hand, in cases of a weak capping stable
layer or a CBL not perfectly mixed, measurements
from different systems and even the analysis of the
same potential temperature profile by several experi-
enced meteorologists may easily result in relative dif-
ferences of 25% or even larger (Hanna et al., 1985).
Conclusions on possible systematic deviations be-
tween different estimates of the MH are not consistent
(except for the lidar--see below). Comparing, e.g.
radiosonde or tethered balloon data with sodar obser-
vations, van Gogh and Zib (1978), Russell and Uthe
(1978), and Beyrich (1995) found no systematic differ-
ences, Wyckoff et aL (1973) or Tombach and Chan
(1976) reported on slightly higher values derived from
the temperature profiles, Coulter (1979) found just the
opposite. These differences in the conclusions can
often be attributed to different criteria applied to
analyze the profiles (e.g. height of the elevated max-
imum/maximum gradient in the S-profile or the use of
3947
different threshold values for the temperature gradi-
ent to identify stable layers in the radiosonde profiles),
as well as to the often limited number of observations
and in some cases also to a spatial separation of the
sites where the different systems had been operated.
MH-values derived from lidar measurements have
been found to be, generally, slightly but systematically,
higher than values derived from temperature profiles or
sodar measurements (e.g. Russell et al., 1974; Coulter,
1979; Hanna et al., 1985; Dupont, 1991). This is ex-
plained basically by the fact that the most energetic
convective plumes penetrate into the stable or inver-
sion layer thereby transporting aerosols up to levels
higher than the mean height of the stable-layer base.
Under certain conditions, pollutants trapped within
the stable capping inversion or free atmosphere can
cause a systematic overestimation of MH-values from
lidar observations (McElroy and Smith, 1991).
3.2. Observations in the stable boundary layer
(literature survey)
From the beginning of sodar application, a great
potential has been seen concerning the M H estima-
tion in the SBL. Thus, Arya (1981) wrote, that "an
upward looking sodar and a lidar provide the only
reliable means of measuring the height of the shallow
and weakly mixed boundary layer that commonly
occurs during nighttime stable conditions over land"
and Joffr6 (1981) stated, that "only sodar profiling will
shed some light on the problem of determining the
SBL-depth". However, there are interpretation prob-
lems discussed in Section 2. In addition, it should be
emphasized that sodar data will not provide correct
MH estimates under conditions of very strong stabil-
ity and therefore very shallow mixing layers (Garratt,
1982; Smedman, 1988; Baxter, 1991), since their first
range gate usually is in the range between 30 and 50 m
a.g.1, and detection of MH values below the second
range gate is impossible whatever criterion one might
apply. In such situations, operation of the so-called
(high-frequency) mini-sodars, the lower range of
which is between 10 and 20 m, would be desirable.
Comparison of sodar measurements with indepen-
dent MH-values under stable conditions is much
more difficult to assess due to the general difficulty of
performing turbulence profile measurements in the
SBL and the resulting lack of comprehensive datasets.
In many studies, the sodar information has been com-
pared with the nocturnal surface-inversion height or
other temperature and wind-profile-based height
scales. According to the discussion in Section l, these
cannot a priori be considered as appropriate measures
for the MH. Consequently, the results of such studies
are quite inconsistent. The correlation coefficients for
a comparison of sodar based MH-data with the
height of the nocturnal wind maximum are typically
in the range between 0.3 and 0.65, where the MH
deduced from the sodar usually is the lower one (Arya,
1981; Hanna et al., 1985). Comparing sodar observa-
tions and the height of the nocturnal surface inversion,
3948 F. BEYRICH

no systematic differences were noticed by Hicks
et al. (1977), Singal and Aggarwal (1979), Hayashi
(1980), or Fitzharris et al. (1983). Singal et al. (1985)
found reasonable agreement in only 30% of all cases
for long-time observations over 5 years. However,
their study was based on a spatial separation of about
20 km between the sodar site and the radiosonde
starting point. Some authors concluded that the
sodar-based M H is generally lower than the surface
inversion height (Nieuwstadt and Driedonks, 1979;
Piringer, 1988; Klose and Sch~ike, 1991). Beyrich and
Weill (1993) emphasize that the relationship between
a sodar-derived SBL-height and the height of the
nocturnal-surface inversion depends on the actual
structure of the SBL. If a multi-layer internal structure
of the surface inversion is observed (as in Fig. lc and
d), the sodar-based MH usually coincides with the
height of the lower part of the surface inversion which
is assumed to be determined by turbulence as well as by
radiation processes. On the other hand, if the surface
inversion shows a single-layer structure, its top level
and the sodar-based MH value may indeed coincide.
Comparing MH-values derived from simultaneous
sodar and lidar operation for a very small number of
case studies in a simply structured SBL, Dupont
(1991) and Devara et al. (1995) found a good qualitat-
ive agreement
3.3. Experimental results from recent field campaigns
in Germany
The vertical structure of the SBL at a fiat terrain
site surrounded by complex orography during the
TRACT experiment from both ozone concentration
profiles measured with a tethered balloon and sodar
data has been analyzed in Beyrich et al. (1996b). They
show that there is a generally good agreement con-
cerning the structural features of the ABL observed
with the two systems and, hence, between the M H
values derived from the ozone concentration and
sodar signal intensity profiles (see Fig. 2), except for
situations with a very shallow SBL.
Results of a statistical intercomparison of MH
values estimated from sodar-, radiosonde- and wind
profiler measurements under stable and convective
conditions are shown in Fig. 3, and examples for the
complete diurnal cycle of MH derived from simulta-
neous measurements of these systems are shown in
Fig. 4 (see also Beyrich and G6rsdorf, 1995). They are
based on measurements carried out during the
SADE-93/94 and LINEX-94 experiments at two rural
sites in northeast Germany under predominant anti-
cyclonic weather conditions. MH values from the
sodar data have been derived taking into account the
ABL-type and actual shape of the S-profiles according
to the criteria listed in Table 2. MH estimation from
the nighttime radiosoundings was based on an analy-
sis of the temperature profiles (as marked in Figs
lb-d) looking for the first significant discontinuity
(see also, Wetzel, 1982). The convective MH has been
determined using mainly the parcel method with an
excess temperature added to the mean mixing layer
temperature (see, e.g. discussion in Seibert et al., 1997).
The daytime wind profiler data have been analyzed by
fixing the height of the elevated maximum of back-

a) 1 6 . 9 . 1 9 9 2 , 8 : 3 8 - 9 : 1 2 C E S T b) 2 2 . 9 . 1 9 9 2 , 1:41 - 1 : 5 3 C E S T c) 2 2 . 9 . 1 9 9 2 , 4 : 3 9 - 4 : 4 8 C E S T
Signal Intensity (AU) Signal Intensity (AU) Signal Intensity (AU)
800 . 5,0 . 100 . 150 . 200 . 250 0 50 1oo 150 200 250 8oo ( 50 loo 15o 200 250
800 , . , . , . , .
Sodar Signal Sodar Signal
700
700 ~gnal 70O
Ozone Mixing Ratio

600 600 6OO

Ozone Mixing Ratio

500 500 / Ozone Mixing Ratio
500

E g
.T= 400 400 400
._~
"-r
300
-r I
30O 3oo

200 20O 2oo

100 100 :~ 100

o? o~;'"
,'o 2'0 3.O ,.O' 50 o; .... 2; . . . . 5'o . . . . 75 '2's . . . . 75s'o . . . .

Ozone Mixing Ratio (ppbV) Ozone Mixing Ratio (ppbV) Ozone MixingRatio(ppbV)
Fig. 2. Simultaneously measured ozone concentration and sodar backscatter intensity profiles in a complex
structured SBL in the Upper Rhine Valley during the TRACT-experiment (see also Beyrich et al., 1996b),
the mixing height values derived from the profiles are shown by an arrow and labeled as ho3 and hs,
respectively.
 Mixing height estimation from Sodar Data 3949

400 | | . | | | . | |
scatter intensity (e.g. Angevine et al., 1994). Both
figures demonstrate that a good agreement can be
350 ,,- ;A;CO"! j achieved if profile-shape-considering criteria (see
ZX SADE-94I / Table 2) are applied to analyze the sodar data in
E 3o0 undisturbed weather situations.
-o 250 3.4. Comparison of sodar-based mixing heiyht values
o
o9 with parameterizations and model results
200
.-I The question of parameterizing the height of the
133
00 150 turbulent ABL has been the subject of many papers
i
within the last 25 yr. A large number of diagnostic and
"1- 100 a) 5
,--I prognostic equations have been suggested in the liter-
r=0.91 ature and tested more or less extensively against
50
measurements, especially for the SBL. In some of
e-. , these verification studies, the MH was estimated from
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 sodar data (e.g. Arya, 1981; Nieuwstadt, 1984;
MLH- SBL R a d i o s o n d e (m) Koracin and Berkowicz, 1988; Beyrich, 1993). The
800 reported correlation coefficients usually are in the
- n - i - n I I - i - u

range between 0.3 and 0.7, and the scatter is quite

~
600

500
I zx ] large. This is not surprising since the SBL structure
(and hence, the sodar-based MH) depends on a var-
iety of different processes, most simple parameteriz-
ations or models, however, are based on a single
o parameter or just describe one process. It should be
o9
4O0 also remarked that in most of the model-verification
.-I studies the question of inner-nocturnal and interdiur-
m
nal variability (Andr6, 1983) of the SBL-height has not
i .~al b) found proper attention. Thus, a quite high-correlation
"1-
_a 200 ~ N=39 coefficient obtained for a certain number of cases from
./~,~-- r = 0.98 different nights does not give any indication, whether
100 / ~ - ~ rmsd = 36 m the corresponding equation really is able to simulate
/
0 . i . i . i . i . i . l , n . the MH-evolution during a special single night.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Single-night studies, however, have been rarely re-
MLH - CBL R a d i o s o n d e (m) ported in the literature. A few examples have been
900 presented, e.g. in Nieuwstadt and Driedonks (1979) as
u - u u - l u u u

well as in Tjemkes and Duynkerke (1989), attempting

8O0 to relate the turbulent SBL-height estimated from
second-order ABL-modeling to sodar observations.
7oo t The authors found a reasonable agreement between
sodar data and the height at which sensible heat flux
600
i:1.
or turbulent kinetic energy have decreased to 5% of
"~ 500 their surface layer values. However, Nieuwstadt and
Driedonks (1979) remarked, "that it is not clear,
400 whether the height where the heat flux vanishes is
completely equivalent to the boundary-layer height
300 = 59 found from the acoustic sounder registration".
5 200 4~ AA r = 0.97
/ rrnsd = 38 m
100 . . . . . . . , 0 .... 4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Sodar has been used to estimate the MH for more
M L H - C B L S o d a r (m)
than 20 yr. Its application has been favored by a rela-
Fig. 3. Scatter plot and statistical intercomparison results of tively inexpensive setup and low operation costs.
MH values derived from simultaneous sodar-radiosonde Sodar systems can be operated in an unattended
(a, b) and sodar-wind profiler (c) measurements during the mode and provide continuous information on the
SADE-93/94 experiments at Melpitz and during LINEX-94 structure of the lower ABL with high resolution in
at Lindenberg.
altitude and time. Modern systems allow the flexible
choice of most relevant setup parameters (e.g. operat-
ing frequency, height range and resolution, averaging
times). For MH determination, averaging times of 15
3950 F. BEYRICH

2000 . , . , , .., , , . , . 2000 , i , - , , i , , , ,

a) Lindenberg, 24.6.1994 b) Lindenberg' 2"7"1994 Z ~ Z ~ '

1500
E
A
1000 IOOO
A
A

"R 500 ~x` "x 500

eeOooo~p ...
, , i , , t , , , , , , , , i . . i . . , . . | . . , . . . . . .

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

Time (U'I'C) Time (UTO)

1500 . , . . , . . , . . , . . , . , . , . 2000 i i , , , i i .

c) M e l p i t z , 26.9.1994 d) Melpitz, 29.9.1994

a 1500

1000

.03
z=
1000
"r A
c ~ 500
==
"~ 500

~,,eewee~
. . . . . . . . .
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

Time (MLT) Time (MLT)

Fig. 4. The diurnal cycle of MH as derived from simultaneous operation of different vertical profiling
systems during the LINEX-94 and SADE-94 experiments (see also Beyrich and G6rsdorf, 1995).

Table 4. Critical assessment of different measurement systems with respect to MH determination

Low first level, Measurements

Continuous high resolution Range covered related to turbu-
operation for h < 200 m 2-3 km lence/mixing

In situ systems
Radiosonde (X) X
Tethered Balloon X (X)
Mast X (X) X
Aircraft X X
Remote sensing
Lidar (X) (X) X (X)
Sodar X X X
Radar X X X

or 30 min are considered to be adequate. The height as well as by other profiling systems being widely in
range and resolution could be adjusted to the actual use (note that marks in brackets indicate that the
needs, however, in most cases the maximum possible corresponding feature is not yet standard). It can be
range will be chosen except for the detailed monitor- concluded that none of the available systems meets all
ing of shallow stable-boundary layers The sensitivity the requirements, i.e., the "Mixing height-meter" does
of sodar systems to background noise as well as the not exist. Reliable M H determination under a wide
noise contamination of the environment from the variety of conditions can therefore be achieved only
sodar operation has to be considered when looking by integrating different instruments into a complex
for a suitable site, it may cause problems especially in sounding system.
urban/residential areas Related to the sodar, the status may be summarized
The general suitability of sodar systems for M H as follows.
estimation should be examined looking at the require-
ments formulated in the Introduction. Table 4 gives an (1) Sodar data can be used to obtain reliable esti-
indication, whether these criteria are fulfilled by sodar mates of the MH on a continuous base and with high
 Mixing height estimation from Sodar Data
resolution in time and altitude for M H values between
about 50 and 500-1000 m above ground (depending
on the type of sodar), which covers m a n y of the
critical situations with respect to air quality. The
range limitations can be compensated through the
simultaneous operation of a conventional sodar,
a minisodar and a boundary-layer wind profiler.
(2) The vertical profiles of backscattered signal
intensity provide a suitable data base for M H esti-
mation under a great variety of situations, i.e. for
both shallow convective boundary layers and stable
boundary layers of type II/III (see Fig. 1). The criteria
to deduce MH-values from these profiles should con-
sider the structure type and the evolution stage of the
ABL as well as the shape of the profiles. Under strong-
ly stable conditions, a significant contribution from
the mean temperature layering to sound backscatter
has to be taken into account. Further experimental
work is necessary to clarify the relationship between
the sodar-based MH-values and direct profile
measurements of turbulence in the SBL as well as
to test corresponding diagnostic and prognostic
parameterizations.
(3) Adjustment of a simple mixed-layer model to
early morning sodar observations of the growing
CBL-height is a robust method to estimate the depth
of a deep CBL exceeding the sodar probing range. The
method may serve to improve the meteorological in-
put information to operational dispersion models, but
it requires knowledge of an initial potential temper-
ature profile and of surface-layer parameters.
(4) Automatically detected M H values given in the
standard output protocol of commercially available
sodars appear to be not yet reliable enough for the
direct input to dispersion models, they should be in
any case critically examined by a trained analyst. The
question is still far from being solved.
lnspite of these limitations, environmental agencies
are encouraged to consider the use of quality-control-
led M H values derived from continuous measure-
ments instead of or in supplement to employing very
simple parameterizations or relying on climatological
values.
Some other questions also deserve further research
activities. These are not just specifically related to
sodar measurements, but the acoustic sounder is as-
sumed to be able to contribute to their solution. Lack
of knowledge concerns, e.g.
MH estimation during the late afternoon and dur-
ing the evening transition period,
M H estimation for a partially mixed layer with
several weak inversions,
the determination of the M H in complex terrain
including the spatial generalization of measurements
entrainment processes at the top of a convective
mixing layer.
Acknowledgements--The paper is partially based on work
performed within the SANA programme (Studies of the
3951
changing atmosphere over East Germany) which has been
funded by the German Federal Ministry for Research and
Education. Thanks are due to Deutscher Wetterdienst (U.
G6rsdorf/and to Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (N. Kalthoff,
H. Glisten, S. Vogt) for providing the wind profiler-, radio-
sonde-, tethered balloon- and WTR-data, respectively. The
first draft of the manuscript has been prepared while the
author was working as a guest scientist at Riso National
Laboratory, Denmark. This stay has been funded by the
European Union within the frame of the TMR programme
(Grant No. ERBFMBICT950020). Critical comments of
S.-E. Gryning, E. Batchvarova, P. Seibert and of two anony-
mous reviewers on earlier versions of the manuscript were
highly appreciated.
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