Libro EF PDF

DRAFT
Draft
Lecture Notes in:

FINITE ELEMENT
CVEN 6525
c VICTOR E. SAOUMA,
SPRING 1996
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
June 24, 1996
0{2
Draft
Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Draft
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1{1
1.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{1
1.2 Finite Element Discretization : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{2
1.3 Generalized Nodal Quantities : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{3
1.4 Computer Programs : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{3
1.5 Examples of applications : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{4
1.6 Chracteristic Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{4
2 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 2{1
2.1 Notation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{1
2.1.1 Engineering Notation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{1
2.1.2 Dyadic/Vector Notation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{2
2.1.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{2
2.2 Integral Theorems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{3
2.2.1 Integration by Parts : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{4
2.2.2 Green-Gradient Theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{4
2.2.3 Green Theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{4
2.2.4 Gauss-Divergence Theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{4
2.2.5 Gauss-Green Theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{5
2.3 Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Equations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{5
E 2-1 Seepage Problem;[?] : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{6
E 2-2 Difusion Problem;[?] : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{7
E 2-3 Wave Equation, [?] : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{9
3 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY 3{1
3.1 Stress : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{1
3.1.1 Stress Traction Relation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{2
3.2 Kinematic/Strain : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{3
3.3 Equilibrium; Momentum Principle : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{7
3.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{8
3.4.1 Plane Strain : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{10
3.4.2 Axisymmetry : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{10
0{2 CONTENTS
3.4.3 Plane Stress : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{10
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3.5 Pore Pressures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{11
3.6 y Field Equations for Thermo- and Poro Elasticity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{11
3.7 y Basic Equations of Anisotropic Elasticity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{13
3.8 Coordinate Transformations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{16
3.8.1 y Plane Stress-Strain Compliance Transformation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{17
3.9 Strain Energy Density : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{17
3.10 Summary : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{17
4 SCALAR FIELD PROBLEMS 4{1
4.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{1
4.1.1 Heat Transfer : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{1
4.2 Derivation of the Diusion Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{3
4.2.1 Simple 2D Derivation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{3
4.2.2 yGeneralized Derivation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{4
4.2.3 Boundary Conditions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{6
4.3 Summary : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{6
5 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD 5{1
5.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{1
5.2 [ID] Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{2
5.3 LM Vector : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{3
5.4 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{3
E 5-4 Global Stiness Matrix Assembly : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{4
5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{6
5.6 Augmented Stiness Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{9
E 5-5 Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{14
5.7 Computer Program Flow Charts : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{19
5.7.1 Input : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{19
5.7.2 Element Stiness Matrices : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{20
5.7.3 Assembly : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{20
5.7.4 Decomposition : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{22
5.7.5 Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{22
5.7.6 Backsubstitution : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{23
5.7.7 Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{23
6 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS 6{1
6.1 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{1
6.1.1 Euler Equation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{1
6.1.1.1 Problem Statemen : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{1
6.1.1.2 Derivation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{2
6.1.1.3 Solution : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{4
6.1.2 Boundary Conditions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{5
CONTENTS 0{3
6.2 Work and Strain Energy; Denitions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{6
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6.2.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{6
6.2.2 Internal Strain Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{7
6.2.3 Potential of External Work : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{8
6.2.4 Virtual Work : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{8
6.2.5 | Potential Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{8
6.3 | Variational Statement of Potential Energy Principle : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{10
6.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{13
7 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 7{1
7.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{1
7.2 Shape Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{1
7.3 C 0 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{2
7.3.1 Truss element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{2
7.3.2 Generalization : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{3
7.3.3 Constant Strain Triangle Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{4
7.3.4 Further Generalization: Lagrangian Interpolation Functions : : : : : : : : 7{5
7.3.5 Rectangular Bilinear Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{6
7.3.6 Solid Rectangular Trilinear Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{8
7.4 C 1 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{9
7.4.1 Flexural : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{9
7.4.2 C 1 : Hermitian Interpolation Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{12
7.5 Characteristics of Shape Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{12
7.6 Natural Coordinate System : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{12
7.6.1 Straight Line : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{14
7.6.2 Triangular Coordinates : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{14
7.6.3 Volume Coordinates : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{16
7.6.4 Interpolation Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{16
8 FINITE ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION and REQUIREMENTS 8{1
8.1 Discretization : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{1
8.2 General Element Requirements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{4
8.3 Discretization Error and Convergence Rate : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{4
8.4 Lower Bound Character of Minimum Potential Energy Based Solutions : : : : : 8{5
9 \SIMPLE" FINITE ELEMENTS 9{1
9.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{1
9.2 Rod Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{1
9.2.1 Truss Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{1
9.2.2 Beam Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{2
9.3 Plane Stresss/Strain Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
9.3.1 Constant Strain Triangle : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
9.3.1.1 Cartesian Coordinate System : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
0{4 CONTENTS
9.3.1.1.1 Strain-Displacement Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
Draft
9.3.1.1.2 Stiness Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{4
9.3.1.1.3 Internal Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{4
9.3.1.2 Natural Coordinate System : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{4
9.3.2 Bilinear Quadrilateral : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{6
9.3.3 Element Assesment : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{6
9.3.3.1 Pascal's Triangle : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{6
9.3.3.2 CST : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{7
9.3.3.3 BiLinear Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{8
9.3.3.4 Equilibrium and Compatibiliy in the Solution : : : : : : : : : : 9{9
10 ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS 10{1
10.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{1
10.2 Element Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{3
10.2.1 Isoparametric Bar Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{3
10.2.2 Bilinear Isoparametric Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{5
10.2.2.1 Jacobian Operator : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{9
E 10-6 Jacobian Operators, [?] : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{10
10.2.3 Isoparametric Biquadratic Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{12
10.2.3.1 8 Noded, Serendipity Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{13
10.2.3.2 9 Noded, Lagrangian element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{13
10.2.3.3 Variable Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{15
10.2.4 Triangular Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{19
10.2.5 pascal Triangles : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{19
10.2.6 Formulation (Uneditted) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{19
10.3 Numerical Integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{21
10.3.1 Newton-Cotes : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{22
10.3.1.1 Newton-Cotes Quadrature for n = 2 and n = 3 : : : : : : : : : : 10{23
10.3.2 Gauss-Legendre Quadrature : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{24
10.3.2.1 y Legendre Polynomial : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{26
10.3.2.2 Gauss-Legendre Quadrature for n = 2 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{26
10.3.3 Rectangular and Prism Regions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{27
10.4 Stress Recovery; Nodal Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{27
10.5 Nodal Equivalent Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{29
10.5.1 Gravity Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{29
10.5.2 Traction Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{30
10.5.3 Initial Strains/Stresses; Thermal Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{32
10.6 Computer Implementation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{33
10.7 MATLAB Code for Shape Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{34

CONTENTS 0{5
11 WEIGHTED RESIDUAL METHODS 11{1
Draft
11.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{1
11.2 General Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{1
11.2.1 Dierential Operators : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{1
11.2.1.1 Application to 1D Axial Member : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{2
11.2.2 Residual Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{3
11.3 Weighted Residual Methods : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{4
11.3.1 y Point Collocation Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{5
11.3.2 y Subdomain Collocation Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{5
11.3.3 y Least-Squares Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{5
11.3.4 Galerkin Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{5
11.4 Applications of the Galerkin Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{6
11.4.1 3D Elasticity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{6
11.4.1.1 y Derivation of the Weak Form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{6
11.4.1.2 FE Discretization : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{8
12 FINITE ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION OF THE FIELD EQUATION 12{1
12.1 Derivation of the Weak Form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{1
12.2 FE Discretization : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{3
12.2.1 No Convection : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{3
12.2.2 Convection : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{4
12.3 Illustrative Examples : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{5
E 12-7 Composite Wall : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{5
E 12-8 Heat Transfer across a Fin : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{8
12.4 Comparison Between Vector and Scalar Formulations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{13
13 TOPICS in STRUCTURAL MECHANICS 13{1
13.1 Transformations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{1
13.1.1 Vectors : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{1
13.1.2 Strains : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{3
13.1.3 Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{4
13.1.4 Constitutive Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{4
13.1.5 Stiness Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{4
13.2 Condensation/Substructuring : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{5
13.3 Inclined Boundary Conditions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{6
13.4 Element Evaluation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{6
13.4.1 Patch Test : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{6
13.4.2 Eigenvalue Test : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{7
13.4.3 Order of Integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{8
13.4.3.1 Full Integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{8
13.4.3.2 Reduced Integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{9
13.4.3.3 Selective Reduced Integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{11
13.5 Parasitic Shear/Incompatible Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{12
0{6 CONTENTS
13.5.1 Q4, The Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{12
Draft
13.5.2 Q6, The Solution : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{13
13.5.3 QM6, Further Enhancements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{13
13.6 Rotational D.O.F. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{14
13.7 Constraints : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{15
14 PLATES 14{1
14.1 Fundamental Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{2
14.1.1 Equilibrium : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{2
14.1.2 Kinematic Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{4
14.1.3 Constitutive Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{6
14.2 Kirchho : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{7
14.2.1 Fundamental Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{7
14.2.2 Dierential Equation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{8
14.2.3 Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{8
14.2.4 Variational Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{9
14.3 Reissner-Mindlin : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{10
14.3.1 Fundamental Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{10
14.3.2 Dierential Equation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{11
14.3.3 y Variational Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{11
14.3.4 Summary : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{12
14.4 Finite Element Formulations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{14
14.4.1 Rectangular Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{14
14.4.1.1 Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{14
14.4.1.2 Shear Locking : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{18
14.4.2 Nonconforming Kirchho Triangular Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{18
14.4.2.1 Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{18
14.4.2.2 Nonconformity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{21
14.4.3 Discrete Kirchho Triangle : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{22
14.5 Summary : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{26
15 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY 15{1
15.1 Strong Form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{1
15.1.1 Lower Order Dierential Equation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{1
15.1.2 Higher Order Dierential Equation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{3
15.1.3 Slenderness Ratio : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{5
15.2 Weak Form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{6
15.2.1 Strain Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{6
15.2.2 Euler Equation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{9
15.2.3 Discretization : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{9
15.3 Elastic Instability : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{11
E 15-9 Column Stability : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{12
E 15-10Frame Stability : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{15
CONTENTS 0{7
15.4 Geometric Non-Linearity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{18
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E 15-11Eect of Axial Load on Flexural Deformation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{18
E 15-12Bifurcation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{22
15.5 Summary : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{25
16 MATERIAL NONLINEARITIES 16{1
16.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{1
16.2 Iterative Procedures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{2
16.2.1 Newton-Raphson Method/Tangent Stiness Method : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{2
16.2.2 Modied Newton-Raphson : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{3
16.2.3 Secant Newton : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{5
16.3 Acceleration of Convergence, Line Search Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{6
16.4 Other Control : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{7
16.5 Convergence Criteria : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{7
16.6 Plasticity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{8
17 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 17{1
17.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 17{1
17.2 Finite Element Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 17{1
17.3 Direct Integration Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 17{2
17.4 Newmark Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 17{3
17.5 Flow Chart of Implementation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 17{5
A MISC. A{1
A.1 Units & Conversion Factors : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : A{1
A.2 Metric Prexes and Multipliers : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : A{2

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List of Figures
3.1 Stress Components on an Innitesimal Element :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{1
3.2 Stress Traction Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{2
3.3 Strain Denition : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{3
3.4 Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{7
3.5 Transversly Isotropic Material : : : : : : : : : : :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{14
3.6 Coordinate Systems for Stress Transformations :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{16
3.7 Fundamental Equations in Solid Mechanics : : :
:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{18
4.1 Flux vector : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ::: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{2
4.2 Flux Through Sides of Dierential Element : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{4
4.3 *Flow through a surface , : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{5
4.4 Fundamental Equations of Heat Flow : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{7
5.1 Example for [ID] Matrix Determination : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{5
5.2 Flowchart for Assembling Global Stiness Matrix : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{5
5.3 Example of Bandwidth : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{7
5.4 Numbering Schemes for Simple Structure : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{7
5.5 Beam Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{10
5.6 ID Values for Simple Beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{10
5.7 Flowchart for the Skyline Height Determination : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{21
6.1 Variational and Dierential Operators : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{2
6.2 Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{7
6.3 Single DOF Example for Potential Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{9
6.4 Graphical Representation of the Potential Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{10
7.1 Axial Finite Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{2
7.2 Constant Strain Triangle Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{4
7.3 Rectangular Bilinear Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{7
7.4 Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{8
7.5 Flexural Finite Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{9
7.6 Shape Functions for Flexure of Uniform Beam Element. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{11
7.7 Natural Coordinate System Along a Straight Line : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{13
0{2 LIST OF FIGURES
7.8 Natural Coordinate System for a Triangle : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{15
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9.1 Linear Triangular Element Subjected to Pure Bending : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{7
9.2 Interelement Continuity of Stress : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{9
9.3 Interelement Continuity of Strain : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{10
10.1 Two-Dimensional Mapping of Some Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{1
10.2 Actual and Parent Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{2
10.3 Iso, Super, and Sub Parametric Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{3
10.4 *Three-Noded Quadratic Bar Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{4
10.5 Four Noded Isoparametric Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{6
10.6 Dierential Element in Curvilinear Coordinate System : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{8
10.7 Cross Product of Two Vectors : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{9
10.8 *Elements with Possible Singular Jacobians : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{10
10.9 Serendipity and Lagrangian Quadratic Quadrilaterals : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{12
10.10Serendipity Isoparametric Quadratic Finite Element: Global and Parent Element 10{13
10.11Shape Functions for 8 Noded Quadrilateral Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{14
10.12Shape Functions for 9 Noded Quadrilateral Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{16
10.13Nodal Numbering for Isoparameteric Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{17
10.14Pascal Triangles for Quadrilateral and Triangle Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{18
10.15Newton-Cotes Numerical integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{22
10.16Gauss-Legendre Integration over a Surface : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{27
10.17Extrapolation from 4-Node Quad Gauss Points [?] : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{28
10.18Gravity Loading : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{30
10.19Traction Load in Isoparametric Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{31
10.20Traction Load in Contiguous Isoparametric Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{32
13.1 Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{2
13.2 3D Vector Transformation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{2
13.3 *Patch Tests : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{6
13.4 Eigenvectors Corresponding to a) Non-Zero and b) Zero Eigenvalues for a Square
Bilinear element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{9
13.5 Independent Displacement Modes for a Bilinear Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{10
13.6 Hourglas Modes in Under-Integrated Quadratic Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{11
13.7 Rectangular Bilinear Element Subjected to Bending : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{12
13.8 Displacements Associated with Incompatible Modes for the Q6 Element : : : : : 13{13
13.9 Side Displacements Induced by Drilling d.o.f. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{15
13.10Hybrid : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{16
14.1 Finite Element Formulation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{1
14.2 Stresses in a Plate : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{2
14.3 Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Plate Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{3
14.4 Displacements in a Plate : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{4

LIST OF FIGURES 0{3
14.5 Positive Moments and Rotations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: 14{6 : : : : : : : :
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14.6 Rectangular Plate Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: 14{14: : : : : : : :
14.7 Triangular Plate Element in Natural Coordinate System : : : : :
: 14{19: : : : : : : :
14.8 Edges of Adjacent Triangular Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: 14{21: : : : : : : :
14.9 Discrete Kirchho Triangular Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: 14{23: : : : : : : :
15.1 Euler Column : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: 15{1 : : : : : : : :
15.2 Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P : 15{4
15.3 Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged
Column : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{6
15.4 Critical lengths of columns : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{7
15.5 Summary of Stability Solutions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15{26
16.1 Newton-Raphson Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{2
16.2 Modied Newton-Raphson Method, Initial Tangent in Increment : : : : : : : : : 16{4
16.3 Modied Newton-Raphson Method, Initial Problem Tangent : : : : : : : : : : : 16{4
16.4 Incremental Secant, Quasi-Newton Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{5
16.5 Schematic of Line Search (Reich 1993) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16{7

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List of Tables
3.1 Number of Elastic Constants for Dierent Materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{15
4.1 Selected Examples of Diusion Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{1
4.2 Comparison of Scalar and Vector Field Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{7
6.1 Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{6
7.1 Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{11
9.1 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series (1D & 2D) : : : 9{6
9.2 Polynomial Terms in Various Element Formulations (1D & 2D) : : : : : : : : : : 9{6
10.1 Shape Functions for Variable Node Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{17
10.2 Shape Functions, and Natural Derivatives for Q8 Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{17
10.3 Shape Functions and Derivatives for T6 Element : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{21
10.4 Weights for Newton-Cotes Quadrature Formulas : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{23
10.5 Integration Points and Weights for Gauss-Quadrature Formulaes Over the Inter-
val [,1; 1] : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{25
10.6 Natural Coordinates of Bilinear Quadrilateral Nodes : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{28
12.1 Comparison of Scalar and Vector Field Problems, Revisited : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{14
13.1 Full and Reduced Numerical Integrations for Quadrilateral Elements : : : : : : : 13{10
13.2 Bilinsear and Exact Displacements/Strains : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{12
14.1 Comparison of Governing Equations in Elasticity and Plate Bending : : : : : : : 14{13
14.2 Integration Rules for Mindlin Plate Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{18
0{2 LIST OF TABLES
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LIST OF TABLES 0{3
NOTATION
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SCALARS
A Area
c Specic heat
E Elastic Modulus
h Film coecient for convection heat transfer
I Moment of inertia
J St Venant's torsional constant
L Length
Q Rate of internal heat generation per unit volume
t Time
T Temperature
u; v; w Translational displacements along the x, y, and z directions
U0 Strain energy density
U Strain energy
U0 Complementary strain energy density
U Complementary strain energy
W Work
Potential energy
Coecient of thermal expansion
Shear modulus
Poisson's ratio
mass density
Rotational displacement
M Virtual moment
P Virtual force
Virtual rotation
u Virtual displacement
Virtual curvature
U Virtual internal strain energy
W Virtual external work
TENSORS order 1
a Vector of coecients in assumed displacement eld
b Body force
c Nodal coordinates
F Unknown element forces and unknown support reactions
p Matrix of coecients of a polynomial series
N Displacement shape functions
N~ Coordinate shape functions
p Element nodal forces = F
0{4 LIST OF TABLES
P Structure nodal forces
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q Flux per unit area
R Structure reactions
R Residuals
t Traction vector
t
b Specied tractions along ,t
u Displacement vector
ub (x) Specied displacements along ,u
u Displacement vector
ue Nodal element displacements
u Nodal displacements in a continuous system
u Structure nodal displacements
V Shear forces in a plate Vx ; Vy
Element nodal displacements
Virtual strain vector
Virtual stress vector
Stress vector
0 Initial stress vector
TENSORS order 2
d Element exibility matrix
I Idendity matrix
k Element stiness matrix
kg Geometric element stiness matrix
K Structure stiness matrix
Kg Structure's geometric stiness matrix
lij Direction cosine of rotated axis i with respect to original axis j
M Moments in a plate Mxx ; Mxy ; Myx ; Myy
N Membrane forces Nxx ; Nxy ; Nyx ; Nyy
Shear deformations
, Transformation matrix
Strain vector
0 Initial strain vector
k Conductivity
Curvature
TENSORS order 4
D Constitutive matrix
CONTOURS, SURFACES, VOLUMES

LIST OF TABLES 0{5
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, Surface
,t Boundary along which surface tractions, t are specied
,u Boundary along which displacements, u are specied
,T Boundary along which temperatures, T are specied
,c Boundary along which convection ux, qc are specied
,q Boundary along which ux, qn are specied

Volume of body
FUNCTIONS, OPERATORS
u~ Neighbour function to u(x)
Variational operator
B Discrete strain-displacement operator
L Linear dierential operator relating displacement to strains
r Divergence, (gradient operator) on scalar b @ @ @ T
@x @y @z c
r :u = div .u Divergence, (gradient operator) on vector @u@xx + @u@yy + @u@zz
k v k2 Euclidian norm.
k : : : k1 Innity norm.
PROGRAM ARRAYS
ID Matrix relating nodal dof to structure dof
LM structure dof of nodes connected to a given element

0{6 LIST OF TABLES
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LIST OF TABLES 0{7
1 Jan. 16 Introduction; Course objective; Overview; Notation.
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18 Mathematical Formulations.
2 23 Elasticity
25 Direct Method; Field Eq.
3 30 Variational Methods
Feb. 1 Mesh Generators; Laboratory
4 6 Variational Methods, Mechanics; Laboratory
8 FE Discretization and Requirements; C0 Elements.
5 13 Isoparametric Elements, Bar Element 6.1-6.14
15 Isoparamteric Element, Bilinear Element
6 20 Isoparameteric Element; Quadratic, Hierarchical Elements;
Numerical integration
22 Isoparameteric Element; Numerical integration
7 27 Laboratory
29 Weighted Residuals
8 Mar. 5 Galerkin; 3D Elasticity; Field Equation
7 Field Equation, Theory, application Ch. 16
9 12 Field Equation
14 Exam I
10 19 Lab (Field Equations)
21 Error Analysis
SPRING BREAK
12 Apr. 2 Topics (Condensation, Transformation, Integration, Test)
4 Order of Integration, Eignevalu tests
13 9 Plate Bending 9.1-9.6
11 Plate Bending 11.1-11.5
14 16 Plate Bending
18 Geometric Non Linearity Ch. 14.
15 23 Geometric Nonlinearity
25 Material Nonlinearity Ch. 17
16 30 Dynamics Ch. 13
May 2 Review

0{8 LIST OF TABLES
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1 Role of the course
Matrix \Rod" Element Structural Engineering
Finite Element \Continuum" Elements Mechanics/Field Problems
2 Mechanics (Fluid, Solid, Coupled):

1. Theoretical (i.e. Continuum Mechanics)
2. Applied (i.e. Fracture Mechanics)
3. Computational
(a) Statics vs Dynamic
(b) Linear vs Nonlinear (Material, geometric)
(c) Discretization (Finite element, Boundary elements, Finite dierences)
3 Any problem characterized by a PDE can be analysed by the nite element method.
4 When analytical solutions can not be applied to solve a problem (complex B.C. or I.C.), )
discretize it into nite elements and analyse.
5 If we can not analytically solve a problem, then break it into an assemblage of elements, each
of which can be analysed.
6 Approximate the behavior within the element and assume that this approximation is explicetly
expressed in terms of displacements and forces.
7 Field of application include: Structure, Heat, Fluid, Magnetostatics, ...
1{2 INTRODUCTION
8 Major advantages: Any arbitrary geometry, support, load, and material properties (including
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nonlinear) can be handled.
9 Disadvantage: Proper judgment for discretization and result interpretation. (garbage in,
garbage out!).
1.2 Finite Element Discretization

10 Types of elements (not related to type of analysis)
Spatial model
1D
1. Truss/spring
2. Beam (Bernouilli/Timoshenko)
3. Interface
2D (quadrilateral/triangular)
1. Plane Stress/Strain
2. Axisymmetric
3. Plate Bending (Mindlin/Kirscho)
4. Interface
3D
1. Shell (described by middle surface nodes)
2. Thick shell (described by top and bottom nodes)
3. Brick elements (tetrahedra, hexahedra)
Mass elements (1D, 2D, 3D)
Special
1. Crack
2. Innite
Approximation
1. Linear/quadratic/cubic: same degree of approximation along all sides

2. Hierarchical: dierent degrees of approximation along all sides (easier for mesh re-
nement)

1.3 Generalized Nodal Quantities 1{3
1.3 Generalized Nodal Quantities
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\Displacements" \Forces"
Translation, u; v; w Force Fx ; Fy ; Fz
Rotation, x; y ; z Moments Mx ; My ; Mz
@ 2w @3w
Gradient derivatives, @x2 ; @x3 Generalized forces
11Any displacement selected as characteristic of a node, is denoted as a degree of freedom

(dof). Hence the term generalized displacement and the corresponding generalized force.
1.4 Computer Programs

12 Modern programs are composed of three modules
1. Mesh generator
2. Analysis
3. Post-Pocessor
13Major nite element codes
NASTRAN Originally developped by NASA, primarily used by NASA and its contractors.
Original version public domain, later version (McNeal Schwindler) commercial.
SAP Originally evelopped by Ed. Wilson at Berkeley. First version public domain, later ones
available only for PC (SAP90). NONSAP is the nonlinear version of SAP
ANSYS Commercial program mostly used in the Nuclear industry.
ABAQUS Probably the most modern and widely used commercial nite element. (Available
in Bechtel Lab).
ALGOR Very widely used PC/based code, mechanical/civil applications.
FEAP Public domain code listed in Zienkiewicz et al., often used in academia as a base for
extension.
MERLIN our very own!.

1{4 INTRODUCTION
1.5 Examples of applications
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1. Aircraft, automobile, submarine
2. Dam, buildings, bridges
3. Mechanical design and optimization
4. Heat transfer
5. Biomechanics (hip joints)
6. Electrical (design of rotors)
7. Coastal engineering
8. Fluid mechanics
9. Coupled problems
1.6 Chracteristic Matrix

14 Element characteristic matrix
Structural Mechanics Stiness Matrix
Heat conduction Conductivity Matrix
15Three major ways to derive the characterisitc matrix of an element

Direct Method: Based on physical reasoning, limited to simple framework elements, used in
Matrix course.
Variational Methods: are applicable to problems which can be expressed in terms of func-
tionals. Used in Matrix, and will be revisited in F.E.
Weighted Residuals: applicable when dierential equation is known, but there is no varia-
tional statement (If the dierential equation contains derivatives of odd order). Will be
used for both mechanics and eld problems.

Draft
Chapter 2
PRELIMINARY
CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Notation
1 Equations of elasticity are expressed in terms of tensors, where
A tensor is a physical quantity, independent of any particular coordinate system yet
specied most conveniently by referring to an appropriate system of coordinates.
A tensor is classied by the rank or order
A Tensor of order zero is specied in any coordinate system by one coordinate and is a
scalar.
A tensor of order one has three coordinate components in space, hence it is a vector.
In general 3-D space the number of components of a tensor is 3n where n is the order of
the tensor.
2 For example, force and a stress are tensors of order 1 and 2 respectively.
3 To express tensors, there are three distinct notations which can be used: 1) Engineering; 2)
indicial; or 3) Dyadic.
4 Whereas the Engineering notation may be the simplest and most intuitive one, it often leads
to long and repetitive equations. Alternatively, the tensor and the dyadic form will lead to
shorter and more compact forms.
2.1.1 Engineering Notation
In the engineering notation, we carry on the various subscript(s) associated with each coordinate
axis, for example xx ; xy .
2{2 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.2 Dyadic/Vector Notation
Draft
5 Uses bold face characters for tensors of order one and higher, ; . This notation is indepen-
dent of coordinate systems.
6 Since scalar operations are in general not applicable to vectors, we dene
A+B = B+A (2.1-a)
AB = ,BA (2.1-b)
A = Axi + Ay j + Az k (2.1-c)
AB = jAjjBj cos(A; B)
= A
x Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (2.1-d)

i j k

A B =

Ax Ay Az

(2.1-e)
Bx By Bz
grad A = rA = i @A +
@x @y j @A + k @A
@z (2.1-f)

div A = rA = i @x + j @y + k @z@ (iAx + jAy + kAz )
@ @
= @Ax + @Ay + @Az (2.1-g)

@x @y @z
Laplacian r2 = rr = @2A + @2A + @2A (2.1-h)
@x2 @y2 @z2
(2.1-i)
2.1.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation

This notation uses letter appended indices (sub or super scripts) to the letter representing the
tensor quantity of interest. i.e. ai ; ij ; "ij , where the number of indices is the rank of the tensor.
7 The following rules dene tensorial notation:
1. If there is one letter index, that index goes from i to n. For instance:
8 9
>
< a1 >
=
ai = ai = b a1 a2 a3 c = > a2 >
i = 1; 3 (2.2)
: a3 ;
assuming that n = 3.
2. A repeated index will take on all the values of its range, and the resulting tensors summed.
For instance:
a1ixi = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 (2.3)
2.2 Integral Theorems 2{3
3. Tensor's order:
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First order tensor (such as force) has only one free index:
ai = ai = b a1 a2 a3 c (2.4)
Second order tensor (such as stress or strain) will have two free indeces.
2 3
D11 D22 D13
Dij 64 D21 D22 D23 7
5 (2.5)
D31 D32 D33
A fourth order tensor (such as Elastic constants) will have four free indeces.
4. Derivatives of tensor with respect to xi is written as ; i. For example:
@ @vi = v @v @Ti;j
@xi = ;i @x i i;i @xij = vi;j @xk = Ti;j;k (2.6)
Usefulness of the indicial notation is in presenting systems of equations in compact form.
For instance:
xi = cij zj (2.7)
this simple compacted equation (expressed as x = cz in dyadic notation), when expanded would
yield:
x1 = c11 z1 + c12 z2 + c13 z3
x2 = c21 z1 + c22 z2 + c23 z3 (2.8-a)
x3 = c31 z1 + c32 z2 + c33 z3
Similarly:
Aij = BipCjq Dpq (2.9)
A11 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A12 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A21 = B21 C11 D11 + B21 C12 D12 + B22 C11 D21 + B22 C12 D22
A22 = B21 C21 D11 + B21 C22 D12 + B22 C21 D21 + B22 C22 D22 (2.10-a)
2.2 Integral Theorems

8 Some useful integral theorems are presented here without proofs. Schey's textbook div grad
curl and all that provides an excellent informal presentation of related material.
2.2.1 Integration by Parts
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The integration by part formula is
Z b Z b
u(x)v (x)dx = u(x)v(x)ja , v(x)u0 (x)dx
0 b (2.11)
a a
or
Z b Z b
udv = b
uvja , vdu (2.12)
a a
2.2.2 Green-Gradient Theorem

Green's theorem is
Z
I
(Rdx + Sdy) = @S , @R dxdy (2.13)
, @x @y
2.2.3 Green Theorem
R @S @R Sd
+ I RSn d,
Z Z
@x d
= , x (2.14)

@x ,
2.2.4 Gauss-Divergence Theorem

9 In 2D-3D Gauss' integral theorem is
Z Z Z Z Z
div qdV = qT :ndS (2.15)
V S
or
Z Z Z Z Z
vi;id
= vini d, (2.16)

,
10 Alternatively
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
div qd
= qT :nd, , (r)T qd
(2.17)

,
11 For 2D-1D transformations, we have

Z Z I
div qdA = qT nds (2.18)
A s

2.3 Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Equations 2{5
2.2.5 Gauss-Green Theorem
Draft
12 If instead of q we have q where is a scalar, then Gauss' divergence theorem becomes

Z Z I Z Z
div qdA = qT nd, , (r)T qdA (2.19)
A , A
2.3 Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Equations

13 The nite element method is a numerical scheme to solve (partial) dierential equations.
14 The general form of a partial dierential equation is
F (x; y; z; ; u; ux ; uy ; uz ; ; uxx; uyy ; ; uxy ; uxz ; ) = 0
15 The order of the PDE is dened by the order of the highest partial derivatives appearing in
the equation.
16 For instance
1 uxx + 2 uxy + 3 uyy + 4 = 0
is quadratic. It would be linear if i is a function of (x; y) only, otherwise it is nonlinear.
17 Many signicant physical systems can be described by second order linear partial dierential
equations. The most general form is

@ 2u @ 2u @ 2u @u @u
A(x; y) @x2 + 2B (x; y) @x@y + C (x; y) @y2 = x; y; u @x ; @y (2.20)
Where u is the unknown state variable.
18 This equation is classied into three types:
B 2 , AC < 0 Elliptic uxx + uyy = 0 Lapalace Equation

B 2 , AC = 0 Parabolic uxx = uy Heat Equation
B , AC > 0 Hyperbolic uxx , uyy = 0 Wave Equation
2
19 Note:
1. The Laplace equation (r2 u = 0) is associated with the equilibrium problem, .
2. The Heat equation (Hut , K 2 r2 u = 0) corresponds to exponential decay. Also referred
to as Diusion equation ( uid ow through porous media, irrotational uid ow, Saint
Venant torsion of elastic bars...).
3. The Wave equation (utt , K 2 r2 u = 0) corresponds to harmonic motion
20 This classcation is established when solving Eq. 2.20 using the method of characteristics
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because it is then observed that the character of the solutions is distinctly dierent for the three
categories of equations.
Example 2-1: Seepage Problem;[?]

The idealized dam shown below
stands on permeable soil. Formulate the dierential equation governing the steady-state seepage
of water through the soil and give the corresponding boundary conditions.
Solution:
1. For a typical element of widths dx and dy (and unit thickness), the total ow into the element
must be equal to the total ow out of the element. Hence we have

@q y @q x
qy , qy + @y dx + qx , qx + @x dy = 0 (2.21-a)
, @q
@y
y dydx , @qx dxdy = 0
@x (2.21-b)
2. Using Darcy's law, the ow is given in terms of the total potential (water elevation),
qx = ,k @
@x qy = ,k @
@y (2.22)

where we assume a uniform permeability k. Substituting from Eq. 2.22 into Eq. 2.21-b, we
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obtain the Laplace equation
!
k @@x2 + @@y2 = 0
2 2
(2.23)
3. It may be noted that this same equation is also obtained in heat transfer analysis and in the
solution of electrostatic potential and other eld problems.
4. The boundary conditions are no- ow boundary conditions in the soil at x = ,1 and x =
+1,
@ = 0; @ =0 (2.24)
@x x=,1 @x x=+1
at the rock-soil interface,
@ = 0 (2.25)
@y y=0
and at the dam-soil interface,
@ (x; L) = 0 for , h x + h (2.26)
@y 2 2
21 In addition, the total potential is prescribed at the water-soil interface,
(x; L)jx<,(h=2) = h1 ; (x; L)jx>,(h=2) = h2 (2.27)
The dierential equation in Eq. 2.23 and the boundary conditions in Eq. 2.24 to Eq. 2.27
dene the seepage ow steady-state response.
Example 2-2: Difusion Problem;[?]

The very long slab shown below

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is at a constant initial temperature i when the surface at x = 0 is suddenly subjected to a

constant uniform heat ow input. The surface at x = L of the slab is kept at the temperature
i , and the surfaces parallel to the x; z plane are insulated. Assuming one-dimensional heat
ow conditions, show that the problem-governing dierential equation is the heat conduction
equation
@ 2 = c @
k @x (2.28)
2 @t
where the parameters are dened in the gure above, and the temperature is the state variable.
State also the boundary and initial conditions.
Solution:
1. We consider a typical dierential element of the slab. The element equilibrium requirement
is that the net heat ow input to the element must equal the rate of heat stored in the element.
Thus
qA , q + @x dx A = Ac @
@q
@t (2.29)
2. The constitutive relation is given by Fourier's law of heat conduction
@
q = ,k @x (2.30)
3. Substituting from Eq. 2.30 into Eq. ?? we obtain
@ 2 = c @
k @x (2.31)
2 @t

In this case the element interconnectivity requirements are contained in the assumption that
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the temperature be a continuous function of x and no additional compatibility conditions are
applicable.
4. The boundary conditions are (for t > 0)
@ (0; t) = , q0(t) (2.32-a)
@x k
(L; t) = i (2.32-b)
and the initial condition is
(x; 0) = i (2.33)
Example 2-3: Wave Equation, [?]

The rod shown below is initially at rest when a load R(t) is suddenly applied at its free end.
Show that the problem-governing dierential equation is the wave equation

s
@2u = 1 @2u ; c = E (2.34)
@x2 c2 @t2
where the variables are dened above and the displacement of the rod, u, is the state variable.
Also state the boundary and initial conditions.
Solution:
Draft
1. The element force equilibrium requirements of a typical dierential element are, using
d'Alembert's principle,
A + A @
@x dx , A = A @ 2 u dx
@t2 (2.35)
2. The constitutive relation is
= E @u
@x (2.36)
3. Combining Eq. 2.35 and Eq. 2.36 we obtain
@2u = 1 @2u (2.37)
@x2 c2 @t2
4. The element interconnectivity requirements are satised because we assume that the dis-
placement u is continuous, and no additional compatibility conditions are applicable.
5. The boundary conditions are for t > 0
u(0; t) = 0 (2.38-a)
@u
EA @x (L; t) = F0 (2.38-b)
(2.38-c)
and the initial conditions are
u(x; 0) = 0 (2.39-a)
@u (x; 0) = 0 (2.39-b)
@t
With the above two sets of conditions, the formulation of the problem is complete, and Eq.
2.37 can be solved for the displacement response of the rod.
21Observations
Example 2-1 From the rst example we observe
1. The unknown state variables (or their normal derivatives) are given on the boundary.
These problems are for this reason also called boundary value problems, where we
should note that the solution at a general interior point depends on the data at every
point of the boundary.
2. A change in only one boundary value aects the complete solution; for instance, the
complete solution for depends on the actual value of h1 .
3. Elliptic dierential equations generally govern the steady-state response of systems.
Example ??, 2-3 1. Comparing the governing dierential equations given in the three ex-
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amples we note that in contrast to the elliptic equation, the parabolic and hyperbolic
equations Eq. 2.31 and Eq. 2.37 include time as an independent variable and thus
dene propagation problems. These problems are also called initial value problems
because the solution depends on the initial conditions.
2. We may note that analogous to the derivation of the dynamic equilibrium equations
of lumped-parameter models, the governing dierential equations of propagation
problems are obtained from the steady-state equations by including the \resistance
to change" (inertia) of the dierential elements.
3. The parabolic and hyperbolic dierential equations Eq. 2.31 and Eq. 2.37 would
become elliptic equations if the time-dependent terms were neglected. In this way
the initial value problems would be converted to boundary value problems with
steady-state solutions.
4. The solution of a boundary value problem depends on the data at all points of the
boundary. However, in propagation problem, the solution at an interior point may
depend only on the boundary conditions of part of the boundary and the initial
conditions over part of the interior domain.

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Chapter 3
REVIEW OF ELASTICITY
3.1 Stress
1 A stress, Fig 3.1 is a second order cartesian tensor, ij where the 1st subscript (i) refers to
Figure 3.1: Stress Components on an Innitesimal Element

the direction of outward facing normal, and the second one (j ) to the direction of component
force. 2 3
11 12 13
ij = 64 21 22 23 7
5 (3.1)
31 32 33
3{2 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY
2 The stress tensor is symmetric ij = ji; this can easily be proved through rotational equi-
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librium.
3.1.1 Stress Traction Relation
3 The relation between stress tensor ij at a point and the stress vector ti (or traction) on a
plane of arbitrary orientation, can be established through the following, Fig. 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Stress Traction Relations
ti = nj ij (3.2)
2 3
11 12 13
b t1 t2 t3 c = b| n1 n{z2 n3 c} 64 21 22 23 7
5 (3.3)
direction cosines 31 32 33
| {z }
stress tensor
where n is a unit outward vector normal to the plane.
4 Note that the stress is dened at a point, and a traction is dened at a point and with respect
to a given plane orientation.
5 When expanded in cartesian coordinates,, the previous equation yields
tx = xxnx + xy ny + xz nz

ty = yxnx + yy ny + yz nz (3.4)
tz = zxnx + zy ny + zz nz

3.2 Kinematic/Strain 3{3
3.2 Kinematic/Strain
Draft
6 Considering two points A and B in a 3D solid, the distance between them is ds

ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 (3.5)
As a result of deformation, point A moves to A0 , and B to B 0 the distance between the two
points is ds0 , Fig. 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Strain Denition

ds02 = dx0 2 + dy0 2 + dz0 2 (3.6)
7 The displacement of point A to A0 is given by
u = x0 , x (3.7-a)
v = y0 , y (3.7-b)
w = z0 , z (3.7-c)
8 Substituting the rst and third equation into the second one, we obtain
ds02 = dx
|
2 + dy 2 + dz 2 +2dudx + 2dvdy + 2dwdz + du2 + dv 2 + dw2
{z }
(3.8)
ds2

9 From the chain rule of dierrentiation
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du = @u
@x dx + @u dy + @u dz
@y @z (3.9-a)
@v @v @v
dv = @x dx + @y dy + @z dz (3.9-b)
dw = @w
@x dx + @w dy + @w dz
@y @z (3.9-c)
10 Substituting this equation into the preceding one yields the nite strains
( " #)
ds0 2 , ds2 = 2 @u + 1 @u 2 + @v 2 + @w 2 dx2
@x 2 @x @x @x
( " 2 2 2 #)
+ @v 1 @u
2 @y + 2 @y + @y + @y @v @w dy2
( " 2 2 2 #)
+ @w 1 @u
2 @z + 2 @z + @z + @z @v @w dz2

+ @v + @u + @u @u + @v @v + @w @w dxdy
2 @x

@y @x @y @x @y @x @y
+ 2 @x + @u
@w + @u @u + @v @v + @w @w dxdz
@z @x @z @x @z @x @z

+ 2 @w @v @u @u @v @v @w @w
@y + @z + @y @z + @y @z + @y @z dydz (3.10-a)
11 We observe that ds0 2 , ds2 is zero if there is no relative displacement between A and B (i.e.
rigid body motion), otherwise the solid is strained. Hence ds0 2 , ds2 can be selected as an
appropriate measure of the deformation of the solid, and we dene the strain components as
ds0 2 , ds2 = 2"xxdx2 + 2"yy dy2 + 2"zz dz 2 + 4"xy dxdy + 4"xz dxdz + 4"yz dydz (3.11)
where

3.2 Kinematic/Strain 3{5
" #
@u + 1 @u 2 + @v 2 + @w 2
Draft
"xx = @x 2 @x @x @x (3.12)
" #
"yy = @v + 1 @u + @v + @w 2
2 2
(3.13)
@y 2 @y @y @y
" #
"zz = @w + 1 @u + @v + @w 2
2 2
(3.14)
@z 2 @z @z @z
"xy = 1 @v + @u + @u @u + @v @v + @w @w

(3.15)
2 @x @y @x @y @x @y @x @y
"xz = 1 @w + @u + @u @u + @v @v + @w @w (3.16)
2 @x @z @x @z @x @z @x @z
"yz = 1 @w @v @u @u @v @v @w @w
2 @y + @z + @y @z + @y @z + @y @z (3.17)
or
"ij = 12 (ui;k + uk;i + ul;i ul;k ) (3.18)
From this equation, we note that:

1. We dene the engineering shear strain as
ij = 2"ij (i 6= j ) (3.19)
2. If the strains are given, then these strain-displacements provide a system of (6) nonlinear
partial dierential equation in terms of the unknown displacements (3).
3. "ik is the Green-Lagrange strain tensor.
4. The strains have been expressed in terms of the coordinates x; y; z in the undeformed state,
i.e. in the Lagrangian coordinate which is the preferred one in structural mechanics.
5. Alternatively we could have expressed ds0 2 , ds2 in terms of coordinates in the deformed
state, i.e. Eulerian coordinates x0 ; y0 ; z 0 , and the resulting strains are referred to as the
Almansi strain which is the preferred one in uid mechanics.
6. These nonlinear equations are essential to describe structural behavior under large defor-
mation and for analysis of stability problems (Chapter 15).
7. In most cases the deformations are small enough for the quadratic term to be dropped,
the resulting equations reduce to

"xx = @u
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@x (3.20)
"yy = @v
@y (3.21)
"zz = @w
@z (3.22)
xy = @x + @u
@v
@y (3.23)
xz = @w @u
@x + @z (3.24)
yz = @w +
@y @z
@v (3.25)
or
"ij = 12 (ui;k + uk;i) (3.26)
which is called the Cauchy strain

12 Initial (or thermal strain)
8 9 8 9
>
< T >
= >
< T >
=
"ij = >
T >
= (1 + ) > T >
(3.27)
0 : 0; : ;
| | {z } {z }
Plane Stress Plane Strain
note there is no shear strains caused by thermal expansion.
13 The strain may also be expressed as
= Lu (3.28)
or 2 @ 3
8
> "xx 9
> @x 0 0
> >
0 @ 0
>
>
>
> "yy >
>
>
>
6
6 @y
78
7
u
9
0 @z@ 7< x
> > 6 7> >
<
"zz =
=
6
6
0 7 u
=
"xy @ @ 7> y
@x 0 (3.29)
> > 6 >
>
>
"xz
>
> 6 @y
@
7:
zu ;
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
6
4 @z 0 @x@ 7
5 | {z }
:
"yz ;
0 @z@ @y@ u
| {z } | {z }
L

3.3 Equilibrium; Momentum Principle 3{7
3.3 Equilibrium; Momentum Principle
Draft
14Starting with the set of forces acting on an innitesimal element of dimensions dx1 dx2 dx3 ,
Fig. 3.4 and writing the summation of forces, will yield
ij;j + bi = 0 (3.30)
where is the density, bi is the body force (including inertia).
Figure 3.4: Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates
15 Alternatively, we may start from the momentum principle which states that the time rate of
change of the total momentum of a given set of particles equals the vector sum of all external
forces acting on the particles of the set, provided Newton's Third Law applies.
Z Z
d Z
td, + bd
= dt vd
(3.31)
,

Then we substitute ti = ij nj and apply the divergence theorm to obtain

!
Z
@ij + b d
= Z dvi d
(3.32-a)
i

@xj
dt
Z " #
@ij + b , dvi d
= 0 (3.32-b)
i

@xj dt
or for an arbitrary volume
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+ b =
dv (3.33)
r
dt
16 When expanded in 3D, this equation yields:
@11 + @12 + @13 + b = 0
1
@x1 @x2 @x3
@21 + @22 + @23 + b = 0 (3.34-a)
2
@x1 @x2 @x3
@31 + @32 + @33 + b = 0
3
@x 1 @x 2 @x 3
17 Alternatively, the equation of equilibrium can be written as
LT + b = 0 (3.35)
or 8 9
>
> xx >
>
2 @ 00 @y@ @z@ 0
3>>
>
> yy >
>
>
>
8
bx
9
@x >
<
zz >
= >
< >
=
6
4 0 @y@ 0 @x@ 0 @z@ 7
5
xy + by =0
0 0 @z@ 0 @x@ @y@
>
> >
> >
: b >
; (3.36)
>
>
>
> xz
>
>
>
>
z
| {z }> > | {z }
: ;
LT yz b
| {z }

18 Expanding
@xx + @xy + @xz + bx = 0
@x @y @z
@yx + @yy + @yz + by = 0 (3.37)
@x @y @z
@zx + @zy + @zz + bz = 0
@x @y @z
3.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity

19 The Generalized Hooke's Law can be written as:
ij = Dijkl"kl i; j; k; l = 1; 2; 3 (3.38)
20The (fourth order) tensor of elastic constants Dijklhas 81(34 ) components however, due to
the symmetry of both and , there are at most 36 9(92,1) distinct elastic terms.
3.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity 3{9
21 For the purpose of writing Hooke's Law, the double indexed system is often replaced by a
Draft
simple indexed system with a range of six:
62 =36
z }| {
k = Dkm "m k; m = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6 (3.39)
22 For isotropic bodies (elastic properties independent of reference system used to describe it),
it can be shown that the number of independent elastic constants is two. The stress strain
relations can be written in terms of E and as:
E ij , E ij kk
"ij = 1+
ij = E "ij + ij "kk
(3.40)
1+ 1,2
where ij is the kroneker delta and is equal to 1 if i = j and to 0 if i 6= j . When the strain
equation is expanded in 3D cartesian coordinates it would yield:
"xy = E1 [xx , (yy + zz )]
"yy = E1 [yy , (zz + xx )]
"zz = E1 [zz , (xx + yy )] (3.41)
"xy = 1+E xy
"yz = 1+E yz
"zx = 1+E zx
23 Alternatively, we can derive expressions for the stress in term of the strain from the preceding
set of equations. This would yield:
8
> xx
9
>
2
1 1, 1, 0 0 0 38 > "xx
9
>
> > 6 1 0 0 0 > >
>
>
>
> yy
>
>
>
> 6 1 ,
1 ,
7>
7 >
>
> " yy
>
>
>
>
>
<
zz = E (1 , ) 6 1, 1,
>
= 6
6 1 0 0 0 7
7
>
<
" zz
>
=
(1 + )(1 , 2 ) 6 0 0 0 1 ,2 0 0
7
7 " (3.42)
>
> xy >
> 6 2(1 , nu ) 7 >
> xy >
>
>
yz >
> 1,2 >
"yz >
>
4 0 0 0 0 0 75 >
>
> > 6 > >
>
>
:
>
>
; 2(1,nu) >
>
:
>
>
;
zx 0 0 0 0 0 1
2(1
,
,
2
nu

)
" zx
| {z } | {z } | {z }
D
where is the shear modulus and xy = 2"xy .
24 In terms of Lam e constant we would have
ij = "iiij + 2"ij (3.43)
"ij = 21 ij , ij 3+2
kk

where
= E
(1+ )(1,2 ) (3.44)
= E
2(1+ )
25 In terms of initial stresses and strains
Draft
ij = Dijkl ("kl , "0kl ) + ij0 (3.45)
3.4.1 Plane Strain

26For problems involving a long body in the z direction with no variation in load or geometry,
then "zz = yz = xz = 0. Thus, replacing into Eq. 3.42 we obtain
8 9 2 38 9
xx 1 (1, ) 0 "xx
= (1 +E(1)(1, , )2 ) 64 1,
>
< >
= >
< >
=
yy 1 0 7
5 "yy (3.46)
>
: xy >
;
0 0 1,2 >
: xy >
;
2(1, )
| {z }
Dijkl
3.4.2 Axisymmetry
27 In solids of revolution, we can use a polar coordinate sytem and
"rr = @u
@r (3.47-a)
u
" = r (3.47-b)
"zz = @w
@z (3.47-c)
@u
"rz = @z + @w
@r (3.47-d)
28 The constitutive relation is again analogous to 3D/plane strain

2 3
8
rr
9 1, 0 8
"rr
9
>
>
>
<
zz
>
>
>
= E
6
6 1, 0 7>
7>
>
<
"zz
>
>
>
=
= (1 + )(1 , 2 ) 6
6 1, 0 7
7
" (3.48)
>
>
>
:
rz
>
>
>
;
6
4 1, 0 7>
5>>
:
rz
>
>
>
;
0 0 0 1,2
| {z
2 }
D
3.4.3 Plane Stress
29If the longitudinal dimension in z direction is much smaller than in the x and y directions,
then yz = xz = zz = 0 throughout the thickness. Again, substituting into Eq. 3.42 we

3.5 Pore Pressures 3{11
obtain: 8 9 2 38 9
Draft
> xx > 1 0 > "xx >
= 1 ,1 2 64
< = < =
yy 1 0 7
5 "yy (3.49)
>
: xy >
; 0 0 1, >
: xy >
;
| {z
2 }
Dijkl
3.5 Pore Pressures

30In porous material, the water pressure is transmitted to the structure as a body force of
magnitude
@p
bx = , @x @p
by = , @y (3.50)
where p is the pore pressure.
31 The eective stresses are the forces transmitted between the solid particles and are dened
in terms of the total stresses and pore pressure p
ij0 = ij + mij p mT = [ ,1; ,1; 0 ] (3.51)
i.e simply removing the hydrostatic pressure component from the total stress.
3.6 y Field Equations for Thermo- and Poro Elasticity

Adapted from Reich (1993)
32 In the absence of thermal/initial stresses and pore pressures, the eld equations are written
as 0
ij;j + bi = 0 Equilibrium (3.52)
0
ij nj , tî = 0 Natural B.C.
where bi and tî are the body forces and surface tractions respectively.
33 These equations will form the basis of the variational formulation of the nite element
method.
34 To account for the eect of thermal/initial stresses and pore pressures we seek to modify Eq.
3.52, in such a way that bi and tî are replaced by b0i and t^0i .
35 Thermal strains are caused by a change in temperature with respect to the stress-free con-
dition.
36 In Thermo- or poro-elasticity problems, the thermal strains and pore pressures are treated
as initial strains and stresses, respectively.
37 In porous media, the total stress is equal to the sum of 0 and p. This last term is the
Draft
pore pressures and acts only in the voids of the material, and the eective stresses 0 act only
on the skeleton of the material.
38 It must be noted that the pore pressures p being considered in this discussion and throughout
the remainder of this course are the steady state pore pressures; excess pore pressures resulting
from dilatant behavior in the skeleton of the material are not considered.
39 Step by step generalization of the eld equations:
Initial thermal strain is caused by a change in temperature

"0ij = T ij (3.53)
where T is the temperature (change), the coecient of thermal expansion, ij is the
Kronecker delta,
Thermal stress is simply given by ij00 = Dijkl "0kl or
ij00 = T Dijkl kl (3.54)
Net strain "ij = "ij , "0ij or
"ij = "kl , T kl (3.55)
Net eective stress
ij0 = Dijkl ("kl , "0kl ) (3.56)
Pore pressure/body force relation
bi = p;i (3.57)
Pore pressure
ij0 = ,p ij (3.58)
p the pore pressure dened using the compression positive sign convention (the minus
sign corrects the discrepancy in the sign conventions)1
Eective body force b0i = bi , ij;j00
b0i = bi , p;i , Dijkl T;i kl (3.59)

Eective surface traction:
t^0i = tî + p ni + T Dijkl ni kl (3.60)
1 Pore
pressures are typically dened using the sign convention for soil mechanics in which compression is
positive, but in the sign convention for standard solid mechanics tension is considered to be positive.

3.7 y Basic Equations of Anisotropic Elasticity 3{13
40 The eective stress principle for the case of combined thermo- and poro-elasticity is
Draft
ij = ij0 , ij00 + ij0 (3.61)

| {z }
ij0
Clearly, in the absence of initial stresses ij = ij0 and in the absence of both initial strains and
stresses ij = ij0 .
41 The general stress-strain relationship obtained by substituting the constutive law into the
eective stress principle is
ij = Dijkl ("kl , "0kl ) + ij0 (3.62)
42 When thermal strains and pore pressures are considered in combination the constitutive law
is dened as a simple combination of Equations ?? and ??
ij = Dijkl ("kl , T kl ) , p ij (3.63)
43 The equilibrium equation and natural boundary conditions, respectively, can be rewritten in
terms of the eective stresses ij0
0

: ij;j + b0i = 0 Equilibrium (3.64)
,t : ij nj , t^0i = 0 Natural B.C.
0
where
b0i = bi , p;i , Dijkl T;i kl (3.65)
t^0i = tî + p ni + T Dijkl ni kl
3.7 y Basic Equations of Anisotropic Elasticity
44 An alternate form of Eq. 3.38 is
"i = aij j (3.66)
where the indecis i and j go from 1 to 6. In the most general case this would yield 36
independent

constants aij , [?], however by virtue of symmetry (aij = aji ) this reduces to 21 (7)(6)
2 . If the
the material has one plane of elastic symmetry, then there would 13 independent constants;
If it has three mutually orthogonal planes of elastic symmetry, then we would say that it is

orthogonally anisotropic or orthotropic, and we will have a16 = a26 = a36 = a45 = 0, thus
Draft
there will be 9 independent constants.
8 9 2 38 9
>
> "1 >
> a11 a12 a13 >
> 1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
"2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 a22 a23 7>
7>
>
> 2 >
>
>
>
7> >
<
"3 =
=
6
6 a33 7
<
3 =
(3.67)
>
>
>
"4 >
>
>
6
6
6
a44 7
7>
7>>
4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
"5 >
>
>
>
;
4 a55 5>>
>
>
:
5 >
>
>
>
;
"6 a66 6
If the material is transversally isotropic then it will have 5 independent constants, Fig. 3.5,
8 9 2 38 9
>
> "1 >
> a11 a12 a13 >
> 1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
"2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 a11 a13 7>
7>
>
> 2 >
>
>
>
7> >
<
"3 = 6
= 66
6 a33 7
<
3 =
(3.68)
>
>
>
"4 >
>
> 6
2(a11 , a12 ) 7
7>
7>>
4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
"5 >
>
>
>
;
4 a44 5>>
>
>
:
5 >
>
>
>
;
"6 a44 6
Figure 3.5: Transversly Isotropic Material
The total number of coecients for dierent materials is summarized in Table 3.1.

3.7 y Basic Equations of Anisotropic Elasticity 3{15
Class of Material Number of Non Zero Coe. Number of Indep. Coe.
Draft
3D 2D 3D 2D
General Anisotropy 36 9 21 6
One plane of Symmetry 20 9 13 6
Orthotropic 12 5 9 4
Transversely Isotropic 12 5 5 4
isotropic 12 5 2 2
Table 3.1: Number of Elastic Constants for Dierent Materials
In terms of engineering constants for an orthotropic solid we woud have

21 31
"x = E1x , E2 y , E3 z
1
"y = , E121 x + E12 y , E323 z
"z = , E131 x , E232 y + E13 z (3.69)
yz = 23 yz
1
xz = 13 xz
1
xy = 12 xy
1
however, of the 12 elastic constants, only 9 are independent because the following relations
E1 21 = E2 12 (3.70-a)
E2 32 = E3 23 (3.70-b)
E3 13 = E1 31 (3.70-c)
Note that the preceding equations are written for the principal directions of elasticity, x, y,
and z in terms of the principal elastic constants (as opposed to constants in equations for
an arbitrary system of coordinates).
Whereas very few natural or man-made materials are truly orthotropic (certain crystals as
topaz are), a number of others are transversely isotropic. Transversely isotropic have through
every point a plane in which all directions are equivalent with respect to elastic properties (such
as in laminates, shist, quartz, roller compacted concrete, etc...). For transversely isotropic solids
in 3D, we have
"x = a11 x + a12 y + a13 z
"y = a12 x + a11 y + a13 z
"z = a13 (x + y ) + a33 z (3.71)
xy = 2(a11 , a12 )xy
yz = a44 xy
xz = a44 xz
and 0
a11 = E1 ; a12 = , E ; a13 = , E 0 ; a33 = , E10 ; a44 = , 10 (3.72)

Thus we have ve elastic constants. Denoting by E the Young's modulus in the plane of
Draft
isotropy and E 0 the one in the plane normal to it, we would have corresponds to the transverse
contraction in the plane of isotropy when tension is applied in the plane; 0 corresponding to
the transverse contraction in the plane of isotropy when tension is applied normal to the plane;
0 corresponding to the shear moduli for the plane of isotropy and any plane normal to it, and
is shear moduli for the plane of isotropy.
3.8 Coordinate Transformations

45 If the elastic constants are to be determined for an arbitrary orientation 1-2, Fig. 3.6 then
Figure 3.6: Coordinate Systems for Stress Transformations

the compliance matrix is given by
[C 0 ] = [,]T [C ][,] (3.73)
where [,] is the usual second order tensor transformation for rotation in a plane.
2 3
cos2 sin2 2 sin cos
[,] = 4 sin
6 2 cos2 ,2 sin cos 7
5 (3.74)
, sin cos cos sin cos2 , sin2
Note that after transformation, a transversely isotropic material will not have anymore 5
nonzero coecients, but 9 in (3-D).

3.9 Strain Energy Density 3{17
3.8.1 y Plane Stress-Strain Compliance Transformation
Draft
If we consider "i = aij j for plane strain and "i = bij j for plane stress then it can be shown
that
bij = aij , aia3 aj 3 (3.75)
33
3.9 Strain Energy Density

46Any elastically deforming body possesses a uniquely dened strain energy density which can
be expressed as:
Z "
U0 = ij d"ij = 21 ij "ij = 12 Dijkl"ij "kl (3.76)
0
3.10 Summary
47 Fig. 3.7 illustrates the fundamental equations in solid mechanics.

Draft
Essential B.C.
ui : ,u
Body Forces
?
Displacements
bi ui
?
Equilibrium
?
Kinematics
LT + b = 0 = Lu
? ?
Stresses Constitutive Rel. Strain
ij
- ij = Dijkl "kl
"ij
6
Nonessential B.C.
ti : ,t
Figure 3.7: Fundamental Equations in Solid Mechanics

Draft
Chapter 4
SCALAR FIELD PROBLEMS
4.1 Introduction
1 Scalar eld problems are encountered in almost all branches of engineering and physics. Most
of them can be viewed as special forms of the general Helmholtz equation given by
@ k @ + @ k @ + @ k @ + Q = c @ (4.1)
@x x @x @y y @y @z z @z @t
where (x; y; z ) is the eld variable to be solved.
2 Table 4.1 illustrates selected examples of the diusion equation.
div(Dr) + Q = 0
Equation D Q q Constitutive law
Heat Flow Temperature Thermal Heat Heat Fourrier
T conductivity supply/sink ux q = ,DrT
Fluid ow through Piezometric Permeability Fluid Volume Darcy
porous media head h Coecients supply ux q = ,Dr
Diusion ion Permeability Ion Ion Fick
concentration coecients supply ux q = ,Dr
Saint-Venant Prandtl's 1 Rate of Hooke

Torsion stress function twist 2
Table 4.1: Selected Examples of Diusion Problems
4.1.1 Heat Transfer

3 There are three fundamental modes of heat transfer:
4{2 SCALAR FIELD PROBLEMS
Draft
Figure 4.1: Flux vector
Conduction: takes place when a temperature gradient exists within a material and is governed
by Fourier's Law, Fig. 4.1 on ,q :
qx = ,kx @T
@x (4.2)
@T
qy = ,ky @y (4.3)
where T = T (x; y) is the temperature eld in the medium, qx and qy are the componenets
of the heat ux (W/m2 or Btu/h-ft2 ), k is the thermal conductivity (W/m.o C or Btu/h-
ft-o F) and @T @T
@x , @y are the temperature gradients along the x and y respectively. Note
that heat ows from \hot" to \cool" zones, hence the negative sign.
Convection: heat transfer takes place when a material is exposed to a moving uid which is
at dierent temperature. It is governed by the Newton's Law of Cooling
q = h(T , T1) on ,c (4.4)
where q is the convective heat ux, h is the convection heat transfer coecient or lm
coecient (W/m2 .o C or Btu/h-ft2 .o F). It depends on various factors, such as whether
convection is natural or forced, laminar or turbulent ow, type of uid, and geometry of
the body; T and T1 are the surface and uid temperature, respectively. This mode is
considered as part of the boundary condition.
Radiation: is the energy transferred between two separated bodies at dierent temperatures
by means of electromagnetic waves. The fundamental law is the Stefan-Boltman's Law of
Thermal Radiation for black bodies in which the ux is proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature., which causes the problem to be nonlinear. This mode will
not be covered.

4.2 Derivation of the Diusion Problem 4{3
4.2 Derivation of the Diusion Problem
Draft
4 Consider a solid through which there is a ow q of some quantity, mass, heat, chemical, etc...
5 The rate of transfer per unit area is q
6 The direction of ow is in the direction of maximum \potential" (such as temperature, piezo-

metric head, or ion concentration) decrease (Fourrier, Darcy, Fick...).
8 9 8 @ 9
>
< qx >
= >
< @x >
=
q=> qy = ,D > @ = ,Dr (4.5)
> @y >
: qz ; : @
@z
;
D is a three by three (symmetric) constitutive/conductivity matrix

The conductivity can be either
Isotropic 2 3
1 0 0
D = k 64 0 1 0 7
5 (4.6)
0 0 1
Anisotropic 2 3
kxx kxy kxz
D = 64 kyx kyy kyz 7
5 (4.7)
kzx kzy kzz
Orthotropic 2 3
kxx 0 0
D = 64 0 kyy 0 7
5 (4.8)
0 0 kzz
Note that for ow through porous media, Darcy's equation is only valid for laminar ow.
4.2.1 Simple 2D Derivation
7 If we consider a unit thickness, 2D dierential body of dimensions dx by dy, Fig. 4.2 then
1. Rate of heat generation/sink is
I2 = Qdxdy (4.9)
2. Heat ux across the boundary of the element is shown in Fig. ?? (note similarity with
equilibrium equation)

I1 = qx + @x dx , qxdx dy + qy + @y dy , qy dy dx = @q
@q x @q y
@x
x dxdy + @qy dydx
@y
(4.10)
Draft
6qy + @q@yy dy
qx qx + -@q@xx dx
6
- Q dy
?
6
qy
-
dx
Figure 4.2: Flux Through Sides of Dierential Element

3. Change in stored energy is
I3 = c d
dt :dxdy (4.11)
where we dene the specic heat c as the amount of heat required to raise a unit mass by
one degree.
8From the rst law of thermodaynamics, energy produced I2 plus the net energy across the
boundary I1 must be equal to the energy absorbed I3 , thus
I1 + I2 , I3 = 0 (4.12-a)
@qx dxdy + @qy dydx + Qdxdy , c d dxdy = 0 (4.12-b)
@x @y | {z } dt | {z }
| {z } I2 I3
I1
4.2.2 y Generalized Derivation

9 The amount of ow per unit time into an element of volume
and surface , is
Z Z
I1 =
,
q(,n)d, = ,
D :nd,
r (4.13)
where n is the unit exterior normal to ,, Fig. 4.3
10 Using the divergence theorem
Z Z
,
vnd, =
div vd
(4.14)

4.2 Derivation of the Diusion Problem 4{5
Figure 4.3: *Flow through a surface ,

Draft
Eq. 4.13 transforms into Z

I1 = div (Dr)d
(4.15)

11 Furthermore, if the instantaneous volumetric rate of \heat" generation or removal at a point

x; y; z inside
is Q(x; y; z; t), then the total amount of heat/ ow produced per unit time is
Z
I2 = Q(x; y; z; t)d
(4.16)

12Finally, we dene the specic heat of a solid c as the amount of heat required to raise a unit
mass by one degree. Thus if is a temperature change which occurs in a mass m over a time
t, then the corresponding amount of heat that was added must have been cm, or
Z
I3 = cd
(4.17)

where is the density, Note that another expression of I3 is t(I1 + I2 ).

13 The balance equation, or conservation law states that the energy produced I2 plus the net
energy across the boundary I1 must be equal to the energy absorbed I3 , thus
Z
I1 + I2 , I3 = 0 (4.18-a)
div (Dr) + Q , c d
= 0 (4.18-b)

t
but since t and
are both arbitrary, then
div (Dr) + Q , c @
@t = 0 (4.19)
or
div (Dr) + Q = c @
@t
(4.20)
This equation can be rewritten as
@qx + @qy + Q = c @ (4.21)
@x @y @t
1. Note the similarity between this last equation, and the equation of equilibrium
@xx + @xy + b = m @ 2 ux (4.22-a)
@x @y x @t2
@yy + @xy + b = m @ 2uy (4.22-b)
@y @x y @t2
2. For steady state problems, the previous equation does not depend on t, and for 2D
Draft
problems, it reduces to

@ k @ + @ k @ + Q = 0 (4.23)
@x x @x @y y @y
3. For steady state isotropic problems,
@2 + @2 + @2 + Q = 0 (4.24)
@x2 @y2 @z2 k
which is Poisson's equation in 3D.
4. If the heat input Q = 0, then the previous equation reduces to
@2 + @2 + @2 = 0 (4.25)
@x2 @y2 @z2
which is an Elliptic (or Laplace) equation. Solutions of Laplace equations are termed
harmonic functions (right hand side is zero) which is why Eq. 4.23 is refered to as the
quasi-harmonic equation.
5. If the function depends only on x and t, then we obtain
c @ = @ k @ + Q (4.26)
@t @x x @x
which is a parabolic (or Heat) equation.
4.2.3 Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions, for thermal problems, are mainly of three kinds:
Essential: Temperature prespecied on ,T
Natural: Flux
Specied Flux prescribed on ,q , qn = cst
Convection Flux prescribed on ,c, qc = h(T , T1)
similar boundary conditions can be written for uid ow.
4.3 Summary
14 The fundamental equations of heat ow are illustrated in Fig. 4.4
and the analogy between scalar and vector problems is shown in Table 4.2

4.3 Summary 4{7
Draft
Heat Supply Essential B.C.
Q T : ,T
? ?
Temperature
Balance
r:q = Q T
? ?
Flux Vector Constitutive Rel. Gradient
- q = ,DrT

q rT
6
Natural B.C.
qn : ,q [ ,c
Figure 4.4: Fundamental Equations of Heat Flow
Scalar Vector
Conduction Solid Mechanics
T u State variable
q Flux vector
qn = qT n t = n Flux at boundary
div q + Q = 0 L +b =0
T Balance/Equilibrium
rT = Lu \kinematic"
q = ,DrT = D Constitutive Law (Fourrier/Hooke)
T on ,T u on ,u Essential BC
qn on ,q [ ,c t on ,t Natural BC
Table 4.2: Comparison of Scalar and Vector Field Problems

Draft

Draft
Chapter 5
DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD
5.1 Introduction
1 The direct stiness method, covered in Advanced Structural Analysis is brie y reviewed in
this lecture.
2 A slightly dierent algorithm will be used for the assembly of the global stiness matrix.
Preliminaries: First we shall

1. Identify type of structure (Plane stress/strain/Axisymmetric/Plate/Shell/3D) and
determine the
(a) Number of spatial coordinates (1D, 2D, or 3D)
(b) Number of degree of freedom per node
(c) Number of material properties
2. Determine the global unrestrained degree of freedom equation numbers for each node,
to be stored in the [ID] matrix.
Analysis :
1. For each element, determine
(a) Vector LM relating local to global degree of freedoms.
(b) Element stiness matrix [Ke ]. This may require a numerical integration
2. Assemble the structure stiness matrix [KS ] of unconstrained degree of freedom's.
3. Decompose [KS ] into [KS ] = [L][L]T where [L] is a lower triangle matrix1 .
4. For traction, body forces, determine the nodal equivalent load.
5. Assemble load vector fPg
1 More about these operations in chapter ??.
5{2 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD
6. Backsubstitute and obtain nodal displacements
Draft
7. For each element, determine strain and stresses.
8. For each restrained degree of freedom compute its reaction from
fRg = # i=1
of elem. [Ki ]fg
3 Some of the prescribed steps are further discussed in the next sections.
5.2 [ID] Matrix

4 Because of the boundary condition restraints, the total structure number of active degrees of
freedom (i.e unconstrained) will be less than the number of nodes times the number of degrees
of freedom per node.
5 To obtain the global degree of freedom for a given node, we need to dene an [ID] matrix
such that:
ID has dimensions l k where l is the number of degree of freedom per node, and k is the
number of nodes).
ID matrix is initialized to zero.
1. At input stage read ID(idof,inod) of each degree of freedom for every node such that:
(
ID(idof; inod) = 01 if unrestrained d.o.f.
if restrained d.o.f. (5.1)
2. After all the node boundary conditions have been read, assign incrementally equation
numbers
(a) First to all the active dof
(b) Then to the other (restrained) dof.
(c) Multiply by -1 all the passive dof.
Note that the total number of dof will be equal to the number of nodes times the number
of dof/node NEQA.
3. The largest positive global degree of freedom number will be equal to NEQ (Number Of
Equations), which is the size of the square matrix which will have to be decomposed.
6 For example, for the frame shown in Fig. 5.1:
1. The input data le may contain:

5.3 LM Vector 5{3
Node No. [ID]T
Draft
1 000
2 110
3 000
4 100
2. At this stage, the [ID] matrix is equal to:
2 3
0 1 0 1
ID = 64 0 1 0 0 7
5 (5.2)
0 0 0 0
3. After we determined the equation numbers, we would have:
2 3
1 ,10 5 ,12
ID = 64 2 ,11 6 8 75 (5.3)
3 4 7 9
5.3 LM Vector
7 The LM vector of a given element gives the global degree of freedom of each one of the element
degree of freedom's. For the structure shown in Fig. 5.1, we would have:
bLMc = b ,10 ,11 4 5 6 7 c element 1 (2 ! 3)
bLMc = b 5 6 7 1 2 3 c element 2 (3 ! 1)
bLMc = b 1 2 3 ,12 8 9 c element 3 (1 ! 4)
5.4 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix
8 As for the element stiness matrix, the global stiness matrix [K] is such that Kij is the force
in degree of freedom i caused by a unit displacement at degree of freedom j .
9 Whereas this relationship was derived from basic analysis at the element level, at the structure
level, this term can be obtained from the contribution of the element stiness matrices [Ke ]
(written in global coordinate system).
10 For each Kij term, we shall add the contribution of all the elements which can connect degree
of freedom i to degree of freedom j , assuming that those forces are readily available from the
individual element stiness matrices written in global coordinate system.
11 Kij is non-zero if and only if degree of freedom i and degree of freedom j are connected by
an element or share a node.
12 There are usually more than one element connected to a dof. Hence, individual element
stiness matrices terms must be added up.
13 Because each term of all the element stiness matrices must nd its position inside the global
Draft
stiness matrix [K], it is found computationally most eective to initialize the global stiness
matrix [KS ]NEQANEQA) to zero, and then loop through all the elements, and then through
each entry of the respective element stiness matrix Kije .
14 The assignment of the element stiness matrix term Kij e (note that e, i, and j are all known
since we are looping on e from 1 to the number of elements, and then looping on the rows and
columns of the element stiness matrix i; j ) into the global stiness matrix KklS is made through
the LM vector (note that it is k and l which must be determined).
15 Since the global stiness matrix is also symmetric, we would need to only assemble one side
of it, usually the upper one.
16 Contrarily to Matrix Structural Analysis, we will assemble the full augmented stiness matrix.
17 The algorithm for this assembly is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.
Example 5-4: Global Stiness Matrix Assembly

Assemble the global stiness matrix in terms of element 2 and 3 of the example problem
shown in Fig. 5.1.
Solution:
Given the two elements 2 and 3, their respective stiness matrices in global coordinate
systems may be symbolically represented by:
5 6 7 1 2 3 ! structure d.o.f. LM
1 2 3 4 5 6 ! element d.o.f.
5 1 a b c d e f
6 2 g h i j k
[Ke2 ] = 7 3 l m n o
1 4 p q r
2 5 s t
3 6 u
and
1 2 3 -12 8 9 ! structure d.o.f. LM
1 2 3 4 5 6 ! element d.o.f.
1 1 A B C D E F
2 2 G H I J K
[Ke3 ] = 3 3 L M N O
-12 4 P Q R
8 5 S T
9 6 U
5.4 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix 5{5
Draft
Figure 5.1: Example for [ID] Matrix Determination
Figure 5.2: Flowchart for Assembling Global Stiness Matrix

The partially assembled structure global stiness matrix will then be given by:
Draft
12 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3
1 A+p B+q C +r 0 d i m E F D
2 666 G+s H +t 0 e j n J K I 7
7
7
3 66 L+u 0 f k o N O M 7
7
4 66 7
7
6 66 g h 7
7
K = 7 666
S l 7
7
7
8 66 S T 7
7
9 66 U 7
7
10666 7
7
7
114 5
12 P
18 From this example problem, we note that:

1. Many entries in the global stiness matrix are left as zero, because they correspond to
unconnected degrees of freedom (such as K4;6 ).
2. All entries in the element stiness matrix do nd a storage space in the global stiness
matrix.
5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector

19 The stiness matrix of a structure will be a square matrix of dimension NEQxNEQ.
20 We rst observe that the matrix is symmetric, thus only the upper half needs to be stored.
Furthermore, we observe that this matrix has a certain \bandwidth", BW, dened as j Kij ,
Kii jmax , when Kij 6= 0, Fig. 5.3.
21 Thus, we could as a rst space saving solution store the global stiness matrix inside a
rectangular matrix of length NEQ and width BW, which can be obtained from the LM vector
(largest dierence of terms of LM for all the elements).
22 It is evident that numbering of nodes is extremely important as it controls the size of the
bandwidth, and hence the storage requirement, Fig. 5.4. In this context, we observe that the
stiness matrix really has a variable bandwidth, or variable \skyline". Hence if we want to
store only those entries below the \skyline" inside a vector rather than a matrix for maximum
storage eciency, then we shall dene a vector MAXA which provides the address of the diagonal
terms.

5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector 5{7
Draft
Figure 5.3: Example of Bandwidth
Figure 5.4: Numbering Schemes for Simple Structure

23 In the following global stiness matrix, the individual entries which must be stored in the
Draft
global stiness matrix are replaced by their address in the vector representation of this same
matrix. Also shown is the corresponding MAXA vector.
2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3
12 6 x xx x xx xx xx xx xx xx 7
34 6 6 x x xx xx xx x x x xx x 77
7
56 666 x xx xx xx xx 7
K = 78 66 x x x x 7
xx 777
91066 x x xx 7
11
124
6
x5
7
2 3 8 9
1 3 11 17 24 32 41 68 >
>
>
1 >
>
>
6
6 2 5 10 16 23 31 40 67 7
7 >
>
>
> 2 >
>
>
>
6 7 > >
6
6
4 9 15 22 30 39 66 7
7
>
>
>
>
4 >
>
>
>
6
6 6 8 14 21 29
48 5638 65 7
7
>
>
>
>
>
6 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 7 13 20 28
47 5537 64 7
7
>
>
>
>
7 >
>
>
>
K = 66
6
6 12 19 27
46 5436 63 7
7
7 MAXA =
<
12 =
6
18 26 35
45 53 62 77 >
>
>
18 >
>
>
6
6 25
44 5234 61 7
7
>
>
>
>
>
25 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 33
43 51 60 7 7 >
>
>
>
33 >
>
>
>
6
6
6
42 50 59 7
7
7
>
>
>
>
>
42 >
>
>
>
>
4 49 58 5 >
>
>
>
49 >
>
>
>
57 :
57 ;
Thus, to locate an element within the stiness matrix, we use the following formula:
Kij = MAXA(j ) + (j , i) (5.4)
if i j (since we are storing only the upper half).

24 Using this formula, we will have:
K58 = MAXA(8) + (8 , 5) = 18 + 3 = 21 (5.5)

K42 = MAXA(4) + (4 , 2) = 6 + 2 = 8 (5.6)
25 We should note that the total number of non-zero entries inside the global stiness matrix
is always the same, irrespective of our numbering scheme. However by properly numbering
the nodes, we can minimize the number of zero terms2 which would fall below the skyline and
which storage would be ineective.
2 As we shall see later, all the terms below the skyline (including the zeros) must be stored. Following matrix
decomposition, all zero terms outside the skyline terms remain zero, and all others are altered.

5.6 Augmented Stiness Matrix 5{9
5.6 Augmented Stiness Matrix
Draft
26 Previous exposure to the Direct Stiness Method is assumed.

27 We can conceptually partition the global stiness matrix into two groups with respective
subscript ù' over ,u where the displacements are known (zero or otherwise), and t where the
tractions are known.
Pt p = Ktt Ktu
( ) " #( )
tp?
R? u K K ut uu u
28 The rst equation enables the calculation of the unknown displacements on ,t
t = K,tt 1 (Pt , Ktuu ) (5.7)
29 The second equation enables the calculation of the reactions on ,u
Rt = Kutt + Kuuu (5.8)
30For internal book-keeping purpose, since we are assembling the augmented stiness matrix,
we proceed in two stages:
1. First number all the unrestrained degrees of freedom, i.e. those on ,t .
2. Then number all the degrees of freedom with known displacements, on ,u , and multiply
by -1.
31 Considering a simple beam, Fig. 5.5 the full stiness matrix is equal to
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V1 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L 6EI=L2
3
[K] = M 16 6EI=L
6 2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2 2EI=L 777 (5.9)
V2 4 ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2
6
12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 5
M2 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2 4EI=L
This matrix is singular, it has a rank 2 and order 4 (as it embodies also 2 rigid body motions).
32 We shall consider 3 dierent cases, Fig. 5.6
Cantilivered Beam/Point Load

Draft
Figure 5.5: Beam Element
Figure 5.6: ID Values for Simple Beam

1. The element stiness matrix is
Draft
,3 ,4 1 2
,32 12EI=L23 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L23 6EI=L2 3
k = ,1 464 ,612EI=L 4EI=L
EI=L3 ,6EI=L2
,6EI=L 2EI=L 75
12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2
2 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2 4EI=L
2. The structure stiness matrix is assembled
1 2 ,3 ,4
1 2 12EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L2 3 ,6EI=L2 3
K = 2,364 ,,126EI=L
2 4EI=L 6EI=L 2EI=L 7
EI=L3 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5
,4 ,6EI=L2 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as
8
>
<
,Ppp 9
>
=
2
12EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 38
>
<
1 ? 9
>
=
0 ,6EI=L2 4EI=L 6EI=L2 2EI=L 2 ?
=6 3pp
7
>
: R3 ? >
;
4
,12EI=L23 6EI=L2 12EI=L23 6EI=L2 5
>
: >
;
R4 ? ,6EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L 4EI=L 4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
2 3
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2
6 7
6
6 L2 =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
7
4 ,12EI=L23 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5
,6EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt , Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
8 9 2 38 9
>
> ,P >
>
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 > ,P >
< =6 7>< 0
>
=
Pt , Ktu u = 0 , 6 L2 =2EI
6 L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
7
>
> 0 >
> 4 ,12EI=L3 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5>> 0 >
>
:
0 ; ,6EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L2
2 4EI=L
:
0 ;
8 9
>
>
<
,P >
>
=
= 0
>
>
:
0 >
>
;
0
6. Now we solve for the displacement t = K,tt 1 P0t , and overwrite Pt by t
8 9 2 38 9
>
> 1 >
>
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 >
> ,P >
>
< = 6 7< =
2 = 6 2
6 L =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
7 0
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
4 ,12EI=L3 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5>>
:
0 >
>
;
0 0
8 ,6EI=L
2 29EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L
>
>
>
,PL =3EI
3 >
>
>
< =
= ,PL2 =2EI
> >
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0

7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Ru = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
Draft
2 8 3 9
8
> ,PL3 =3EI 9
>
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 >
>
> ,PL3 =3EI >
>
>
>
< ,PL2 =2EI >
= 6 L2 =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7>< >
=
= 6 7 ,PL2 =2EI
> R3 >
6
4 ,12EI=L3 6EI=L 2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 7
5> >
>
: >
; >
> 0 >
>
R4 ,6EI=L2 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L >
:
0
>
;
8 9
>
> ,PL32 =3EI >
>
< ,PL =2EI =
= P
>
> >
>
: ;
PL
Simply Supported Beam/End Moment
2
,3 1 ,4 2
,3 12EI=L2 6EI=L2
3 ,12EI=L2 6EI=L2 3
3
k = 1,464 ,612EI=L 4EI=L ,6EI=L3 2EI=L 2 75

EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 12EI=L ,6EI=L
1 2 ,3 ,4
1 2 4EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 3
EI=L 4EI=L 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 75
K = 2,364 62EI=L 2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ,12EI=L3
,4 ,6EI=L ,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 12EI=L3
2
3. The global stiness matrix can be rewritten as

0pp
8 9
2 38 9
>
>
>
< M
>
>
>
=
4EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 >
<
1 ? >
=
2EI=L 4EI=L 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 2 ?
=6 3 p
7
4 6EI=L 2 6EI=L 2 12EI=L3 ,12EI=L3 5
R3 ? p
>
> >
> >
: >
;
>
:
R4 ?
>
; ,6EI=L ,6EI=L ,12EI=L3 12EI=L3
2 2 4
4. Ktt is inverted
2 3
L3 =3EI ,L=6EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2
6 7
6
6 ,L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 7
7
4 6EI=L 2 6EI=L 2 12EI=L3 ,12EI=L3 5
,6EI=L ,6EI=L ,12EI=L3 12EI=L3
2 2
5. We compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt , Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by P0t

8 9 2 38 9
>
> 0 L3 =3EI ,L=6EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2
>
> >
> 0 >
>
< 6 =
M , 66 ,L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2
7< M =
Pt , Ktu u = 0 >
7
7
0
>
>
: > 4 6EI=L 2 6EI=L2 12EI=L ,12EI=L3
3 5>> >
>
0 ; ,6EI=L ,6EI=L ,12EI=L3 12EI=L3
2 2
:
0 ;
8 9
>
>
<
0 >
>
=
= M
>
>
:
0 >
>
;
0

6. Solve for the displacements, t = K,tt 1 P0t , and overwrite Pt by t
Draft
8 9 2 38 9
>
> 1 >
> L3 =3EI ,L=6EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 > 0 >
< = 6 7>< >
=
2 6 ,L=6EI
= 6 L=3EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L2 7
7
M
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
4 6EI=L2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ,12EI=L3 5>>
:
0 >
>
;
0 , 6 EI=L 2 ,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 12EI=L3 0
8 9
>
>
>
, ML= 6 EI >
>
>
< =
= ML=3EI
>
> 0 >
>
>
: >
;
0
7. Solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
2 38 9
8
> ,ML=6EI 9
>
L3 =3EI ,L=6EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L22 >
> ,ML=6EI >
>
>
< ML=3EI >
= 6
6
,L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ,6EI=L 7>
7
<
ML=3EI
>
=
R1 = 6 6EI=L 2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ,12EI=L3 7
>
>
:
>
>
;
4 5>>
> 0 >
>
>
R2 ,6EI=L2 9,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 12EI=L3 :
0
;
8
>
> ,ML=6EI >
>
< ML=3EI >>
=
= M=L >
>
> >
>
: ,M=L > ;
Cantilivered Beam/Initial Displacement and Concentrated Moment

,2 ,3 ,4 1
,22 12EI=L23 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L23 6EI=L2 3
k = ,,3464 ,612EI=L 4EI=L
EI=L3 ,6EI=L2
,6EI=L3 2EI=L 2 75
12EI=L ,6EI=L
1
2
,2 ,3 ,4
4EI=L
1 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2 3
K = ,,2364 62EI=L 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 7
2
EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2 5
,4 ,6EI=L ,12EI=L ,6EI=L2 12EI=L3
2 3
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as

8
Mp 9 2
4EI=L 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2 38
1 ? 9
2pp
>
< >
= >
< >
=
R2 ? =6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 7
R3 ? 4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2 5 3
p
>
: >
; >
: >
;
R4 ? ,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 ,6EI=L2 12EI=L3 4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
2 3
L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2
6 7
6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 7
4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2 5
,6EI=L ,12EI=L ,6EI=L2 12EI=L3
2 3

5. Next we compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt , Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
Draft
2 38 9
8
> M
9
> L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2 >
>
1 >
>
< = 6 7< 0 =
Pt , Ktu u = 0 , 6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 7
>
: 0 >;
4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2 5>
> 0 >
>
: ;
0 ,6EI=L 2 ,12EI=L ,6EI=L2 12EI=L3
3 0
8 9
>
>
<
M + 6EI 0 =L2 >
>
=
= 0
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0
6. Now we solve for the displacements, t = K,tt 1 P0t , and overwrite Pt by t
8 9 2 38 9
>
>
<
1 >
>
=
L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2 >
> M + 6EI 0 =L2 >
>
6 7< =
0 = 6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 7 0
>
>
:
0 >
>
;
4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2 5>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0 8
,6EI=L ,12EI=L 9,6EI=L2 12EI=L3
2 3 0
>
>
<
ML=4EI + 30 =2L > >
=
= 0
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
2 3
8
> ML=4EI + 30 =2L
9
>
L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ,6EI=L2
> >
>
< R2 >
= 6
6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 ,12EI=L3 7
7
R3 = 6
6 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L ,6EI=L2
7
7
>
> >
> 4 5
> >
: R4 ;
,6EI=L2 ,12EI=L93 ,6EI=L2 12EI=L3
8
>
>
>
ML=4EI + 30 =2L >
>
>
< =
0
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
: 0 ;
8
>
>
ML=4EI + 3 =2L 9
0
>
>
> >
>
< 3M=2L , 3EI 0 =L3 > =
= M=2 , 3EI =L
0 2
>
> >
>
>
> >
: ,3M=2L + 3EI =L >
0 3 ;
Example 5-5: Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss

Using the direct stiness method, analyse the following truss.

Draft
Solution:
1. Determine the structure ID matrix and the LM vector for each element Initial ID matrix
Node" 1 2 3 4 5 #
ID = 01 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
Final ID matrix
Node" 1 2 3 4 5#
ID = 1 2 ,9 4 6
,8 3 ,10 5 7
LM vectors for each element
2 3
Element 1 1 ,8 4 5
6 1
Element 26 ,8 2 3 777
Element 36
6 2
6
3 4 5 77
6 4
Element 46 5 6 7 77
6 ,9
Element 56 ,10 4 5 777
6 2
Element 66 3 6 7 77
6
Element 74 2 3 ,9 ,10 5
Element 8 ,9 ,10 6 7
2. Derive the element stiness matrix in global coordinates
Draft
2 3
c2 cs ,c2 ,cs
[K ] = EA 6 cs
6
s2 ,cs ,s2 777
L 64 ,c2 ,cs c2 cs 5
,cs ,s2 cs s2
where c = cos = x2 ,L x1 ; s = sin = Y2 ,L Y1
Element 1 L = 200 , c = 1620,0 = 0:8, s = 1220,0 = 0:6,
EA
L = (30;000)(10)
20 = 15; 000
2
1 ,8 4 5 3
1 9600 7200 ,9600 ,7200
[K1 ] = , 8666 7200 5400 ,7200 ,5400 777
4 4 ,9600 ,7200 9600 7200 5
5 ,7200 ,5400 7200 5400
Element 2 L = 160 ; c = 1; s = 0; EA
L = 18; 750.
1
2
,8 2 33
1 18; 750 0 ,18; 750 0
[K2 ] = , 8666 0 0 0
2 4 ,18; 750 0 18; 750
0 777
05
3 0 0 0 0
Element 3 L = 120 ; c = 0; s = 1; EA
L = 25; 000
22
3 4 5 3
2 0 0 0 0
3 60
6
[K3 ] = 464 0 25 ; 000 0 ,25; 000 777
0 0 0 5
5 0 ,25; 000 0 25; 000
Element 4 L = 160 ; c = 1; s = 0; EA
L = 18; 750
2
4 5 6 73
4 18; 750 0 ,18; 750 0
[K4 ] = 56664 ,180; 750 0 0 0 777
6
0 18; 750 05
7 0 0 0 0

Element 5 L = 200 ; c = ,1620,0 = ,0:8; s = 0:6; EAL = 15; 000
Draft
2
,9 ,10 4 5 3
,9 9600 ,7200 ,9600 7200
[K5 ] = , 10666 ,7200 5400 7200
4 4 ,9600 7200 9600
,5400 777
,7200 5
5 7200 ,5400 ,7200 5400
Element 6 L = 200 ; c = 0:8; s = 0:6; EA L = 15; 000
2
2 3 6 7 3
2 9600 7200 ,9600 ,7200
[K6 ] = 36664 ,7200
6
5400 ,7200 ,5400 777
9600 ,7200 9600 7200 5
7 ,7200 ,5400 7200 5400
Element 7 L = 160 ; c = 1; s = 0; EA
L = 18; 750
2
2 3 ,9 ,10 3
2 18; 750 0 ,18; 750 0
[K7 ] = 3,9 664 ,180; 750 0 0 0 777
6
0 18; 750 0 5
,10 0 0 0 0
Element 8 L = 120 ; c = 0; s = 1; EA
L = 25; 000
2
,9 ,10 6 7 3
,9 0 0 0 0
[K8 ] = ,1066 0 25; 000 0 ,25; 000 77
6 7
6 4 0 0 0 0 5
7 0 ,25; 000 0 25; 000
3. Assemble the augmented global stiness matrix in kips/ft.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 9; 600 + 18; 750 ,18; 750 0 ,9; 600 ,7; 200 0 0 3
2 9; 600 + (2)18; 750 7; 200 0 0 ,9; 600 ,7; 200
36 5; 400 + 25; 000 0 ,25; 000 ,7; 200 ,5; 400 7
ktt = 46
4
18; 750 + (2)9; 600 7; 200 , 7; 200 ,18; 750 0 7
5
5 SYMMETRIC 25; 000 + 5; 400(2) 0 0
6 18; 750 + 9600 7200
7 25; 000 + 5; 400
,8 ,9 ,10 3
12 0 + 7; 200
2 0 ,18; 750 , 18; 750 0
36 0 0 0 7
ktu = 44 ,7; 200
6 ,9; 600 7; 200 7
5 ,5; 400 7; 200 ,5; 400 5
6 0
7 ,25; 000
,8 ,9 ,10
Draft
,8 0 + 5; 400
kuu = ,9 9; 600 + 18; 750 0 , 7; 200 + 0
,10 ,7; 200 + 0 0 + 5; 400 + 25; 000
4. convert to kips/in and simplify
8 0 9 2 2; 362:5 ,1; 562:5 0 ,800 ,600 0 0 38 u1 9
>
> 0 >
> 3; 925:0 600 0 0 ,800 ,600 >
> u2 >
>
< 0 = 6 2; 533:33 0 ,2; 083:33 ,600 ,450 7< v3 =
0 =6 3; 162:5 0 ,1; 562:5 0 7 u4
>
> , 100 >
>
4 Symmetric 2; 983:33 0 0 5>
> v5 >
>
: 50 ; 2; 362:5 600 : u6 ;
0 2; 533:33 v7
5. Invert stiness matrix and solve for displacements (inches)

8 9 8 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
>
>
>
,0:0223 >
>
>
>
>
>
> u2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 0:00433 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
< v3 >
>
>
=
>
>
>
< ,0:116 >
>
>
=
u4 => ,0:0102
>
>
>
>
>
v5 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
,0:0856 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
u6 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
,0:00919 >
>
>
>
>
:
v7 ; :
,0:0174 ;
6. Solve for member forces in local coordinate systems

8 9
( ) " #>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
v1 = ,cc ,ss ,cc ,ss v1
< =
v2 >
>
>
u2 >
>
>
:
v2 ;
( )
n o1 h i ,0:0223 n o
v1 = 15;000 0:8 0:6 ,0:8 ,0:6 0 = 52:1 Compression
v2 12 ,0:8 ,0:6 0:8 0:6 ,0:0102 ,52:1
( ),0:0856
n o2 h i ,0:0233 n o
v1 = 18;750 1 0 ,1 0 0 = ,43:2 Tension
v2 12 ,1 0 1 0 0:00433 43:2
" , 0 : 116 #
n o3 h i 0:00433 n o
v1 = 25;000 0 1 0 ,1 ,0:116 = ,63:3 Tension
v2 12 0 ,1 0 1 ,0:0102 63:3
( ,0:0856 )
n o4 h i ,0:0102 n o
v1 = 18;750 1 0 ,1 0 ,0:0856 = ,1:58 Tension
v2 12 ,1 0 1 0 ,0:00919 1:58
n o5 h ,0: i n o n o
v1 = 15;000 ,0:8 0:6 0:8 ,0:6 ,0:0102 = 54:0
v2 12 0:8 ,0:6 ,0:8 0:6 ,0:0856 ,54:0 Compression
n o6 h i ,0:116 n o
v1 = 15;000 0:8 0:6 ,0:8 ,0:6 ,0:00919 = ,60:43 K Tension
v2 12 ,0:8 ,0:6 0:8 0:6 ,0:0174 60:43 K
n o7 h i n o
v1 18;750 1 0 ,1 0 ,0:116 6:72
v2 = 12 ,1 0 1 0 0 = ,6:72 Compression
( 0 )
n o8 h i 0 n o
v1 = 25;000 0 1 0 ,1 0 = 36:3 Compression
v2 12 0 ,1 0 1 ,0:00919 ,36:3
,0:0174

5.7 Computer Program Flow Charts 5{19
7. Determine the structure's MAXA vector
Draft
2 3
1 3 9 14
6
6
6
2 5 8 13 19 25 7
7
7
6
6
4 7 12 18 24 7
7
6
6 6 11 17 23 7
7
6
6
6
10 16 22 7
7
7
4 15 21 5
20
8 9
>
>
>
1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
< 4 >
>
=
MAXA = > 6 >
>
>
>
>
10 >
>
>
>
> >
>
>
>
>
15 >
>
>
>
:
20 ;
25 terms would have to be stored.
5.7 Computer Program Flow Charts

5.7.1 Input
33 The input subroutine should:
1. For each node read:
(a) Node number
(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same \data card"
2. Determine equation numbers associated with each degree of freedom, and the total number
of equations (NEQ).
3. For each element, read:
(a) Element number
(b) Element Property number
Draft
(c) Nodes
4. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional charac-
teristics. Note these variables will depend on the structure type.
5.7.2 Element Stiness Matrices
For each element:
1. Retrieve its properties
2. Call the appropriate subroutines which will determine:
Isoparametri elements (more about this later)
(a) D Constitutive matrix
(b) Shape functions, and their derivatives
(c) Perform numerical integration
Standard Elements: The stiness matrix in local coordinate systems [ke ].
5.7.3 Assembly
Since a skyline solver will be used, we rst need to determine the appropriate pointers which
will enable us to eciently store the global stiness matrix (MAXA). This is accomplished as
follows, Fig. 5.7:
1. Determine the maximum height of the skyline for each column of the global stiness
matrix by rst assigning a very large number to each row of MAXA, and then looping
through each element, and for each one:
(a) Determine the lowest associated global degree of freedom number (from the LM vec-
tors)
(b) Compare this \height" with the one currently associated with those degree of freedom
stored in the element LM; if lower overwrite
2. Determine the total height of each skyline (i.e. each column) by determining the dierence
between MAXA(IEQ) (Skyline elevation), and IEQ (\BottomLine"). Overwrite MAXA with
this height.
3. Determine the total length of the vector storing the compacted structure global stiness
matrix by summing up the height of each skyline
4. Assign to MAXA(NEQ+1) this total length +1.
5. Loop backward from the last column to the rst, and for each one determine the address
of the diagonal term from MAXA(IEQ)= MAXA(IEQ+1) - MAXA(IEQ)
Draft
Victor SaoumaFigure 5.7: Flowchart for the Skyline Height DeterminationFinite Elements
34 Once the MAXA vector has been determine, then term K (i; j ) in the square matrix, would be
Draft
stored in KK(MAXA(j)+j-i) (assuming j > i) in the compacted form of fKg.
1. Initialize the vector storing the compacted augmented stiness matrix to zero.
2. Loop through each element, e, and for each element:
(a) Determine its stiness matrix [Ke ]
(b) Dene the LM array of the element
(c) Loop through each row and column of the element stiness matrix, and add the
contributions of the element to the structure's stiness matrix (note that we assemble
only the upper half).
K S [LM (i); LM (j )] = K S [LM (i); LM (j )] + K e[i; j ] (5.10)
5.7.4 Decomposition
35 Decompose the global stiness matrix Kt only. This is a subset of the augmented stiness
matrix. Since the matrix is both symmetric and positive denite, the matrix can be decomposed
using Cholesky's method into: [K] = [L][L]T . Should a division by zero occur, or an attempt
to extract the square root of a negative number happen, then this would be an indication
that either the global stiness matrix is not properly assembled, or that there are not enough
restraint to prevent rigid body translation or rotation of the structure.
5.7.5 Load
36 Once the stiness matrix has been decomposed, than the main program should loop through
each load case.
1. Initialize augmented the load vector (of length NEQA) to zero.
2. Read number of loaded nodes. For each loaded node store the non-zero values inside the
load vector (using the ID matrix for determining storage location).
3. Loop on all loaded elements:
(a) Read element number, and load value
(b) Compute the nodal equivalent load
(c) Using the LM vector, add them to the nodal load vector.

5.7.6 Backsubstitution
Draft
37 Backsubstitution is achieved by multiplying the decomposed stiness matrix with the load
vector. The resulting vector stores the nodal displacements, in global coordinate system, cor-
responding to the unrestrained degree of freedom.
5.7.7 Reactions
38 Reactions are determined from
xxxx (5.11)

Draft

Draft
Chapter 6
VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY
METHODS
6.1 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries
From Pilkey and Wunderlich book
6.1.1 Euler Equation

6.1.1.1 Problem Statemen
1 The fundamental problem of the calculus of variation1 is to nd a function u(x) such that
Z b
= F (x; u; u0 )dx (6.1)
a
is stationary. Or,
= 0 (6.2)
where indicates the variation

2 We dene u(x) to be a function of x in the interval (a; b), and F to be a known function (such
as the energy density).
3 We dene the domain of a functional as the collection of admissible functions belonging to a
class of functions in function space rather than a region in coordinate space (as is the case for
a function).
1 Dierentialcalculus involves a function of one or more variable, whereas variational calculus involves a
function of a function, or a functional.
6{2 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS
Draft
u, u
u(x)
C
B
u(x)
du
A dx
x
x=a x=c x=b
Figure 6.1: Variational and Dierential Operators
6.1.1.2 Derivation
4 We seek the function u(x) which extremizes .
5 Letting u
~ to be a family of neighbouring paths of the extremizing function u(x) and we assume
that at the end points x = a; b they coincide. We dene u~ as the sum of the extremizing path
and some arbitrary variation, Fig. 6.1.
u~(x; ") = u(x) + "(x) = u(x) + u(x) (6.3)
where " is a small parameter, and u(x) is the variation of u(x)
u = u~(x; ") , u(x) = "(x) (6.4-a)
= u~ , u (6.4-b)
and (x) is twice dierentiable, has undened amplitude, and (a) = (b) = 0. We note that
u~ coincides with u if " = 0
6 It can be shown that the variation and derivation operators are commutative
)
d
dx (u)0= u~0 (x; ") , u0 (x) d

du

u = u~0 (x; ") , u0 (x) dx (u) = dx (6.5)
7 Furthermore, the variational operator and the dierential calculus operator d can be simi-
larly used, i.e.
(u0 )2 = 2u0 u0 (6.6-a)
6.1 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries 6{3
(u + v) = u + v (6.6-b)
Draft
Z Z
udx = (u)dx (6.6-c)
u = @u @u
@x x + @y y (6.6-d)
however, they have clearly dierent meanings. du is associated with a neighbouring point at
a distance dx, however u is a small arbitrary change in u for a given x (there is no associated
x).
8 For boundaries where u is specied, its variation must be zero, and it is arbitrary elsewhere.
The variation u is said to undergo a virtual change.
9 To solve the variational problem of extremizing , we consider
Z b
(u + ") = (") = F (x; u + "; u0 + "0 )dx (6.7)
a
10 Since u~ ! u as " ! 0, the necessary condition for to be an extremum is

d(") = 0 (6.8)
d"
"=0
11 From Eq. 6.3 u~ = u + ". Applying the chain rule

d(") = Z b @F du~ + @F du~0 dx = Z b @F + 0 @F dx (6.9)
d" a @ u~ d" @ u~0 d" a @ u~ @ u~0
or
d(") = Z b @F + 0 @F dx = 0 (6.10)
d" "=0 a @u @u0
Integration by part (Eq. 2.11 and 2.11) of the second term leads to
b 0 @F b
Z
@u0 dx = @F
Z b
d @F
@u0 , (x) dx @u0 dx
(6.11)
a a a
Using the end conditions (a) = (b) = 0, Eq. 6.10 leads to

Z b @F d @F
(x) @u , dx @u0 dx = 0 (6.12)
a
12 The fundamental lemma of the calculus of variation states that for continuous (x) in a
x b, and with arbitrary continuous function (x) which vanishes at a and b, then
Z b
(x) (x)dx = 0 , (x) = 0 (6.13)
a

6.1.1.3 Solution
Draft
13 Thus,
@F , d @F = 0 (6.14)
@u dx @u0
14 This dierential equation is called the Euler equation associated with and is a necessary
condition for u(x) to extremize .
15 Generalizing for a functional which depends on two eld variables, u = u(x; y ) and v =
v(x; y) Z Z
= F (x; y; u; v; u;x ; u;y ; v;x; v;y ; ; v;yy )dxdy (6.15)
There would be as many Euler equations as dependent eld variables
8
< @F , @ @F , @ @F + @ 22 @F + @ 2 @F + @ 22 @F = 0
@u @x @u;x @y @u;y @x2 @u;xx @x@y @u;xy @y @u;yy (6.16)
: @F , @ @F , @ @F + @ 2 @F + @ 2 @F + @ 22 @F = 0
@v @x @v;x @y @v;y @x @v;xx @x@y @v;xy @y @v;yy
16 We note that the Functional and the corresonpding Euler Equations, Eq. 6.1 and 6.14, or
Eq. 6.15 and 6.16 describe the same problem.
17 The Euler equations usually correspond to the governing dierential equation and are referred
to as the strong form (or classical form).
18 The functional is referred to as the weak form (or generalized solution). This classication
stems from the fact that equilibrium is enforced in an average sense over the body (and the
eld variable is dierentiated m times in the weak form, and 2m times in the strong form).
19 It can be shown that in the principle of virtual displacements, the Euler equations are the
equilibrium equations, whereas in the principle of virtual forces, they are the compatibility
equations.
20 Euler equations are dierential equations which can not always be solved by exact meth-
ods. An alternative method consists in bypassing the Euler equations and go directly to the
variational statement of the problem to the solution of the Euler equations.
21 Finite Element formulation are based on the weak form, whereas the formulation of Finite
Dierences are based on the strong form.
22 We still have to dene . The rst variation of a functional expression is
)
F = @F u + @F0 u0 Z b @F @F
= 0
@u u + @u0 u dx
R@u
b @u (6.17)
= a Fdx a

6.1 Variational Calculus; Preliminaries 6{5
As above, integration by parts of the second term yields
Draft

=
Z b
u @F , d @F dx (6.18)
a @u dx @u0
23 We have just shown that nding the stationary value of by setting = 0 is equivalent to
nding the extremal value of by setting d(d"") "=0 equal to zero.
24 Similarly, it can be shown that as with second derivatives in calculus, the second variation
2 can be used to characterize the extremum as either a minimum or maximum.
6.1.2 Boundary Conditions
25 Revisiting the integration by parts of the second term in Eq. 6.10, we had
Z b 0 @F
dx = @F b , Z b d @F dx (6.19)
a @u0 @u0 a a dx @u0
We note that
1. Derivation of the Euler equation required (a) = (b) = 0, thus this equation is a state-
ment of the essential (or forced) boundary conditions, where u(a) = u(b) = 0.
@F0 = 0 at x = a and b.
2. If we left arbitrary, then it would have been necessary to use @u
These are the natural boundary conditions.
26 For a problem with, one eld variable, in which the highest derivative in the governing
dierential equation is of order 2m (or simply m in the corresponding functional), then we have
Essential (or Forced, or geometric) boundary conditions, involve derivatives of order zero
(the eld variable itself) through m-1. Trial displacement functions are explicitely required
to satisfy this B.C. Mathematically, this corresponds to Dirichlet boundary-value problems.
Nonessential (or Natural, or static) boundary conditions, involve derivatives of order m
and up. This B.C. is implied by the satisfaction of the variational statement but not
explicitly stated in the functional itself. Mathematically, this corresponds to Neuman
boundary-value problems.
27 Table 6.1 illustrates the boundary conditions associated with some problems

Problem Axial Member Flexural Member
Draft
Distributed load Distributed load
Dierential Equation AE ddx2 u2 + q = 0 EI ddx4 w4 , q = 0
m 1 2
Essential B.C. [0; m , 1] u w; dw
dx
Natural B.C. [m; 2m , 1] du d2 w2
and ddx3 w3
dx dx
or x = Eu;x or M = EIw;xx and V = EIw;xxx
Table 6.1: Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions
6.2 Work and Strain Energy; Denitions

6.2.1 Introduction
28 Work is dened as the product of a force and displacement
Z b
W def
=
a
Fds (6.20-a)
dW = Fxdx + Fy dy (6.20-b)
29 Energy is a quantity representing the ability or capacity to perform work.

30 The change in energy is proportional to the amount of work performed. Since only the
change of energy is involved, any datum can be used as a basis for measure of energy. Hence
energy is neither created nor consumed.
31 The rst law of thermodynamics states
The time-rate of change of the total energy (i.e., sum of the kinetic energy and the
internal energy) is equal to the sum of the rate of work done by the external forces
and the change of heat content per unit time:
d
dt (K + U ) = We + H (6.21)
where K is the kinetic energy, U the internal strain energy, W the external work, and H the
heat input to the system.
32 For an adiabatic system (no heat exchange) and if loads are applied in a quasi static manner
(no kinetic energy), the above relation simplies to:
We = U (6.22)

6.2 Work and Strain Energy; Denitions 6{7
Draft
* *
U0 U0
A A
U0 U0
A A

Nonlinear Linear
Figure 6.2: Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy
6.2.2 Internal Strain Energy

33 The strain energy density of an arbitrary material is dened as, Fig. 6.2.
Z "
U0 def
= d" (6.23)
0
34 The complementary strain energy density is dened

Z
U def
0 = "d (6.24)
0
35 The strain energy itself is equal to

Z
U = U0 d
(6.25-a)
Z
U = U0 d
(6.25-b)

36To obtain a general form of the internal strain energy, we start with the general stress-strain
equation ??
= D( , 0 ) + 0 (6.26)
where D is the material stiness matrix; is the strain vector due to the displacements u; 0
is the initial strain vector; 0 is the initial stress vector; and is the stress vector.
37 The initial strains and stresses are the result of conditions such as heating or cooling of a
Draft
system or the presence of pore pressures in a system.
38 The strain energy U for a linear elastic system will then be dened as
Z Z Z
1
U = 2 Dd
, D0 d
+ T 0 d
T T (6.27)

where
is the volume of the system.
6.2.3 Potential of External Work
39 The Potential of external work W in an arbitrary system is dened as
Z Z
def
We = uT bd
+ uT ^td, + uP (6.28)

,t
where u are the displacements, b is the body force vector; ^t is the applied surface traction
vector; ,t is that portion of the boundary where ^t is applied, and P are the applied nodal
forces.
40 Note that the potential of the external work is dierent from the external work itself (usually
by a factor of 1/2)
6.2.4 Virtual Work
41We dene the virtual work done by the load on a body during a small, admissible (continuous
and satisfying the boundary conditions) change in displacements.
Z
Internal Virtual Work Wi = , d
(6.29)
Z
Z
External Virtual Work We = ^tud, + bud
(6.30)
,t
6.2.5 | Potential Energy

42 The potential energy of a system is dened as
= UZ , We Z
def Z
(6.31)
= U0 d
, ubd
+ u^td, + uP (6.32)

,t

6.2 Work and Strain Energy; Denitions 6{9
Draft
k= 500 lbf/in
mg= 100 lbf
Figure 6.3: Single DOF Example for Potential Energy
43 Note that in the potential the full load is always acting, and through the displacements of
its points of application it does work but loses an equivalent amount of potential, this explains
the negative sign.
44 The theorem of stationary potential energy can e derived from the principle of virtual work
(see Matrix notes), and states
Of all kinematically admissible deformations (displacements satisfying the given
boundary conditions), the actual deformations (those which correspond to stresses
which satisfy equilibrium) are the ones for which the total potential energy assumes
a stationalry value.
or
@ = 0 (6.33)
45As an illustrative example (adapted from Willam, 1987), let us consider the single dof system
shown in Fig. 6.3. The strain energy U and external work W are given by
U = 12 u(Ku) = 250u2 (6.34-a)
We = mgu = 100u (6.34-b)
Thus the total potential energy is given by
= 250u2 , 100u (6.35)

Draft
Displacement [in]
0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00
40.0
20.0
Energy [lbfin]
0.0
External Work
Strain Energy 20.0
Total Potential Energy
Potential Energy of Single DOF Structure
Figure 6.4: Graphical Representation of the Potential Energy
and will be stationary for

@ = ddu = 0 ) 500u , 100 = 0 ) u = 0:2 in (6.36)
Substituting, this would yield
U = 250(0:2)2 = 10 lbf-in
,W = ,100(0:2) = ,20 lbf-in (6.37)
= 10 , 20 = ,10 lbf-in
Fig. 6.4 illustrates the two components of the potential energy.
46 For problems involving multiple degrees of freedom, it results from calculus that
= @@ 1 + @@ 2 + : : : + @@ n (6.38)

1 2 n
47 It can be shown that the minimum potential energy yields a lower bound prediction of
displacements.
6.3 | Variational Statement of Potential Energy Principle

Adapted from Reich, 1993

6.3 | Variational Statement of Potential Energy Principle 6{11
48 Substituting Equations 6.27 and 6.28 into the expression for the total potential energy
Draft
= UZ , We
def Z
(6.39-a)
We = def

uT bd
+ , uT ^td, + uP (6.39-b)
Z
t Z Z
U = 12 T Dd
, T D0d
+ T 0d
(6.39-c)

the functional for the general form of the potential energy variational principle is obtained
Z Z Z Z Z
= 12 T Dd
, T D0 d
+ T 0 d
, uT bd
, uT ^td, , uP (6.40)

,t
49 A variational statement is obtained by taking the rst variation of the variational principle
and setting this scalar quantity equal to zero.
50 The variational statement for the general form of the potential energy functional (i.e. Equa-
tion 6.40) is
Z Z Z Z Z
= T Dd
, T D 0 d
+ T 0 d
, uT bd
, uT ^td, = 0 (6.41)

,t
which is the Principle of Virtual Work.
51 We rewrite the strain-displacement relations in terms of a linear dierential operator L
= Lu (6.42)
where L is a linear dierential operator and u is the displacement vector.
52 Since the dierential operator L is linear, the variation of the strains can be expressed in
terms of the variation of the displacements u
= (Lu) = Lu (6.43)
53 We consider two forms of the variational statement

1. In terms of strains: which is more suitable for the derivation of the corresponding Euler
equations,
Z Z Z Z Z
= (Lu)T Dd
, (Lu)T D0 d
+ (Lu)T 0d
, uT bd
, uT ^td, = 0

,t
(6.44)

2. In terms of displacements: (using Equation 6.44) which is more suitable for the subse-
Draft
quent discretization.
Z Z Z Z Z
= (Lu)T D(Lu)d
, (Lu)T D0 d
+ (Lu)T 0d
, uT bd
, uT ^td, = 0

,t
(6.45)
54 To obtain the Euler equations for the general form of the potential energy variational principle
the volume integrals dening the virtual strain energy U in Equation 6.44 must be integrated by
parts in order to convert the variation of the strains (Lu) into a variation of the displacements
u.
55 Integration by parts of these integrals using Green's theorem (Eq. 2.14)
Z
@S Z
@R I
R d
= , @x Sd
+ RSnxd, (6.46)

@x
,
yields Z I Z
(Lu)T Dd
= uT G(D)d, , uT LT (D)d
Z
I,
Z
(Lu)T D0 d
= u G(D0 )d, , uT LT (D0 )d
T (6.47)

Z I, Z
(Lu)T 0 d
= uT G0 d, , uT LT 0 d
where G is a transformation matrix containing the direction cosines for a unit normal vector
such that the surface tractions t are dened as t = G and the surface integrals are over the
entire surface of the body @
.
56 Substituting Equation 6.47 into Equation 6.44, and using Eq. 6.26, the variational statement
becomes Z
= , uT fLT [D( , 0 ) + 0 ] + bgd
Z
+ uT fG[D( , 0 ) + 0 ] , ^tgd, = 0 (6.48)
,
57 Since u is arbitrary the expressions in the integrands within the braces must both be equal
to zero for to be equal to zero. Recognizing that the stress-strain relationship (i.e. Equation
6.26) appears in both the volume and surface integrals, the Euler equations are
LT + b = 0 on
(6.49)
G , ^t = 0 on ,t
where the rst Euler equation is the equilibrium equation and the second Euler equation denes
the natural boundary conditions. The natural boundary conditions are dened on ,t rather

6.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method 6{13
than , because both the applied surface tractions ^t and the matrix-vector product G are
Draft
identically zero outside ,t .
58 In general, only certain forms of dierential equations are Euler equations of a variational
functional.
59 For the elastostatic problem, it is possible to start from the Euler equations, and then derive
the total potential energy functional by performing the operations just presented in reverse
order.
6.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method

60 Continous systems have innite number of degrees of freedom, those are the the displacements
at every point within the structure. Their behavior can be described by the Euler Equation, or
the partial dierential equation of equilibrium. However, only the simplest problems have an
exact solution which (satises equilibrium, and the boundary conditions).
61 An approximate method of solution is the Rayleigh-Ritz method which is based on the
principle of virtual displacements. In this method we approximate the displacement eld by a
function
n
X
u1 c1i 1i + 10 (6.50-a)
i=1
Xn
u2 c2i 2i + 20 (6.50-b)
i=1
Xn
u3 c3i 3i + 30 (6.50-c)
i=1
where cji denote undetermined parameters, and are appropriate functions of positions.
62 should satisfy three conditions
1. Be continous.
2. Must be admissible, i.e. satisfy the essential boundary conditions (the natural boundary
conditions are included already in the variational statement. However, if also satisfy
them, then better results are achieved).
3. Must be independent and complete (which means that the exact displacement and their
derivatives that appear in can be arbitrary matched if enough terms are used. Further-
more, lowest order terms must also beincluded).
In general is a polynomial or trigonometric function.

63 We determine the parameters cji by requiring that the principle of virtual work for arbitrary
Draft
variations cji . or
n !
(u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) =
X @ c1 + @ c2 + @ c3 = 0 (6.51)
i=1 @c1i i @c2i i @c3i i
for arbitrary and independent variations of c1i , c2i , and c3i , thus it follows that
@ = 0 i = 1; 2; ; n; j = 1; 2; 3 (6.52)
@cji
Thus we obtain a total of 3n linearly independent simultaneous equations. From these displace-
ments, we can then determine strains and stresses (or internal forces). Hence we have replaced
a problem with an innite number of d.o.f by one with a nite number.
64 Some general observations
1. cji can either be a set of coecients with no physical meanings, or variables associated
with nodal generalized displacements (such as de ection or displacement).
2. If the coordinate functions satisfy the above requirements, then the solution converges
to the exact one if n increases.
3. For increasing values of n, the previously computed coecients remain unchanged.
4. Sine the strains are computed from the approximate displacements, strains and stresses
are generally less accurate than the displacements.
5. The equilibrium equations of the problem are satised only in the energy sense = 0
and not in the dierential equation sense (i.e. in the weak form but not in the strong one).
Therefore the displacements obtained from the approximation generaly do not satisfy the
equations of equilibrium.
6. Since the continuous system is approximated by a nite number of coordinates (or d.o.f.),
then the approximate system is stier than the actual one, and the displacements obtained
from the Ritz method converge to the exact ones from below.

Draft
Chapter 7
INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
7.1 Introduction
1 Application of the principle of total potential energy (or virtual displacement) requires an
assumed displacement eld. This displacement eld can be approximated by interpolation
functions written in terms of:
1. Unknown polynomial coecients most appropriate for continuous systems, and the
Rayleigh-Ritz method
y = a1 + a2x + a3 x2 + a4 x3 (7.1)
A major drawback of this approach, is that the coecients have no physical meaning.
2. Unknown nodal deformations most appropriate for discrete systems and Potential En-
ergy based formulations
y = u = N1 u1 + N2 u2 + : : : + Nnun (7.2)
2 For simple problems both Eqn. 7.1 and Eqn. 7.2 can readily provide the exact solutions of the
d4 y = q for exure), but for more complex ones, one
governing dierential equation (such as dx 4 EI
must use an approximate one.
7.2 Shape Functions

3For an element (nite or otherwise), we can write an expression for the generalized displace-
ment (translation/rotation), u at any point in terms of all its nodal ones, u.
n
X
u= Ni (X )i = bN(x)cfug (7.3)
i=1
where:
7{2 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
Draft
Figure 7.1: Axial Finite Element
1. ui is the (generalized) nodal displacement corresponding to d.o.f i

2. Ni is an interpolation function, or shape function which has the following characteristics:
(a) Ni = 1 at ui
(b) Ni = 0 at uj where i 6= j .
3. N can be derived on the bases of:
(a) Assumed deformation state dened in terms of polynomial series.
(b) Interpolation function (Lagrangian or Hermitian).
4 We shall distinguish between two classes of problems:
C 0 where only displacement continuity must be ensured across elements (truss, torsion, plane
stress/strain, 3D Elasticity).
C 1 where we must ensure coninuity of both displacements and their derivatives (such as beams,
plates, and shells).
7.3 C 0
7.3.1 Truss element

5 With reference to Fig. 7.1 we start with:
u = N1 u1 + N2 u2 (7.4)
x = N1 x1 + N2 x2 (7.5)
6 Since we have 2 d.o.f's, we will assume a linear deformation state
u = a1 x + a2 (7.6)
7.3 C 0 7{3
where u can be either u or , and the B.C.'s are given by: u = u1 at x = 0, and u = u2 at
Draft
x = L. Thus we have:
u1 = a2 (7.7)
u2 = a1 L + a2 (7.8)
7 Solving for a1 and a2 in terms of u1 and u2 we obtain:

a1 = uL2 , uL1 (7.9)
a2 = u1 (7.10)
8 Substituting and rearranging those expressions into Eq. 7.6 we obtain

u = ( uL2 , uL1 )x + u1 (7.11)
= (1 , Lx ) u1 + Lx u2 (7.12)
| {z } |{z}
N1 N2
or:
N1 = 1 , Lx (7.13)
N2 = Lx
7.3.2 Generalization
9 The previous derivation can be generalized by writing:
( )
u = a1 x + a2 = b x 1 c aa1 (7.14)
| {z } 2
[p] | {z }
fag
where [p] corresponds to the polynomial approximation, and fag is the coecient vector.
10 We next apply the boundary conditions:
( ) " #( )
u1 = L0 11 a1 (7.15)
u2 a2
| {z } | {z }| {z }
fug [L] fag
following inversion of [L], this leads to
( ) " #( )
a1
a2 = L1 ,L1 10 u1
u2 (7.16)
| {z } | {z }| {z }
fag [L],1 fug
11 Substituting this last equation into Eq. 7.14, we obtain:
Draft
( )
u=b
|
(1 , Lx ) Lx
{z
c} uu12 (7.17)
[|p][{zL],1} | {z
fu g
}
[N]
12 Hence, the shape functions [N] can be directly obtained from
[N] = [p][L],1 (7.18)
13Note that in some cases L,1 is not always possible to obtain, and that in others there may
be considerable algebraic diculties for arbitrary geometries. Hence, we shall introduce later
on Lagrangian and Hermitian interpolation functions.
7.3.3 Constant Strain Triangle Element
14 Next we consider a triangular element, Fig. 7.2 with bi-linear displacement eld (in both x
Figure 7.2: Constant Strain Triangle Element

and y):
u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y (7.19)
v = a4 + a5 x + a8
6y 9
(7.20)
a1 >
< >
=
u = b 1 x y c > a2 >
(7.21)
| {z
[p]
}:
a3 ;
| {z }
Victor Saouma fag Finite Elements
7.3 C 0 7{5
15 As before, we rst seek the shape functions, and hence we apply the boundary conditions at
Draft
the nodes for the u displacements rst:
8 9 2 38 9
>
< u1 >
= 1 0 0 > a
< 1 >
=
>
u2 >
= 4 1 x2 0
6 7
5
>
a2 >
(7.22)
: u3 ; 1 x3 y3 : a3
;
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fug [L] fag
16 We then multiply the inverse of [L] in Eq. 7.22 by [p] and obtain:
u = N1u1 + N2 u2 + N3 u3 (7.23)
where
N1 = x 1y (x2 y3 , xy3 , x2 y + x3 y)
2 3
N2 = x 1y (xy3 , x3y) (7.24)
2 3
y
N3 = y
3
We observe that each of the three shape functions is equal to 1 at the corrsponding node, and
equal to 0 at the other two.
17 The same shape functions can be derived for v :
v = N1 v1 + N2 v2 + N3 v3 (7.25)
18 Hence, the displacement eld will be given by:
8 9
>
> u1 >
>
( ) "
>
>
#>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
>
>
u = N01 N0 N02 N0 N03 N0
<
u2 =
(7.26)
v 1 2 3 >
>
>
v2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
u3 >
>
>
>
;
v3
19 The element is refereed to as Constant Strain Triangle (CST) because it has a linear dis-
placement eld, and hence a constant strain.
7.3.4 Further Generalization: Lagrangian Interpolation Functions
20 In our earlier approach, the shape functions were obtained by:
1. Assumption of a polynomial function: u = bpcfag
2. Application of the boundary conditions fug = [L]fag
Draft
3. Inversion of [L]
4. And nally [N] = [p][L],1
21 By following these operations, we have in eect dened the Lagrangian Interpolation Func-
tions for problems with C 0 interelement continuity (i.e continuity of displacement only).
22 The Lagrangian interpolation denes the coecients ([N] in our case) of a polynomial series
representation of a function in terms of values dened at discrete points (nodes in our case).
For points along a line this would yield:
Qm+1
(x,x )
Ni = Qmj=1+1;j6=i(xi ,xjj ) (7.27)
j =1;j 6=i
23 If expanded, the preceding equation would yield:

N1 = (x(x,,xx2)()(xx ,,xx3 ))((xx,,xmx+1 ) )
1 2 1 3 1 m+1
( x , x 1 )(x , x3 ) (x , xm+1 )
N2 = (x , x )(x , x ) (x , x ) (7.28)
2 1 2 3 2 m+1
( , x )( x , x )
Nm+1 = (x , x )(1x ,2x ) (x xm ), x )
x ( x ,
m+1 1 m+1 2 m+1 m
24 For the axial member, m = 1, x1 = 0, and x2 = L, the above equations will result in:
u = (x , L) u + x u = (1 , x ) u + x u
,L 1
L 2
L} 1
L 2 (7.29)
| {z |{z}
N1 N2
which is identical to Eq. 7.12.
7.3.5 Rectangular Bilinear Element
25 Next we consider a quadrilateral element, Fig. 7.3 with bi-linear displacement eld (in both
x and y).
26 Using the Lagrangian interpolation function of Eq. 7.27, and starting with the u displace-
ment, we perform two interpolations: the rst one along the bottom edge (1-2) and along the
top one (4-3).
27 From Eq. 7.27 with m = 1 we obtain:
u12 = xx2,,xx u1 + xx1 ,,xx u2

2 1 1 2
a , x x
= 2a u1 + 2a u2+ a (7.30)
7.3 C 0 7{7
Draft
Figure 7.3: Rectangular Bilinear Element
28 Similarly
u43 = xx2,,xx u4 + xx1 ,,xx u3
2 1 1 2
a , x x
= 2a u4 + 2a u3+ a (7.31)
29Next, we interpolate in the y direction along 1-4 and 2-3 between u12 and u43 . Again, we
use Eq. 7.27 however this time we replace x by y:
u = yy2 ,,yy u12 + yy1 ,,yy u43 (7.32)
2 1 1 2
= b 2,b y a 2,a x u1 + b 2,b y x 2+a a u2 + y 2+b b a 2,a x u4 + y 2+b b x 2+a a u3
= (a , x4)(abb , y) u1 + (a + x4)(abb , y) u2 + (a + x4)(abb + y) u3 + (a , x4)(abb + y) u4
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
N1 N2 N3 N1
30 One can easily check that at each node i the corresponding Ni is equal to 1, and all others
to zero, and that at any point N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 = 1. Hence, the displacement eld will be

given by:
Draft
8 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
>
>
>
> v1 >
>
>
>
( ) "
>
>
#>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
>
>
u = N01 N0 N02 N0 N03 N0 N04 N0
<
v2 =
(7.33)
v 1 2 3 4 >
>
>
u3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
:
v4 ;
7.3.6 Solid Rectangular Trilinear Element

31 By extension to the previous derivation, the shape functions of a solid rectangular trilinear
solid element, Fig. 7.4 will be given by:
Figure 7.4: Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element

8 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
>
>
>
> v1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
w1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> u2 >
>
>
>
8
> u
9
>
2
N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 0 0
3>>
>
>
>
v2 >
>
>
>
>
<
v
=
= 4 0
6
N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 0 7
<
w2 =
(7.34)
>
: w >
; 0 0 N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N
5
>
> u3 >
>
4 >>
> v3
>
>
>
>
> >
>
> >
>
>
>
>
w3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v4 >
>
>
>
:
w4 ;

7.4 C 1 7{9
Draft
Figure 7.5: Flexural Finite Element
where
Ni = (a x)(b8abc
y)(c z) (7.35)
7.4 C 1
7.4.1 Flexural
32 With reference to Fig. 7.5. We have 4 d.o.f.'s, fug41 : and hence will need 4 shape functions,
N1 to N4 , and those will be obtained through 4 boundary conditions. Therefore we need to
assume a polynomial approximation for displacements of degree 3.
v = a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 (7.36)
dv = 3a x2 + 2a x + a
= dx (7.37)
1 2 3
33 Note that v can be rewritten as:

8 9
a1>
>
>
>
>
>
v = b x3 x2 x 1 c > aa2
< =
>
(7.38)
| {z }>> 3 >
>
[p] :
a4 ;
| {z }
fag
34 We now apply the boundary conditions:

1. v = v1 at x = 0
2. v = v2 at x = L
dv at x = 0
3. = 1 = dx

dv at x = L
4. = 2 = dx
Draft
or: 8 9 2 38 9
>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
0
0 0 1 >
> 1a >
>
7> >
<
1 =
= 664 L3 L02 L1 01
6
0 7
<
a
2
=
(7.39)
>
>
>
v2 >
>
>
7
5>>
>
a
3 >
>
>
:
2 ;
3L2 2L 1 0 :
a
4
;
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fug [L] fag
35 which when inverted yields:
8 9 2 38 9
>
>
>
a1 >
>
>
2 L ,2 L >
> 1 v >
>
7> >
<
a2 =
= 1 666 ,3L ,2L2 3L ,L2 7
<
1 =
(7.40)
>
>
>
a3
>
>
> L3 4 0 L3 0 0 7
5>>
> 2 v >
>
>
:
a4
;
L3 0 0 0 :
2 ;
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fag [L],1 fug
36 Combining Eq. 7.40 with Eq. 7.38, we obtain:

2 38 9
2 L ,2 L >
> 1 v >
>
7> >
u = b x3 x2 x 1 c L13 664
6
,3L ,2L2 3L ,L2 7
<
1 =
(7.41)
| {z } 0 L3 0 0 7
5>>
> 2 v >
>
>
[p] L 3 0 0 0 :
2 ;
| {z } | {z }
[L],1 fu g
8 9
v1 >
> >
>
= b (1
|
3 2 , )} (3
+ 2{z , 3 }) x| (1 {z 2
|
2 , 2 }) (| {z, }) c 1
{z 3 2 >
< >
=
(7.42)
N1 N2 N3 N4 > v2
> >
>
}> >
| {z
,1
:
2 ;
[|p][{zL] | {z }
} fug
[N]
where = xl .
N1 = (1 + 2 3 , 3 2 )
N2 = x(1 , )2
N3 = (3 2 , 2 3 )
37 Hence, the shape functions for the exural element are given by: N4 = x(2 , ) (7.43)and
are shown in Fig 7.6.
38 Table 7.1 illustrates the characteristics of those shape functions

7.4 C 1 7{11
Draft
Shape Functions for Flexure

(v1; 1; v2; 2)
1.0
0.8
N1
0.6
N3
N2
N4
0.4
N
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(x/L)
Figure 7.6: Shape Functions for Flexure of Uniform Beam Element.
=0 =1
Function Ni Ni;x Ni Ni;x
N1 = (1 + 23 , 32 ) 1 0 0 0
N2 = x(1 , )2 0 1 0 0
N3 = (32 , 2 3 ) 0 0 1 0
N4 = x( , )
2 0 0 0 1
Table 7.1: Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions

7.4.2 C 1 : Hermitian Interpolation Functions
Draft
39 For problems involving the rst derivative of the shape function, that is with C 1 interelement
continuity (i.e continuity of rst derivative or slope) such as for exure, Hermitian interpolation
functions rather than Lagrangian ones should be used.
40 Hermitian interpolation functions are piecewise cubic functions which satisfy the conditions
of displacement and slope (C 0 , C 1 ) continuities. They are exensively used in CAD as Bezier
curves.
7.5 Characteristics of Shape Functions

1. The basis of derivation of shape functions could be:
(a) A polynomial relation
i. Exact
ii. Approximation
(b) Or other
i. Logarithmic
ii. Trigonometric
2. Shape functions should
(a) be continuous, of the type required by the variational principle.
(b) exhibit rigid body motion (i.e. v = a1 + : : :)
(c) exhibit constant strain.
3. Shape functions should be complete, and meet the same requirements as the coecients
of the Rayleigh Ritz method.
7.6 Natural Coordinate System

41 Natural coordinates are dimensionless and dened with respect to element length/area/volume
rather than the global coordinate system.
42 They are often used in element formulation of simplex elements (where in an n dimentional
space, there are n + 1 vertices and n + 1 surfaces of dimensionality n , 1).

7.6 Natural Coordinate System 7{13
Draft
Figure 7.7: Natural Coordinate System Along a Straight Line

7.6.1 Straight Line
Draft
43 We dene two natural coordinates 1 and 2 , Fig. 7.7

1 = LL1 and 2 = LL2 (7.44)
since L1 + L2 = L, we have
1 + 2 = 1
44 We note that i = 1 at node i and zero at all other nodes.
45 An arbitrary point P with coordinate x has
x = 1 x1 + 2 x2 (7.45)
46 Thus, for every point x, corresponds a set of (nonindependent) natural coordinates 1 ; 2

47 Those equations can be stated as
( ) " #( ) ( ) " #( )
1
x = x x1 1 1
2 and 1
2 = L1 ,xx2 ,11 1
x (7.46)
1 2 1
48 Interpolation can be done in natural coordinates

( )
= b 1 2 c 1 (7.47)
| {z } 2
N
49Integration of polynomials in 1 and 2 can be done through
1k 2l dL = L (1 +kk!l!+ l)!
Z
(7.48)
L
Furthermore R R L
R L xdL = L2(1 x1 + 2 x2 )dL = 2L(x1 + x2 ) (7.49)
L 1 2 dL = L 4! = 12
2
7.6.2 Triangular Coordinates

50For a triangular surface, any point P divides the triangle 1-2-3 into three subareas A1 ; A2 ; A3 ,
Fig. 7.8 thus we dene area coordinates as ratios of areas
L1 = AA1 , L2 = AA2 1 , L3 = AA3 (7.50)

Draft
Figure 7.8: Natural Coordinate System for a Triangle

where A is the area of the triangle 1-2-3.
51 Since A = A1 + A2 + A3 then
L1 + L2 + L3 = 1 (7.51)
52 The centroid is at L1 = L2 = L3 = 13
53 Again the constraints equations are
8 9 2 38 9 8 9 2 38 9
< 1 >
> = 1 1 1 > < L1 >= >
< L1 >
= x2 y3 ,x3 y2 y23 x32 >
< 1 >
=
x = x x x L
3 5 > 2 > and L2 = 4 x3 y1 ,x1 y3 y31 x13 x
6 7 6 7
4 1 2 5
> : >
y ; y1 y2 y3 : L3 ; >
: L3 >
; x1 y2 ,x2 y1 y12 x21 >
: y >
;
| {z } | {z }
[A] [A],1
(7.52)
where xij = xi , xj
54 We observe that the area is equal to the determinant over two.
2A = jAj = x21 y31 , x31 y21 (7.53)
and if the labels are reversed such that 1-2-3 is clockwise, then the determinant is negative.
55 A function may be expressed in terms of area coordinates
= (L1 ; L2 ; L3 ) (7.54-a)
@ = @ @L1 + @ @L2 + @ @L3 (7.54-b)
@x @L @x @L @x @L @x
1 2 3
@ = @ @L1 + @ @L2 + @ @L3 (7.54-c)
@y @L1 @y @L2 @y @L3 @y
Draft
@L1
@x = y223A ; @L 2 y31 @L3 = y12 ;
@x = x2A ; @L
@x 2A (7.55)
@L 1 = 232A ; @y2 = 213A ; @y3 = x221A ;
x @L
@y
56Integration for the stiness matrix will require integration in area coordinate
Lk1 Ll2 Lm3 dA = 2A (2 + kk!+l!ml +! m)!
Z
(7.56)
A
where A is the triangle area, and integration along one side is accomplished as shown above for
one dimensional elelements.
7.6.3 Volume Coordinates
57 Volumes coordinates are a direct extension of triangular coordinates.
58 An internal point P subdivide the tetrahedron into four subtetrahedra, and thus Li = VVi ,
for i = 1; 4.
59 The constraint equation is
8 9 2 38 9
>
>
>
1>> 1 1 1 1 > > L1 >
>
< >
x = = 666 x1 x2 x3 x4 777 < L2 >
> =
(7.57)
> y > > 4 y > y y y 5> L >
1 2 3 4 > 3 >
> > > >
:
z ;
z1 z2 z3 z4 :
L4 ;
| {z }
[A]
60 Integration is also caried in a similar way,

Lk1 Ll2 Lm3 Ln4 dA = 6V (3 + kk+!l!lm+!nm! + n)!
Z
(7.58)
V
7.6.4 Interpolation Functions

61 Triangular elements allow a complete polynomial in Cartesian coordinate to be used for the
eld (e.g. temperature, displacement) quantity. Thus, all terms of a truncated Pascal triangle
are used in the shape functions. (This will not be the case for the bilinear quadrilateral element).
P
62 We seek to determine = Ni i where i are nodal d.o.f. and Ni = Ni (L1 ; L2 ; L3 ).
Pn q
63 We start with = i=1 ai L1 ; Lr2 ; Ls3 ) where q; r and s range over the n possible combinations
for which q + r + s = p and where p is the order of the polynomial. For example for
Linear element:
= a1 L1 + a2 L2 + a3 L3 = a01 + a02 x + a03 y (7.59)
Quadratic element:
Draft
= a1 L21 + a2 L22 + a3L23 + a4 L1 L2 + a5L2L3 + a6 L3 L1 = a01 + a02 x + a03 y + a04 x2 + a05 xy + a06 y2
(7.60)
64 The shape functions for the Linear Triangle are simply the area coordinates,
N1 = L1 N2 = L2 N3 = L3 (7.61)
and each one is equal to unity at one node, zero at the others, and varies linearly.
65 The shape functions for other elements can be obtained from the Lagrangian interpolation
function used earlier Eq. 7.27
Qn
(L , L )
lk = Qni=0;i6=k(L , Li )
n (7.62-a)
i=0;i6=k k i
= (L (L,,LL)(0 )( L , L1 ) (L , Lk,1 )(L , Lk+1) (L , Ln) (7.62-b)
k 0 Lk , L1 ) (Lk , Lk,1 )(Lk , Lk+1 ) (Lk , Ln )
66 Hence, denoting a typical node i by three numbers q; r and s corresponding to the position
of coordinates L1i ; L2i and L3i , we can write the shape functions in terms of three Lagrangian
interpolation functions
Ni = lqq (L1 )lrr (L2 )lss (L3 ) (7.63)
67 Using this formula, the shape functions for higher order elements are
Quadratic triangle
Ni = Li(2Li , 1) Corner nodes (7.64)
Nj = 4Li Lk Midside nodes, i; j; k are on the same side
Cubic triangle
Ni = 12 Li(3Li , 1)(3Li , 2) Corner nodes
Nj = 92 LiLk (3Li , 1) Midside nodes, i; j; k are on the same side (7.65)
N10 = 27L1 L2 L3 Internal node

Draft

Draft
Chapter 8
FINITE ELEMENT
DISCRETIZATION and
REQUIREMENTS
8.1 Discretization
Adapted from Reich 1993
1 The discretization of Equation 6.45 will be performed on an element domain

e using the
procedures described in Chapter 2 of Zienkiewicz & Taylor (1989);
2 The surface of the element subjected to surface tractions ,t comprises one or more surfaces
of the element boundary ,. For the present time this discussion will be kept on a very general
level with no mention of the dimensionality of the elements; the number of nodes dening the
elements; or the nature of the constitutive law.
3 The rst step in the discretization process is to dene the displacements u at a point inside
the element in terms of the shape functions N and the nodal displacements ue for the element
u = Nue (8.1)
4 The virtual displacements u at a point inside the element can also be dened in terms of
the shape functions N and the nodal virtual displacements ue for the element
u = N u e (8.2)
8{2 FINITE ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION and REQUIREMENTS
5 In order to discretize the volume integral in Equation 6.45
Draft
Z Z Z Z Z
= (Lu)T D(Lu)d
, (Lu)T D0 d
+ (Lu)T 0 d
, uT bd
, uT ^td, = 0

,t
(8.3)
dening the virtual strain energy for the element due to the nodal displacements u, the strains
at a point inside the element are expressed in terms of the nodal displacements ue using
Equation 8.1
= Lu = LNue (8.4)
and the virtual strains at a point inside the element are expressed in terms of the nodal
virtual displacements ue using Equation 8.2
= (Lu) = LNue (8.5)
6 Dening the discrete strain-displacement operator B as
B def
= LN (8.6)
the virtual strain energy for an element is written as

Z Z
(Lu)T D(Lu)d
= uTe BT DBd
ue (8.7)

e
e
7 Dening the element stiness matrix Ke as

Z
Ke = BT DBd
(8.8)

e
Equation 8.7 can be rewritten as

Z
(Lu)T D(Lu)d
= uTe Ke ue (8.9)

e
8 In order to discretize the volume integrals in Equation 8.3 dening the virtual strain energy
for the element due to the initial strains 0 and stresses 0 , Equations 8.5 and 8.6, which dene
the virtual strains at a point inside the element in terms of the nodal virtual displacements
ue , are substituted into the integrands
Z Z
(Lu)T D 0 d
= ue
T BT D0d
(8.10)

e
e
Z Z
(Lu)T 0 d
= uTe BT 0 d
(8.11)

e
e
8.1 Discretization 8{3
9 Dening the initial force vector f0e as
Draft
Z Z
f0e = BT D0d
, BT 0d
(8.12)

e
t
the strain energy due to the initial strains and stresses is

Z Z
(Lu)T D0 d
, (Lu)T 0 d
= uTe f0e (8.13)

e
e
10 In order to discretize the volume integral dening the work done by the body forces and the
surface integral dening the work done by the surface tractions in Equation 8.3, Equation 8.2
is substituted into the integrands
Z Z
uT bd
= uTe NT bd
(8.14)

e
e
Z Z
uT ^td, = uTe NT ^td, (8.15)
,t ,t
11 Dening the applied force vector fe as

Z Z
fe = NT bd
+ NT ^td, (8.16)

e ,t
the sum of the internal and external virtual work due to body forces and surface tractions is
Z Z
uT bd
+ uT ^td, = uTe fe (8.17)

e ,t
12 Having obtained the discretization of the various integrals dening the variational statement
for the TPE variational principle, it is now possible to dene the discrete system of equa-
tions. Substituting Equations 8.7, 8.13, and 8.17 into Equation 8.3 and rearranging terms, the
discretized Principle of Virtual Work is
uTe Keue = uTe fe + uTe f0e (8.18)
13 Since uTe is an arbitrary (i.e. non-zero) vector appearing on both sides of Equation 8.18,
the discrete system of equations can be simplied into
Keue = fe + f0e + Pu (8.19)
as the discrete system of equations for an element.

8.2 General Element Requirements
Draft
14A nite element must satisfy two basic requirements

Completeness: The FE discretization must at least accommodate constant displacement and
constant strain (or temperature and temperature gradient). This is accomplished by
including in two dimensional problems the following
= a1 + a2 x + a3y + possibly additional terms (8.20)
Compatibility or Conformity: The approximation of the eld over element boundaries must
be continuous. Most nite elements are conforming, but some are not.
15 If those two requirements are satised, then convergence is assured. In the FE method
approximate solution are obtained, and the more elements we use, the more accurate is the ap-
proximate solution. In the limit, for innitely small elements, we require the solution to be also
innitely close to the exact one. Hence, convergence is ensured if completeness and compatibility
requirements are satised: Convergence criterion=completeness+ compatibility requirements
16 Completness can be assessed through the patch test which will be discussed later.
17 Zero Strain Energy: For structural problems, there should be zero strain energy when the
element is subjected to a rigid body motion. Recall that in the stiness matrix formulation, the
matrix is singular as it embodies not only the force displacement relations, but the equilibrium
equations also. To each of those equations, corresponds a rigid body mode which can be detected
by an eigenvalue analysis (more about this later).
8.3 Discretization Error and Convergence Rate

18 Approximation will yield an exact solution in the limit as the size h of element approaches
zero.
19 In some cases the exact solution is obtained with a nite number of elements (or even with
only one) if the polynomial expansion used in that element can t exactly the correct solution.
(e.g. Truss, beam elements, plane stress element used in a plate under pure axial load).
20 The exact solution can always be expanded in the vicinity of any node i as a polynomial

@ u
@ u
u = ui + @x (x , xi) + @y (y , yi) + ::: (8.21)
i i
If within an element of size h a polynomial of degree p is used, then the Taylor expansion up
to that degree can be accommodated and the error is of the order O(hp+1 ).
8.4 Lower Bound Character of Minimum Potential Energy Based Solutions 8{5
21 Thus for a linear element, the convergence rate is of order O(h2 ), i.e., the error in displacement
Draft
is reduced to 1/4 of the original error by halving the mesh.
22 By a similar argument, it can be shown that the strains (or stresses) which are given by
the mth derivatives of the displacement should converge with an error of O(hp+1,m ), and the
strain energy (which is given by the square of the stresses) error will be O(h2(p+1,m) )
23 From the above arguments, knowledge of the order of convergence may help in extrapolating
the solutions to the \correct" one. Hence, for instance, if the displacement converges at O(h2 ),
and we have two approximate solutions u1 and u2 obtained with meshes of sizes h and h=2,
then we can write
u1 , u = O(h2 ) = 4 (8.22)
u , u O(h=2)2
2
where u is the extrapolated value.
24 Convergence to the exact solution can be accelerated by
h reducing the size of the elements (or mesh renement).
p increasing the order of the polynomial (same number of elements but higher number of
nodes/dof).
A third form of acceleration is the so called r renement in which the same number of nodes/elements
is retained but the mesh is sshifted around to increase its density in zones of high stress gradient.
25 The above convergence procedures can be accelerated within the context of a program which
can accomodate adaptive remeshing techniques.
26 Finally, additional errors may come from round-o within the computer.
8.4 Lower Bound Character of Minimum Potential Energy Based

Solutions
27 A numerical solution that is derived from the principle of minimum total potential energy is
a lower bound solution, because the strain energy is smaller than the exact one (i.e. obtained
from an innite number of elements).
28 This can be readily shown if we consider the displacement ui caused by a load Pi which is
increased from zero to its stipulated value. The work done is Pi2ui and must be equal to the
internal strain energy U . Alternatively, the potential of the applied load is Pi ui , and the exact
potential energy is
exact exact
exact = Pi u2i , Pi uexact
i = , Pi u2i (8.23)
similarly, the approximate value of the potential energy is
approx
approx = , Pi ui2 (8.24)
We know that the approximation of is algebraically higher than the exact value (since the
Draft
exact value is a minimum), hence
, Pi u2iexact < , Piui2approx (8.25)
| {z } | {z }
exact approx
or
uapprox
i < uexact
i (8.26)
or alternatively, the solution is too sti.

Draft
Chapter 9
\SIMPLE" FINITE ELEMENTS
9.1 Introduction
1 Having rst introduced the method of virtual displacements, than the interpolation (or shape)
functions [N], which relate internal to external nodal displacements, and nally having applied
the virtual displacement method to nite element in chapter ??, we derive the siness matrices
of some simple elements.
9.2 Rod Elements

9.2.1 Truss Element
2 The shape functions of the truss element were derived in Eq. 7.13:
N1 = 1 , Lx
N2 = Lx
3 The corresponding strain displacement relation [B] is given by:

"xx = ddxu
= [ dN 1 dN2
dx dx ]
= [ , L1 L1 ] (9.1)
| {z }
[B]
4 Z the constitutive matrix [D] reduces to the scalar E; Hence, substituting

For the truss element,
into Eq. ?? [k] = [B]T [D][B]d
and with d
= Adx for element with constant cross

9{2 \SIMPLE" FINITE ELEMENTS

sectional area we obtain:
Draft
( )
[k] = A
Z L , L1 E b , 1 1 cdx
1 L L
0 L
" #
AE
[k] = L2
Z L
1 ,1 dx
0 , 1 1
" #
AE
= L ,1 1 1 , 1 (9.2)
5 We observe that this stiness matrix is identical to the one earlier derived in Eq. ??.
9.2.2 Beam Element
6 For a beam element, for which we have previously derived the shape functions in Eq. 7.43
and the [B] matrix in Eq. ??, substituting in Eq. ??:
Z lZ
[k] = [B]T [D][B] y2 dA dx (9.3)
0 A
Z
and noting that y2 dA = Iz Eq. ?? reduces to
A
Z l
[k] = [B]T [D][B]Iz dx (9.4)
0
7 For this simple case, we have: [D] = E , thus:

Z l
[k] = EIz [B]T [B] dx (9.5)
0
8 Using the shape function for the beam element from Eq. 7.43, and noting the change of
integration variable from dx to d , we obtain
8 6 9
>
> L 2 (2 , 1) >
>
Z 1<
[k] = EIz
, 2 (3 , 2) =
L 6 (2 , 1) , 2 (3 , 2) 6 (,2 + 1) , 2 (3 , 1)

6 (,2 + 1) L 2 L L 2 L Ld (9.6)
> L2
0> >
> |{z}
:
, L (3 , 1)
2 ; dx
or
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V166 12LEI3 z 6EI L2

z , 12LEI3 z 6EI z
L2 7
M16 L2
6 6 EI z 4 EI z , L2
6 EI z 2 EI z 77 (9.7)
L L
[k] = V266 , 12EI3 z , 6EI2 z 12EI3 z , 6EI2 z 777
L L L L
M264 6EIL2
z 2EIz
L , 6EI
L2
z 4EIz 7
L 5

9.3 Plane Stresss/Strain Elements 9{3
9.3 Plane Stresss/Strain Elements
Draft
9.3.1 Constant Strain Triangle
9.3.1.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
9 Having retrieved the stiness matrices of simple one dimensional elements using the principle
of virtual displacement, we next consider two dimensional continuum elements starting with
the triangular element of constant thickness t made out of isotropic linear elastic material. The
element will have two d.o.f's at each node:
fug = b u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3 ct (9.8)
9.3.1.1.1 Strain-Displacement Relations 10 The strain displacement relations is required

to determine [B]
11 For the 2D plane elasticity problem, the strain vector fg is given by:
fg = b "xx "yy xy ct (9.9)
hence we can rewrite the strains in terms of the derivatives of the shape functions through the
matrix [B]: 8 9 2 @N 3
< "xx > 0 ( )
>
" yy
=
= 6 0
@x @N 7 u (9.10)
>
: xy ;>
4
@N @N
@y 5
v
|
@y {z @x }
[B]
12 We note that because we have 3 u and 3 v displacements, the size of [B] and [u] are 3 6
and 6 1 respectively.
13 Dierentiating the shape functions from Eq. 7.24 we obtain:
,1 1
2 3
8 1 9
>
> "xx >
> 6 x 0 x 0
|{z} 0 0 7
6 | {z 2} 2
>
>
>
>
>
"1yy >
>
>
>
>
6
6 @N1
|{z}
@N2
@N3
@x
7
78
7> 1u 9
>
> xy
1 >
> 6 @x @x 7> >
>
>
>
>
>
> "2xx
>
>
>
>
>
6
6
0 0 0 x3 , x2 , ,x3 1 7>
7>
>
u
> 2
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
"2yy
=
=
6
6
6
x2 y3 x2 y3 y3 7<
7
7
u 3
=
(9.11)
>
>
> xy
2 >
>
>
6
6
| {z } | {z } |{z}
@N1 @N2 @N3 7>
7>> v 1 >
>
>
>
>
>
"xx
>
>
> 6
x , x , ,x3 1
@y @y @y 7>> v
> 2
>
>
>
, x1 1
>
> 3 >
> 6 7> >
>
> >
> 6 3 2
0 7: v ;
3
>
>
>
> "3yy >
>
>
>
6
6 x y | x{z2y3} |{z}
2 3 y3 | {z 2}
x 2 |{z}
@N3
7
7 | {z }
:
xy
3 ; 4 | {z }
@N1 @N1 @N3 @N1
|{z}
@N2 @x
5 u
f g
| {z } @y @y @x @x @x
fg | {z }
[B]

9.3.1.1.2 Stiness Matrix 14 With the constitutive matrix [D] given by Eq. ??, the strain-
Draft
displacement relation [B] by Eq. 9.11, we can substitute those two quantities into the general
equation for stiness matrix, Eq. ??:
Z
[k] = [B]T [D][B]d

2 3
, x12 0 x3 ,x2
x2 y3
6 1
x2 0 , x,2xy33 7 " #2 , x12 1 0 0 0 0
3
Z 6
6 0 0 1 7
7 E 1 0 x2
y3 1 x3 ,x2 , x,2xy33 1
= 6
6 0 x3 ,x2 , x12
7
7 1 , 2 0
1, )
4
x3 ,x2
0 0 0 x2 y3 y3 5 tdxdy
(9.12)

6
4 0
x2 y3
, x,2xy33 1 7
5|
0 0
{z 2 } | x2 y3
, ,x3
x2 y3 y3 {z , x2
1 1 1
x2 0 |dvol{z }
1
x2 }
0 0 [D] [B]
|
y{z
3 }
[B]T
2 3
y32 + x23,2 ,y32 2, x3 x23,2 x2 x3,2 ,y3 x3,2 x3y3 + y3 x3,2 ,x2y3
6 ,y32 , x3 x3,2 y 3 + x 3 , x 2 x 3 y 3 x 3 , 2 + x 3 y 3 ,x3 y3 x2 y3 7
6 7
6 x 2
= 6 ,y3 x3,2x3 , 2 , x2 x 3 x 2
2 , x 2 y3 x 2 y 3 0 7
6 y3 x3,2 + x3 y3 ,x2 y3 y32 + x23,2 , y32 , x3 x3,2 x2 x3,2 7
7
4 x3 y3 + y3 x3,2 ,x3 y3 x2 y3 ,y32 , x3 x3,2 y32 + x23 ,x22x3 5
,x2y3 x2 y3 0 x2 x3,2 ,x2 x3 x2
where = 1,2 , = 1+2 , = 2(1,ET
2 )x2 y3 , x3,2 = x3 , x2 , and y3,2 = y3 , y2 .
9.3.1.1.3 Internal Stresses 15 Recall from Eq. ?? that f g = [D] [B]fug hence for this
particular element we will have:
8 9
>
> u1 >
>
8
> x
9
>
2
1 0
32
, x12 1 0 0 0 0
3>>
>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
>
>
< = E x2 x , x , x
<
u3 =
y = 1, 6
1 0 76
0 0 0 x2 y3 , x2 y3
3 2 3 1 7
y3 >
> > 24 1, )
54
x3 ,x2 , ,x3
5
v1 >
xy 0 0 y3 {z , x2 0
: ; 1 1 1 >
> >
>
| {z } | {z
2 }|
x2 y3 x2 y3 x2 >
>
}>
>
:
v2 >
>
>
>
;
f g [D] [B] v3
| {z }
fu g
8 9
>
> u1 >
>
2
,y3 y3 0 x3,2 ,x3 x
3>>
>
> u2 >
>
>
>
2 ><
u3 >
=
= 64 ,y3 y3 0 x3,2 ,x3 x 7
2 5> v1 (9.13)
x3,2 ,x3 x2 ,y3 y3 0 >
>
>
>
> v2
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
: >
;
v3
where = (1,E2 )x2 y3
9.3.1.2 Natural Coordinate System
16From Eq. 9.12 we note that the element must be positioned in such a way that neither x2
nor y3 is equal to zero.
17 A palliative to this problem is to use a formulation based on natural coordinate systems.
Draft
18 The displacement eld is given by
8 9
>
>
u1 >
>
( ) "
>
>
#>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
>
>
u = L01 L0 L02 L0 L03 L0
<
u2 =
(9.14)
v 1 2 3 >
>
>
v2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
u3 >
>
>
>
;
v3
19 The strains are given by = LNu = Bu using Eq. 9.16
= (L1 ; L2 ; L3 ) (9.15-a)
@ = @ @L1 + @ @L2 + @ @L3 (9.15-b)
@x @L1 @x @L2 @x @L3 @x
@ = @ @L1 + @ @L2 + @ @L3 (9.15-c)
@y @L1 @y @L2 @y @L3 @y
@L1
@x = y223A ; @L
@x
2 = y31 ; @L3 = y12 ;
2A @x 2A (9.16)
@L 1 = x232A ; @L 2 = x13 ; @L3 = x21 ;
@y @y 2A @y 2A
we obtain 2 3
y23 0 y31 0 y12 0
[B] = 21A 64 0 x32 0 x13 0 x21 7
5 (9.17)
x32 y23 x13 y31 x21 y12
20 The constitutive matrix is given by
2 3
1 0
[D] = 1 6
1, 2 4 1 0 7
5 Plane Stress
0 02 1,2
1 0 3 (9.18)
(1, )
= E (1, ) 6 1 0 7
Plane Strain
(1+ )(1,2 ) 4 1, 5
0 0 1,2
2(1, )
21 Finally, the element stiness matrix is obtained from Eq. 8.8
Z
Ke = BT DBd
(9.19)

e

Constant a1
Draft
Linear a2 x a3 y
Quadratic a4 x2 a5 xy a6 y 2 (9.21)
Cubic a7 x3 a8 x2 y a9 xy 2 a10 y 3
Quartic a11 x4 a12 x3 y a13 x2 y 2 a14 xy 3 a15 x4
Table 9.1: Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series (1D & 2D)
Element Terms # of Nodes
(terms)
Linear a1 , a2 2
Quadratic a1 , a2 , a4 3
Bi-Linear (triangle) a1 , a2 , a3 , 3
Bi-Linear (quadrilateral) a1 , a2 , a3 , a5 4
Bi-Quadratic (Serendipity) a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a8 , a9 8
Bi-Quadratic (Lagrangian) a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a8 , a9 , a13 9
Table 9.2: Polynomial Terms in Various Element Formulations (1D & 2D)
9.3.2 Bilinear Quadrilateral

k = Rt
3 1 2 x2 y3
2 4(y2 + 1 x2 ) 3
3 2
3 2 4(x22 + 1 y32 )
6 2(y32 , 2 1 x22 ) , 3 4(y32 + 1 x22 ) 7
6 3 , 2(x22 , 1 y32 ) , 3 2 4(x22 + 1 y32 ) 7
6 (9.20-a)7
6 ,2(y32 + 1 x22 ) ,2 3 2 2 ,2(y32 , 1 x22 ) , 3 4(y32 + 1 x22 ) 7
4 ,2 3 2 2 ,2(x2 + 1 y3 ) 3 2(x2 , 2 1 y3 )
2 2 3 2 2 2
4(x2 + 1 y3 ) 5
,2(y3 , 1 x2 ) 3 , 2(y3 + 1 x2 )
2 2 3 2 2(y3 , 2 1 x2 )
2 2 , 3 4(y3 + 1 x3 )
2 2
, 3 2(x22 , 2 1 y32 ) 3 2 2(x22 , 1 y32 ) 3 ,2(2x22 + 1 y32 ) ,3 2 4(x22 + 1 y32 )
where 1 = 1,2 , 2 = 1+2 , 3 = 32 (1 , 3)

9.3.3 Element Assesment
9.3.3.1 Pascal's Triangle
22 A schematic interpretation of shape functions in terms of polynomial series terms is given
by Pascal's triangle which is shown in Table 9.1.
23 Polynomial terms present in various element formulations is shown in Table 9.2
24 A complete polynomial contains all the terms above a certain line in the Pascal triangle.
25 The more terms are included, the higher the accuracy. For instance u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a5 xy
is more accurate than u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y, however the rate of convergence is unchanged (because
Draft
Figure 9.1: Linear Triangular Element Subjected to Pure Bending
the second approximation is not a complete quadratic one).

26 Terms in the approximation which do not improve the rate of convergence are called parasitic
terms.
9.3.3.2 CST
27 We should note that for this element the stress is independent of x and y because a linear
displacement relation was assumed resulting in a constant strain and stress (for linear elastic
material).
28 If we consider the element shown in Fig. 9.1 we apply a moment M such that: 1) origin does
not move, and 2) the displacement is u = u at x = l on top of the beam, then from the exact
solution (Timoshenko), the correct displacements are
u = clu xy v = 2ucl (,x2 , y2 ) (9.22)
dierentiating, we recover the anticipated strain eld
"xx = clu y "yy = , clu y xy = 0 (9.23)
29 Imposing nodal displacements consistent with theory (u1 = ,u, u2 = u, and u3 = 0) and
similar descriptions for v, and determining the strains from = Bu for the CST element, we
obtain
1
"xx = 0 "yy = 0 xy = c , 4l2 u c (9.24)
which are clearly wrong. Hence, we conclude the CST element can not properly perform in
bending problems (As is expected from a constant strain element behavior when used in a linear
strain problem).
30 This deciency will later be addressed by including an additional internal \drilling" degree
Draft
of freedom.
31 Zero energy mode can be veried by considering for example the strain "xx which is given by
" = 1 (,y u + y u )
xx x2 y3 3 1 3 2 (9.25)
since u1 = u2 for a rigid body motion, we see that "x = 0, similar conditions can be found for
"yy and "xy
9.3.3.3 BiLinear Element
Flexure Under exure, the top and bottom sides remain straight giving rise to erroneous
strains.
Inclined edges: From Pascals's triangle, the displacement eld for a bilinear rectangular ele-
ment is given by
u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a5 xy (9.26)
which is consistent with the element shape functions derived earlier (Eq. 7.33)
32 We note that whereas there is a quadratic term (a5 xy) convergence is governed by the
full linear expansion, and that this last term may cause parasitic eects.
33For an element with an inclined boundary given by y = ax + b, insertion of this
expression into Eq. 9.26 yields
u = a1 + a3 b + (a2 + a3 a + a5 b)x + a5ax2 (9.27)
hence, u varies quadratically with x along the inclined boundary. However, this bound-
ary is uniquely dened by only two nodal displacements u1 and u2 , thus the quadratic
expression is not uniquely dened and we may have dierent variation along the side from
one element to the adjacent one.
34 Continuity across the element not being satised, the element is non-conforming.
35We conclude that the bilinear quadrilateral element must always have its four edges
parallel to the coordinate system.
36 This severe restriction will be alleviated in the next lecture by Isoparametric element
formulations.

Draft
Figure 9.2: Interelement Continuity of Stress
9.3.3.4 Equilibrium and Compatibiliy in the Solution

32 In an exact solution over each dierential element equilibrium and compatibility prevails.
33 In a nite element discretization, this is not necessarily the case:
Equilibrium of Nodal Forces: Those are automatically satised by denition (Ku , f = 0).
Compatibility at Nodes: Elements connected to one another have the same displacements
(along corresponding dof) at the connecting node.
Interelement Continuity of Stress: is usually not satised. For example consider Fig. 9.3
if node 4 is the only one displaced (all others remaining xed), then there will be a
discontinuity of xx across element boundary 2-3.
Interelement Compatibility: Most elements have this requirement satised. If an element
does not then it is labeled as incompatible or nonconforming, Fig. 9.3
Equilibrium Inside Elements: is not always satised. In general satisfaction of equilibrium
at every point demands relations between dof which do not necessarily result from Ku ,
f =0
Compatibility Inside an Element: is satised as we only require that the element displace-
ment be continuous and single-valued.

Draft
Figure 9.3: Interelement Continuity of Strain

Draft
Chapter 10
ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS
10.1 Introduction
1 We have previously examined simple nite elements, in this lecture we shall distort those
simpler elements into others of more arbitrary shape.
2 Correspondingly, the natural coordinates will be distorted into new curvilinear sets when
plotted in a cartesian x; y; z space, Fig. 10.1.
Local coordinates

(-1,1) (1,1)

(-1,-1)
(1,-1)
L 2=0 3
1
L 2=0 3
L1 =0
L 3=
1
0
L1 =0
2
L 3=
0
Figure 10.1: Two-Dimensional Mapping of Some Elements
3 In the isoparametric formulation, displacements are expressed in terms of natural coordi-

nates, however they must be dierentiated with respect to cartesian coordinates x; y; z . This is
accomplished through a transformation matrix J, and integration can no longer be performed
analytically but must be done numerically.
4 Natural coordinates range from -1 to +1, Fig. 10.2
5 Nodal displacements at any point inside the element can be written in terms of the nodal
10{2 ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS
vj
Draft
(-1,1) (1,1)
uj
mapping

y,v (xi,yi) (-1,-1) (1,-1)
x,u
Actual Element Parent Element
Figure 10.2: Actual and Parent Elements
known displacements and the shape functions

8 9
u1 >
< >
=
u = N1 u1 + N2u2 + = N > u2 = Nue
: .. >
;
8
. 9
v >
< 1 >
=
v = N1 v1 + N2 v2 + = N > v2 = Nve (10.1)
: .. >
;
8
. 9
w >
< 1 >
=
w = N1 w1 + N2 w2 + = N > w2 = Nwe
: .. >
;
.
or
u = b u v w cT = [N]ue (10.2)
6 When elements are also distorted, the coordinates of any point can also be expressed in terms
of nodal coordinates
8 9
x1 >
< >
=
x = N1 x1 + N2 x2 + = N > x2
~ ~ ~ ~
= Nx
: .. >
;
8
. 9
y >
< 1 >
=
y = N~1 y1 + N~2 y2 + = N~ > y2 ~
= Ny (10.3)
: .. >
;
8
. 9
>
<
z 1 >
=
z = N~1 z 1 + N~2 z2 + = N~ > z2 ~
= Nz
: .. >
;
.

10.2 Element Formulation 10{3
or
Draft
c = b x y z cT = [N~ ]c (10.4)
7 Shape function matrices [N] and [N~ ] are functions of ; ; and . Hence, three possible cases
arise, Fig. 10.3
Geometric Displacement
Nodal Nodal
Config. Config.
Isoparametric
Subparametric
Superparametric
Figure 10.3: Iso, Super, and Sub Parametric Elements
Isoparamteric: [N] and [N~ ] are identical

Subparamteric: [N] is of higher degree than [N~ ]
Superparamteric: [N] is of lower degree than [N~ ]
8 Sub and Super parametric elements are very seldom used.
10.2 Element Formulation

10.2.1 Isoparametric Bar Element
9 The simplest introduction to isoparamteric elements is through a straight three noded quadratic
elements, Fig. 10.4.
10 The shape functions for the element can be obtained from the Lagrangian interpolation
function used earlier, Eq. 7.27, and in which we substitute x by . The kth term in a polynomial
of order n , 1 would be
Qn
( , )
Nk = Qni=1;i6=k( , i )
n (10.5-a)
i=1;i6=k k i
Draft
= 1 = 0 = +1
1 3 2
x,u
L
Figure 10.4: *Three-Noded Quadratic Bar Element
= ( (,, )(1 )( ,,2))(( ,,k,1 )()( ,,k+1 ) )((, ,n ) ) (10.5-b)
k 1 k 2 k k,1 k k+1 k n
For a three noded quadratic element 1 = ,1, 2 = +1, and 3 = 0. Substituting, we obtain
the three shape functions
( ,2 )( ,3 )
N1 ( ) = (1 ,2 )(1 ,3 ) = (,(1,,1)(
1)( ,0)
,1,0) = 2 ( , )
1 2
( ,1 )( ,3 ) ( +1)( ,0)
N2 () = (2 ,1 )(2 ,3 ) = (1+1)(1 ,0) = 12 ( 2 + ) (10.6)
( ,1 )( ,2 ) ( +1)( ,1)
N3 () = (3 ,1 )(3 ,2 ) = (0+1)(0 ,1) = 1 , 2
Hence,
x() = bNcb x1 x2 x3 cT and u( ) = bNcb u1 u2 u3 cT (10.7)
where
bNc = b 12 (2 , ) 12 (2 + ) 1 , 2 c (10.8)
11 The strain displacement relation is given by Eq. 8.4, = Lu = LNue = Bue , and the
dierential operator L is equal to dxd . For this one dimensional case, this reduces to
8 9
"x = du = d bNc uu1 >

< >
=
(10.9)
2
dx |{z}
dx >
: u
3
>
;
|
L {z }
B
12We invoke the chain rule since the shape functions are expressed in terms of natural coordi-
nates:
B = ddxN = ddN dx
d (10.10)
The rst term may be readily available from the shape functions, Eq. 10.8, however the second
one is not.

13Whereas, dxd is not available, we may determine its inverse dx , from Eq. 10.7, which we shall
d
Draft
denote by J or Jacobian. The Jacobian operator J is a scale factor which relates cartesian to
natural coordinates dx = Jd .
8 9 8 9
J ( ) = dx = d bNc xx1 >

< >
=
= b 1 (2 , 1) 1 (2 + 1) ,2 c x
x1 >
< >
=
(10.11)
2 2
d d > : x
3
>
; | 2 2{z }>
: x
3
>
;
dN
d
| {z }
@x
@
14 We can rewrite Eq. 10.10 as

d dN
B = ddxN = dx (10.12)
|{z} d
J ,1
and the B matrix is thus obtained by substituting into Eq. 10.9
8 9
x1 > >
bB()c = J1 dd bNc = J1 b 21 (2 , 1) 12 (2 + 1) ,2 c > x2
< =
>
(10.13)
: x ;
3
15 The dierential area is

d
= Adx = AJd (10.14)
16 Substituting, the element stiness matrix is nally obtained from Eq. 8.8
Z L T Z +1
Ke() = B ()AE B()dx = BT ()AE B()J ()d (10.15)
0 ,1
17 We observe that B, in general, contains terms in both the numerator and denominator, and
hence the expression can not be analytically inverted. Furthermore, the limits of integration
are now from -1 to +1, and we shall see later on how to numerically integrate it.
10.2.2 Bilinear Isoparametric Element
18 We have previously derived the stiness matrix of a rectangular element (aligned with the
coordinate axis), this formulation will generalize it to an arbitrary quadrilateral shape.
19 Fig. 10.5 illustrates the element
20 For the two-dimensional case

X n X
X m
u(; ) = Nij uk = Nj ( )Ni ()uk (10.16)
i=1 j =1
= 1

= 1/2 3 = 1
Draft

= 1/2
= 1 = 1/2 1 1
4
4 3
1

= 1/2 1
1 2
1 = 1
y,v 2
x,u
Figure 10.5: Four Noded Isoparametric Element
where k = (i , 1)m + j . For a bilinear element, n = m = 2, this can be rewritten as

" #( )
u(; ) = b N1 ( ) N2 () c uu1 uu3 N1 () = NT uN
N2 ()
2 4
= N1 ( )N1 ()u1 + N2 ( )N1 ()u2 + N1 ( )N2 ()u4 + N2 ( )N2 ()u3
= N1 (; )u1 + N2 (; )u2 + N3 (; )u3 + N4 (; )u4 (10.17-a)
4
X
= Ni ui (10.17-b)
i=1
21 Applying the Lagrangian interpolation equation, Eq. 10.5-a we obtain

N1 () = (( ,,2 )) = (, ( , 1) = 1 (1 , )
1 , 1) 2 (10.18-a)
1 2
N2 () = (( ,,1 )) = ((1 + 1) = 1 (1 + )
+ 1) 2 (10.18-b)
2 1
N1 () = (( ,,2 )) = ((,1,,1)1) = 12 (1 , ) (10.18-c)
1 2
( ,
N2() = ( , ) = ((1 +
1) + 1) = 1 (1 + ) (10.18-d)
2 1) 2 1
Substituting into Eq. 10.17-a
N1 (; ) = 4 ,
1 (1 )(1 ); , N2 (; ) = 4 (1 + )(1 );
1 , (10.19)
N3 (; ) = 1 (1 + )(1 + );
4 N4 (; ) = ,
4 (1 )(1 + );
1
22 Coordinates and displacements are given by

P P
x = P
Ni(; )xi; y = P
Ni (; )y i (10.20)
u = Ni(; )ui; v = Ni (; )v i

23 The strain displacement relation is given by Eq. 8.4
Draft
8 9 2 @ 3
< "xx >
> = @x 0 (
u
)
fg = > "yy > = 64 0 @y@ 7
5
v (10.21)
: xy ; @ @
@y {z @x | {z }
| } u
L
However the displacements can be obtained from Eq. 10.20
8 u1 9
> v1 >
> >
n o h i>
< u2 >
=
u = N1 (; ) 0 N2 (; ) 0 N3 (; ) 0 N4 (; ) 0 v2 (10.22)
v 0 N1 (; ) 0 N2 (; ) 0 N3 (; ) 0 N4 (; ) u3 >
| {z } | {z }>
>
> v3 >
u N : u4 >
;
v4
| {z }
u
24 Combining Eq. 10.21 and 10.22 yields

8
= LNu
9
= Bu
2 @N 3
< "xx (; ) >
> 4
i
@x @N 0 ( )
" ( ; )
=
=
X 6
0 i 7 ui (10.23-a)
> yy >
4 @y 5
vi
: (; ) ;
xy i=1 @N i @Ni
@y{z @x | {z }
| } u
B=LN 8 9
>
>
>
u1 >>
>
>
>
>
v1 >>
>
>
>
2
N1;x 0 N2;x 0 N3;x 0 N4;x 0
3>>
>
>
>
u2 >>
>
>
>
= 6
0 N1;y 0 N2;y 0 N3;y 0 N 7
<
v 2(10.23-b)
=
4;y 5 >
4
N1;y N1;x N2;y N2;x N3;y N3;x N4;y N > u3 >>
4;x > >
v3 >
>
| {z }>>
>
>
>
>
>
B >
>
>
>
u4 >>
>
>
>
:
v4 ;
25 Considering the local set of coordinates ; and the corresponding global one x; y, the chain
rules would give
( ) " #( ) ( ) ( )
@Ni @x @y @Ni @Ni @Ni
@
@Ni = @ @
@x @y
@x
@N i or @x
@N i = [J],1 @
@Ni (10.24)
@ @ {z @ @y @y @
| }
J
26 Thus B, Eq. 10.23-a is obtained from
2 3 2 3
@Ni (;) 0 @Ni (;) 0
4 6
X @x @
B(; ) = 6 0 @Ni (;) 7
7 = J,1 64
6
0 @Ni (;) 7
7 (10.25)
4 @y 5 @ 5
i=1 @Ni (;) @Ni (;) @Ni (;) @Ni (;)
@y @x @ @
27 Expanding the denition of the Jacobian
Draft
8 9 " #( ) " #
< @Ni (;) = @x @y @Ni 4
X @Ni :x @Ni :y
@ = @ @ @x = @ i @ i (10.26-a)
: @Ni (;) ; @x @y @N i @Ni :xi @Ni :y
@ |
@ {z @ }
@y i=1 @ @ i
J 2 3
" @N1 @N2 @N3 @N3 # x1 y1
6 x2 y2
6 7
= @ @ @ @ = 64 x 7
(10.26-b)
@N1 @N2 @N3 @N3 3 y3 7
5
@ @ @ @
x4 y4
2 3
" # x1 y1
= 14 , (1 , ) (1 , ) (1 + ) ,(1 + ) x2 y2 777(10.26-c)
6
6
,(1 , ) ,(1 + ) (1 + ) (1 , ) 6
4 x3 y3 5
x4 y4
28 Back to the Jacobian

" # " # " #
@ @ @y , @y 4 @Ni :y , @Ni :y
= det1 J ,@@x @x@ = det1 J
X
[J],1 def
= @x
@ @x
@ ,
@ i @ i
@Ni :x @Ni :x (10.27)
@x @y @ @ i=1 @ i @ i
29 From calculus, if and are some arbitrary curvlinear coordinates, Fig. 10.6, then
y
6
B
@y d C
ds d
@
e
@y d
A:
@
d
r
O @x d @x d
-
x
@ @
Figure 10.6: Dierential Element in Curvilinear Coordinate System

( ) ( )
@x @x
dr = @
@y d and ds = @
@y d (10.28)
@ @
are vectors directed tangentially to = constant, and = constant respectively.
30 From vector algebra, the cross product of two vectors lying in the x-y plane, Fig. 10.7 is

Draft
6C=AB
B ,
,
, jBj sin
,,
, -
A
Figure 10.7: Cross Product of Two Vectors
C = AB (10.29-a)
= jAjjBj sin k
(10.29-b)
i j k

Ax Ay 0z = (|AxBy {z
=

, BxAy}) k (10.29-c)
Bx By 0

Area
jCj = jAjjBj sin (10.29-d)
hence, the dierential area dxdy is then equal to the length of the vector resulting from the
cross product of drds and is equal to
" #
@x @x
d(area) = dxdy = det @ @ dd
@y @y (10.30)
|
@ {z @ }
J
31 Finally determine the element stiness matrix from
Z Z Z 1 Z 1
[k]88 = [B]T
83 [D]3x3 [B]38 tdxdy = [k] = [B]T [D][B]tjJjdd (10.31)
,1 ,1
10.2.2.1 Jacobian Operator

32 The evaluation of the element stiness matrix involves dA. If we consider an innitesimal
element, of length dr and ds, at the vertex of an element, it has the boundaries of the element
as its sides. Then, from Eq. 10.29-d
Draft
dA = dx:dy: sin (10.32)
however, from Eq. 10.30 we have dA = detJd:d, thus
detJ = dx:dy
d:d sin
(10.33)
Thus we observe that if is small or close to 180o , then det J will be very small, if the angle is
greater than 180 o , the determinant is negative (implying a negative stiness which will usually
trigger an error/stop in a FE analysis).
33 In general it is recommended that 30o < < 150o .
34 The inverse of the jacobian exists as long as the element is not much distorted or folds back
upon itself, Fig. ?? in those cases there is no unique relation between the coordinates.
Figure 10.8: *Elements with Possible Singular Jacobians
35 It can be easily shown that for parallelograms, the Jacobian is constant, whereas for nonpar-
allelograms it is not.
36 In general J is an indicator of the amount of element distorsion with respect to a 2x2 square
one. Some times it is constant, others it varies within the element.
Example 10-6: Jacobian Operators, [?]

Determine the Jacobian operators J for the following 2 dimensional elements. (Bathe 1982).

Draft
y
1
2 y 1
1
x 2
x
4 1 3/4
3 4
3 6 4
2
y
1
2
60
x 1
3 6 4
Solution:
The coordinates are given by Eq. 10.4, the shape functions by Eq. 10.19, and the Jacobian by
Eq. 10.24.
Element 1:
x = 14 (1 , )(1 , )x3 + 41 (1 + )(1 , )x4
+ 41 (1 + )(1 + )x1 + 14 (1 , )(1 + )x2 (10.34-a)
= 14 (1 , )(1 , )(,3) + 14 (1 + )(1 , )(3)
+ 14 (1 + )(1 + )(3) + 14 (1 , )(1 + )(,3) (10.34-b)
y = 14 (1 , )(1 , )y 3 + 14 (1 + )(1 , )y 4
+ 14 (1 + )(1 + )y 1 + 14 (1 , )(1 + )y2 (10.34-c)
= 14 (1 , )(1 , )(,2) + 14 (1 + )(1 , )(,2)
+ 14 (1 + )(1 + )(2) + 14 (1 , )(1 + )(2) (10.34-d)
" #
[J] = 30 02 (10.34-e)
Element 2:
p p
x = 14 (1 , )(1 , )(,(3 + 1=(2 3))) + 14 (1 + )(1 , )(3 , 1=2 3))
p p
+ 14 (1 + )(1 + )(3 + 1=2 3)) + 14 (1 , )(1 + )(,(3 , 1=2 3))) (10.35-a)
Draft
y = 14 (1 , )(1 , )(,2) + 14 (1 + )(1 , )(,2)

+ 41 (1 + )(1 + )(2) + 14 (1 , )(1 + )(2) (10.35-b)
" #
3 0
[ J] = p1 1 (10.35-c)
2 3 2
Element 3:
x = 41 (1 , )(1 , )(,1) + 14 (1 + )(1)
+ 14 (1 + )(1 + )(1) + 14 (1 , )(,1) (10.36-a)
y = 14 (1 , )(1 , )(,3=4) + 14 (1 + )(1 , )(,3=4)
+ 14 (1 + )(1 + )(5=4) + 14 (1 , )(1 + )(1=4) (10.36-b)
" #
1 4 (1
[J] = 4 0 (3 + ) + ) (10.36-c)
10.2.3 Isoparametric Biquadratic Element

37 For a quadratic quadrilateral element, there are two possibilities, Fig. 10.9.

4 4
7 7
3 3
8 8 9
6 6

1 1
5 5
2 2
a b
Figure 10.9: Serendipity and Lagrangian Quadratic Quadrilaterals

10.2.3.1 8 Noded, Serendipity Element
Draft
38 Based on Pascal's triangle, the displacement eld is given by

u = |{z}
a1 + a| 2 x {z
+ a3 y} + a| 4 x2 + a5{zxy + a6 y2} + a| 8 x2 y {z
+ a9 xy2} (10.37)
0 1 2 3
39In this formulation, the x2 y2 term is missing and to the 8 terms in the assumed polynomial
expansion correspond the 8 nodes (4 corner and 4 midside).
Figure 10.10: Serendipity Isoparametric Quadratic Finite Element: Global and Parent Element
40 The shape functions may be obtained by mere inspection (i.e. serependitiously),

Ni = 1 (1 + ) (1 + ) ( +
4, i i i i , 1) i = 1; 2; 3; 4
Ni = 1 1 2 (1 + )
, i = 5; 7 (10.38)
2 i
Ni = 1 (1 + ) ,1 + 2 i = 6; 8
2 i
41 The shape functions for the corner and midisde nodes are shown in Fig. 10.11.
10.2.3.2 9 Noded, Lagrangian element
42 If we were to follow a similar procedure to the one adopted to extract the bilinear shape
fuctions, we would obtain 9 shape functions, which must in turn correspond to 9 (rather than
8) nodes.

Draft
1 1
0.8
0.5
0.6
0
0.4
0.5
0.2
1 0
1 1
0.5 1 0.5 1
0 0.5 0 0.5
0 0
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
1 1 1 1
0 1 0.1
1
0.2
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.4
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.9
0.2 0.2
0.7 0.4 0.3

0 0
0.2 0.2 0.8

0.2
0.4 0.4
0.6 0.2 0.6
0.8 0.4 0.8

0.8
0.6
1 1
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure 10.11: Shape Functions for 8 Noded Quadrilateral Element

43 In this element, the displacement eld is given by
Draft
u = |{z}
a1 + a| 2 x {z
+ a3 y} + a| 4 x2 + a5{zxy + a6 y2} + a| 8 x2 y {z
+ a9 xy2} + x| {z
2 y2
}
(10.39)
0 1 2 3 4
| {z }
Serendipity
44 All the quadratic terms are present, hence there are 9 terms in the polynomial expansion,
and the 9th node will correspond to an internal node.
45 The shape functions in this case can be directly obtained from the Lagrangian interpolation
functions, yielding
Ni = 41 (1
,
+ i) (1 + i ) (i + i , 1) i = 1; 2; 3; 4
Ni = 12 1 , 2 (1, + i) i = 5; 7 (10.40)
Ni = 12 (1 + i ) 1 + 2 i = 6; 8
N9 = (1 , 2 )(1 , 2 ) i=9
46 The last shape function is often called bubble function
47 Those shapre function dier slightly from those of the serendipity element.
48 Q9 elements perform much better than the Q8 if edges are not parallel or slightly curved.
49 The shape functions for the corner and midisde nodes are shown in Fig. 10.12.
10.2.3.3 Variable Element
50 Based on the above, we can generalize the formulation to one of a quadrilateral element with
variable number of nodes.
51 This element may have dierent order of variation along dierent edges, and is quite useful
to facilitate the grading of a nite element mesh.
52 In its simplest formulation, it has four nodes, and has a linear variation along all sides, and
in the most general case it is a full quadratic element.
53 The shape functions may than be obtained from Table 10.1. Note that these shape functions
are for the hierarchical element in which the corner nodes are numbered rst, and midside ones
after, Fig. 10.13.

Draft
0.5 0.8
0.6
0
0.4
0.5 0.2
0
1
1 0.2
1
0.5 1 0.5 1
0 0.5 0.5
0
0 0
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
1 1 1 1
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.6
0.2 0.2
0.2
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.2

0.8
0.4 0.4
0.4
0.6 0.6
0
0.8 0.2 0.8 0.2

0.6
0.8 0.4 0
1 1
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
1 0.1
0.8 0.4
1
0.6 0.6
0.8 0.2
0.4
0.8
0.6 0.2
0.4 0
0.9
0.2 0.2
0.4
0 0.7
1
0.6 0.5
0.5 1
0 0.5
0.8 0.3
0
0.5
0.5
1
1 1 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure 10.12: Shape Functions for 9 Noded Quadrilateral Element

Draft
Figure 10.13: Nodal Numbering for Isoparameteric Elements

Only if node i is present
i=5 i=6 i=7 i=8 i=9
N1 1 (1 , )(1 , ) , 1 N , 12 N8 , 14 N9
4 2 5
1 (1 + )(1 , ) , 1 N
N2 2 5 , 2 N6 , 14 N9
1
4
N3 1 (1 + )(1 + )
4 , 12 N6 , 21 N7 , 14 N9
N4 1 (1 , )(1 + ) , 21 N7 , 12 N8 , 14 N9
4
N5 1 (1 , 2 )(1 , ) , 12 N9
2
N6 1 (1 + )(1 , 2 ) , 12 N9
2
N7 1 (1 , 2 )(1 + ) , 12 N9
2
N8 1 (1 , )(1 , 2 ) , 12 N9
2
N9 (1 , 2 )(1 , 2 )
Table 10.1: Shape Functions for Variable Node Elements
i fi fi; fi;
1 4 , , , , , 1)
1 (1 )(1 )( ,
1 (2 + )(1 )
4 ,
1 (1 )(2 + )
4
2 4 , , , 1)
1 (1 + )(1 )( , ,
1 (2 )(1 )
4 ,
1 (1 + )(2 )
4
3 4 , 1)
1 (1 + )(1 + )( + 1 (2 + )(1 + )
4
1 (1 + )(2 + )
4
4 4 , , , , 1)
1 (1 )(1 + )( ,
1 (2 )(1 + )
4 , ,
1 (1 )(2 )
4
5 , ,
1 (1 2 )(1 )
2 ,(1 , ) , ,1 (1 2 )
2
6 ,
1 (1 + )(1 2 )
2
1 (1 , 2 )
2 ,(1 + )
7 ,
1 (1 2 )(1 + )
2 ,(1 + ) 1 (1 , 2 )
2
8 , ,
1 (1 )(1 2 )
2 , 12 (1 , 2) ,(1 , )
Table 10.2: Shape Functions, and Natural Derivatives for Q8 Element

Draft
Constant term 1
Linear terms Linear element
Quadratic terms 2 2 Quadratic element
Cubic terms 3 2 2 3 Cubic element
Quartic terms 3 3
Serendipity Quadrilateral Elements
Constant term 1
Linear terms Linear element
Cubic terms 3 2 2 3 Cubic element
Quartic terms 3 2 2 3
Quintic terms 3 2 2 3
Sixtic terms 3 3
Lagrangian Quadrilateral Elements
Constant term 1
Linear terms Linear elements
Cubic term 3 2 2 3 Cubic element
Triangle Elements
Figure 10.14: Pascal Triangles for Quadrilateral and Triangle Elements

10.2.4 Triangular Elements
Draft
10.2.5 pascal Triangles
10.2.6 Formulation (Uneditted)
The 3 noded isoparametric triangular element has linear geometric and displacement shape
functions.
Displacements for an arbitrary internal point is given by
u = fu; vg (10.41)
and the nodal displacements are:
q = fq1; q2 ; ; q6 g = fu1 ; v1 ; ; v3 g (10.42)
Generic displacements can be written in terms of nodal displacements as follows:
3
X 3
X
u = i ui = fiui
i=1 i=1
(10.43)
3
X 3
X
v = i vi = fi vi
i=1 i=1
The displacement shape functions are given by:
f1 = 1 = 1
2A (2A23 + b1 x + a1 y)
f2 = 2 = 1
2A (2A31 + b2 x + a2 y) (10.44)
f3 = 3 = 1
2A (2A12 + b3 x + a3 y)
which are drawn from Eq. xx. Derivatives required for strain-displacement relationships are
found to be:
f1;x = 2bA1 f1;y = 2aA1
f2;x = b2 f2;y = a2 (10.45)
2A 2A
f3;x = b3 f3;y = a3
2A 2A
Then the ith part of the B matrix becomes:
2 3
fi;x 0
Bi = 6
4 0 fi;y 7
5 (i = 1; 2; 3) (10.46)
fi;y fi;x
The stinesses are obtained from:
Draft
K = BT E BAt (10.47)
As before, we will approach this isoparametric element by rst examining its straight-sided
parent. Nodal displacements for either element are:
q = fq1 ; q2; ; q12 g = fu1 ; v1 ; ; v6 g (10.48)
Geometric interpolation functions for the parent element are linear, as is the case for any
triangle with straight sides. Quadratic displacement shape functions may be written in natural
coordinates as: 6 6
X X
u = fiui v = fi vi (10.49)
i=1 i=1
where
f1 = (21 , 1)1 f4 = 41 2
f2 = (22 , 1)2 f5 = 42 3 (10.50)
f3 = (23 , 1)3 f6 = 43 3
Derivatives for strain-displacement relationships in this subparametric triangle are found by
substituting the expressions for 1 ; 2 and 3 from Eqs. xxx into the quadratic functions of Eqs.
xxx and dierentiating with respect to x and y. Then the stiness matrix for the element is
obtained from: Z
K = t BT E B dA (10.51)
A
Wherever x and y appear in this integral, we substitute Eqs. xx, and we use area integrals to
nd the explicit results in Table xx.
For the isoparametric triangle T 6 in Fig. xx, we take the geometric interpolation functions
to be: 6 6
X X
x = fi xi y = fi yi (10.52)
i=1 i=1
where fi are given by Eqs. xx. Thus, the edges of the element become quadratic curves, as
indicated in the gure. Because the natural coordinates are curvilinear, the Jacobian matrix is
required. Thus,
6
X 6
X
J11 = @x = fi;1 xi J12 = @y = fi;1 yi
@1 @1
i=1 i=1
(10.53)
6
X 6
X
J21 = @x = fi;2 xi J22 = @y = fi;2 yi
@2 @2
i=1 i=1

10.3 Numerical Integration 10{21
Before the dierentiations in Eqs. xx can be carried out, a dependent coordinate (such as
Draft
3 = 1 , 1 , 2 ) must be substituted into the functions in Eqs. xx. These shape functions
and their derivatives with respect to the natural coordinates 1 and 2 are given in Table 3.5
(in terms of 1 ; 2 , and 3 ).
i fi fi;1 fi;2
1 (21 , 1)1 41 , 1 0

2 (22 , 1)2 0 42 , 1
3 (23 , 1)3 1 , 43 1 , 43
4 41 2 42 41
5 42 3 ,42 4(3 , 2 )
6 41 3 4(3 , 1 ) ,41
Table 10.3: Shape Functions and Derivatives for T6 Element

Numerical integration is required to nd the stinesses and equivalent nodal loads for this
element. In this case the integration formula is:
n
I = 12 Wj f (1 ; 2 ; 3 )j j J(1 ; 2 )j j
X
(10.54)
j =1
If the triangle were to have straight edges, we would nd jJj = 2A; and Eq. xx would
become the same as Eq. xx. In any case, the numerical integration constants given in Table xx
apply.
10.3 Numerical Integration

54 Understanding numerical integration is not only essential for a proper integration of the
isoparameteric family of elements, but also helpful in understanding the Weighted Residual
methods (Chapter 11),
55 A crucial aspect of isoparametric element formulation is the numerical integration which can
be expressed as Z Z Z
F()d or F(; )dd (10.55)
56 In practice we perform the integration numerically using
Z X Z Z XX
F()d = WiF(i) + Rn or F(; )dd = Wij F(i; j ) + Rn (10.56)
i i j
where the summations extend over all i and j , and Wi , Wij are weighting factors, and F(i )
Draft
and F(i ; j ) are the matrices evaluated at the points specied in the arguments.
57 The matrices Rn are error matrices, which are in general not computed.
58 As shown above, F = BT :D:B for nite element stiness matrix evaluation, and each element
is integrated individually.
Rb
59 The integration of a F ( )d is essentially based on passing a polynomial P ( ) through given
values of F ( ) and then use ab P ( )d as an approximation.
R
Z b Z b
F ()d P ()d (10.57)
a a
60 Using P ( ) = F ( ) at n points, and recalling the properties of Lagrangian interpolation

functions, we obtain
P ( ) = l1 ()F (1 ) + l2 ( )F (2 ) + + ln ()F (n) (10.58-a)
Xn
= li()F (i ) (10.58-b)
i=1
and note that at = 1 l1 = 1, while all other li = 0.
10.3.1 Newton-Cotes
61 In Newton-Cotes integration, it is assumed that the sampling points are equally spaced, Fig.
10.15, thus we dene
P()
F()

-1 0 1
Figure 10.15: Newton-Cotes Numerical integration

Z b Z n
bX n Z
X b
P ()d = li( )F (i )d = li()dF (i ) (10.59)
a a i i a
or
Draft
Approximation ab P ( )d = R ni=1 Wi(n) F (i )
R P
(10.60)
Weights Wi(n) = ab li ()d = (b , a)Ci(n)
where Ci(n) are the \weights" of the Newton-Cotes quadrature for numerical integration with n
equally spaced sampling points.
62 Newton-Cotes constants, and corresponding reminder are shown in Table 10.4, (Bathe 1982).
n C0(n) C1(n) C2(n) C3(n) C4(n) Error

2 1
2
1
2 10,1 (b , a)3 F II ( )
3 1
6
4
6
1
6 10,3 (b , a)5 F IV ( )
4 1
8
3
8
3
8
1
8 10,3 (b , a)5 F IV ( )
5 7
90
32
90
12
90
32
90
7
90 10,6 (b , a)7 F V I ( )
Table 10.4: Weights for Newton-Cotes Quadrature Formulas
63It can be shown that this method permits exact integration of polynomial of order n , 1,
and that if n is odd, then we can exactly integrate polynomials of order n. Hence we use in
general odd values of n,
10.3.1.1 Newton-Cotes Quadrature for n = 2 and n = 3
For
R1
n = 2 over [,1; 1], we select equally spaced points at 1 = ,1 and 2 = 1 to evaluate
,1 P ( )d
P2
P () = i=1 li ( )F (i )
l1 () = ,2 = 1 (1 , )
1 ,2 2
l2 () = ,1 = 1 (1 + )
Z2 ,1 2 Z
l1()d = 21
1 1
W1(2) = (1 , )d = 1
Z , 1 Z,11
l2 ( )d = 12
1
W2(2) = (1 + )d = 1
,1 ,1
Z 1 Z 1 2
X
F ()d P ()d = Wi(2) F (i) = F (,1) + F (1)
,1 ,1 i=1
which is the trapezoidal rule
For n = 3 over [,1; 1], we select equally spaced points at 1 = ,1 2 = 0, and 3 = 1, to

R
evaluate ,1 1 P ( )d
Draft
P
P ( ) = 3i=1 li ( )F (i )
l1 () = ((1,,22 )()(1,,33) ) = 12 ( , 1)
l2 () = ((2,,11 )()(2,,33) ) = ,(1 + )( , 1)
l3 () = ((3,,11 )()(3,,22) ) = 12 (1 + )
Z 1 Z 1
W1(3) = l1 ( )d = 12 ( , 1)d = 13
Z , 1 Z 1 ,1
,(1 + )( , 1)d = 34
1
W2(3) = l2 ()d =
Z 1,1 Z 1 ,1
W3(3) = l3 ()d = 12 (1 + )d = 13
,1 ,1
Z 1 Z 1 3
P ()d = Wi(3) F (i ) = 13 [F (,1) + 4F (0) + F (1)]
X
F ()d
,1 ,1 i=1
which is Simpson's rule
10.3.2 Gauss-Legendre Quadrature
64 In Gauss-Legendre quadrature, the points are not xed and equally spaced, but are selected
to achieve best accuracy.
65 Again we start with
Z 1 Z 1 n
X
F ()d P ( )d = Wi(n)F (i ) (10.61)
,1 ,1 i=1
however in this formulation both Wi(n) and i are unknowns to be yet determined. Thus, we
have a total of 2n unknowns.
66 At the integration points P (i ) = F (i ), however at intermediary points the dierence can
be expressed as
F ( ) = P () + | ()(0 + 1 {z+ 2 2 + }) (10.62)
0 at =i ;i=1;2;;n
since we want the left side to be exactly equal to P ( ) at the integration points, we dene
() = ( , 1 )( , 2 ):::( , n ) (10.63)
as a polynomial of order n, to be equal to zero at the integration points i .
67 i should be appropriately selected in orer to eliminate the gap between F ( ) and P ( ) at
intermediary points.

68 Integrating
Draft
Z 1 Z 1 1
X Z 1
F ()d = P ( ) + j () j d (10.64)
,1 ,1 j =0 ,1
We split the last term
1
X Z 1 ,1
nX Z 1 X 1 1 Z
j ()j d = j ( )j d + j ()j d (10.65)
j =0 ,1 j =0 ,1 j =n ,1
69 Truncating the last terms of the expansion

Z 1 Z 1 ,1
nX Z 1
F ()d P ( ) + j ( )j d (10.66)
,1 ,1 j =0 ,1
we observe that the rst integral on the right-hand side involves a polynomial of order n , 1,
and the second integral a polynomial of order 2n , 1. Thus we set
Z 1
()j d = 0 j = 0; 1; ; n , 1 (10.67)
,1
which would result in a set of n simultaneous equations of order n in terms of the unknowns
i , i = 0; 1; ; n , 1.
70 Back to Eq. 10.66
Z 1 Z 1 n
X Z 1 n
X
F ()d P ( ) = F (i) li ( )d = Wi(n) F (i ) (10.68)
,1 ,1 i=1 ,1 i=1
or
Approximation ,1 1 F ( )d ni=1 Wi(n) F (i )
R P
Wi(n) = ,1 1 li ()d
R
Weights R (10.69)
Gauss Points ,1 1 ( ) j d = 0 j = 0; 1; ; n , 1
71 Integration points i and weight coecients Wi(n) are given in Table 10.5, (Bathe 1982).
n i Wi(n) Error
1 1 F (2) ( )
p0 p 2 3
2 ,
p
1= 3 1=p 3 1 1 135 F ( )
1 (4)
3 , 3=5 0 3=5 5=9 8=9 5=9 15;750 F ( )
1 (6)
Table 10.5: Integration Points and Weights for Gauss-Quadrature Formulaes Over the Interval
[,1; 1]

10.3.2.1 y Legendre Polynomial
Draft
72 The solutions (Gauss integration points) are equal to the roots of a Legendre polynomial
dened by
L0 () = 1
L1 () = (10.70)
2 ,1 k ,
Lk () = k Lk,1() , k Lk,2 () 2 k n
k 1
and the n Gauss integration points are determined by solving Ln ( ) = 0 for its roots i ,
i = 0; 1; ; n , 1.
73 The weighting functions are then given by
2(1 , i )
Wi(n) = [nL
2
(10.71)
( )]2
n,1 i
10.3.2.2 Gauss-Legendre Quadrature for n = 2

74First we seek the integration points for n = 2, ( ) = ( , 1 )( , 2 ), and the resulting
equations are
Z 1
( , 1 )( , 2 ) 0 d = 0 (10.72-a)
,1
Z 1
( , 1 )( , 2 ) 1 d = 0 (10.72-b)
,1
(10.72-c)
Upon integration, we obtain
1 2 = , 31 and 1 + 2 = 0 (10.73)
hence
1 = , p1 and 2 = p1 (10.74)
3 3
The weight coecients are
Z 1
(n)
Wi = li ()d (10.75-a)
,1
W1(2) =
Z 1
, 2 d = ,22 = 1:0 (10.75-b)
,1 1 , 2 1 , 2
W2(2)
Z 1
, 1 ,21
= , d = , = 1:0
,1 2 1 1 2
(10.75-c)

10.4 Stress Recovery; Nodal Stresses 10{27
10.3.3 Rectangular and Prism Regions
Draft
75 Numerical integration of F (; ) over a rectangular region ,1 1, and ,1 1,

is accomplished by selecting m and n (not to be confused with the order of the polynomial)
integration points in the and directions
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 n X
X m
F (:)dd P (; )dd = Wi(m) Wj(n) F (i ; j ) (10.76)
,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 i=1 j =1
and the total number of integration points will thus be m n, Fig. 10.16.
= + 0.6
= +1/ 3
= 0.6
= 1/ 3 9 = + 0.6
= +1/ 3 6
4
2 3
5 8
2

1 1
3
4 7
= 1/ 3 = 0.6
Figure 10.16: Gauss-Legendre Integration over a Surface
10.4 Stress Recovery; Nodal Stresses

76 Stresses are evaluated from
= DBu (10.77)
in general, it is desirable to have them evaluated at the elements nodal points. However, it
should be kept in mind that stresses computed at a given nodes from dierent elements need
not be the same (since stresses are not required to be continuous in displacement based nite
element formulations).
77 Hence some sort of stress averaging at nodal points may be desirable.
78 In the isoparametric formulation, nodal stresses are very poor, and best results are obtained
at the Gauss points.
79 To evaluate nodal stresses, two approaches:
1. Evaluate directly at the nodes ( = = 1)

2. Evaluate the stresses at the Gauss points and then extrapolate.
Draft
The second approach yields far better results.
80 Extrapolation from Gauss points will be illustrated through Fig. 10.17 for the 4 noded
isoparametric quadrilateral. We specify an \internal" element with its own nodes and natural
Figure 10.17: Extrapolation from 4-Node Quad Gauss Points [?]

coordinates 0 and 0 which are related to and through Table 10.6 or
Corner 0 0 Gauss 0 0
Node p p Node p p
1 ,1 ,1 ,p3 ,p3 1' ,1=p3 ,1=p3 ,1 ,1
2 +1 ,1 +p3 ,p3 2' +1=p3 ,1=p3 +1 ,1
3 +1 +1 +p3 +p3 3' +1=p3 +1=p3 +1 +1
4 ,1 +1 , 3 + 3 4' ,1= 3 +1= 3 ,1 +1
Table 10.6: Natural Coordinates of Bilinear Quadrilateral Nodes

p p
0 = 3 0 = 3 (10.78)
hence any scalar quantity (such as xx ) whose values i0 is known at the Gauss element corners
can be interpolated through the usual bilinear shape functions now expressed in terms of 0 and
0 8 9
>
>
>
10 >
>
>
0
N4e0 c > 20
< =
(0 ; 0 ) = b N1e0 N2e0 N3e0 >
(10.79)
>
> 3 >
>
: 0
4 ;

10.5 Nodal Equivalent Loads 10{29
where
Draft
N1e0 = 14 (1 , 0 )(1 , 0 ) (10.80-a)

N2e0 = 14 (1 + 0 )(1 , 0 ) (10.80-b)
N3e0 = 14 (1 + 0 )(1 + 0 ) (10.80-c)
N4e0 = 14 (1 , 0 )(1 + 0 ) (10.80-d)
Similarly, we can extrapolate to the corners of
p the element. For corner 1, for instance, we
replace 0 and 0 in the preceding equations by , 3. Doing that for the four corners, we obtain
8 9 2 p p 38 9
>
>
>
1 >
>
>
1 + 12 3 , 12p 1 , 12 3 , 21p > >
>
10 >
>
>
<
2 =
=
6
6 , 12p 1 + 12 3 , 12p 1 , 12 3 777 < 20 =
(10.81)
>
>
>
3 >
>
>
4 1 , 12 3
6
, 12p 1 + 12 3 , 21p 5 > >
>
30 >
>
>
:
4 ;
, 12 1 , 12 3 , 12 1 + 12 3 :
40 ;
As expected, the sum of each row is equal to one, and for stresses we replace by xx, y y,
and xy
81 As we know, dierent nodal stresses will be obtained from adjacent elements. To obtain a
single value we can either take
1. Unweighted average of all the nodal stresses.
2. Weighted average of nodal stresses based on the relative sizes of the elements as determined
from their area through det(J ).
10.5 Nodal Equivalent Loads

82 In the nite element formulation, all loads must be replaced by an \energy equivalent" nodal
load.
83 We shall consider the following cases: nodal load, gravity, tractions, and thermal.
10.5.1 Gravity Load

84 Gravity forces are equivalent to a body force/unit volume acting within the solid in the
direction of the gravity axis, Fig. 10.18,
(which need not be coincident with either of the coordinate axis).
dGx = gd
sin (10.82-a)
dGy = ,gd
cos (10.82-b)
Draft
Figure 10.18: Gravity Loading
where g is the gravitational acceleration and is the mass density.

85 Recalling from Eq. 8.16 that Z
fe = NT bd
(10.83)

e
we obtain ( ) Z ( )
Pxi = Ni g sin d
(10.84)
Pyi
e , cos
or the energy equivalent nodal forces for node i are
( ) ngaus ( )
Pxi X ngaus
gt ,sin
X
Pyi =
j =1 k=1 cos Ni (j k )Wj Wk detJ(j ; k ) (10.85)
10.5.2 Traction Load

86 Any element edge can have a distributed load per unit length in a normal and tangential
direction prescribed.
87 The variation of the distributed load is polynomial and its order can not exceed the order of
the element.
88 For the sake of consistency, loaded nodes are listed also counterclockwise.
89 First we determine the components of the distributed loads in the x and y directions by
considering the forces acting on an incremental length dS of the loaded edge, Fig. 10.19:
dPx = (pt dS cos , pndS sin ) = (pt dx , pndy) (10.86)
dPy = (pndS cos , ptdS sin ) = (pndx , pt dy)

10.5 Nodal Equivalent Loads 10{31
Draft
Figure 10.19: Traction Load in Isoparametric Elements

90 But since integration is to be carried on in terms of natural coordinates:
dx = @x
@ d dy = @y
@ d (10.87)
Substituting

dPx = pt @x , p @y d (10.88-a)

@ n @
dPy = pn @x@ + p t
@y d
@ (10.88-b)
(10.88-c)
91 From Eq. 8.16 we have Z

fe = NT ^td, (10.89)
,t
or

Pxi =
Z
@x @y
Ni pt @ , pn @ d (10.90-a)
,t

Pyi =
Z
@x @y
Ni pn @ + pt @ d (10.90-b)
,t
The integration is again carried on numerically and the energy equivalent nodal forces for
node i are
ngaus

@y W (10.91)
Ni pt @x
X
Pxi = , p
@ n @ j
j =1
ngaus
@y W (10.92)
Ni pn @x
X
Pyi = + p
@ t @ j
j =1

where the integration is carried on numerically along the edge. and note that @x @y
@ and @ are
Draft
taken straight out of the Jacobian matrix.
92 Note that since integration is to be carried along the edge, we have used .
93 For adjacent elements, Fig. 10.20.
Figure 10.20: Traction Load in Contiguous Isoparametric Elements
10.5.3 Initial Strains/Stresses; Thermal Load

94We distinguish between two cases:
Plane Stress which is the simplest
"0xx = T (10.93-a)
"0yy = T (10.93-b)
xy
0 = 0 (10.93-c)
Plane Strain we have
"0xx = , Ezz + T
0
(10.94-a)
"0yy = , Ezz + T
0
(10.94-b)
xy0 = 0 (10.94-c)
"0zz = Ezz + T = 0
0
(10.94-d)
Using the last expression to eliminate zz
0 , we obtain
"0xx = (1 + )T (10.95-a)
10.6 Computer Implementation 10{33
"0yy = (1 + )T (10.95-b)
Draft
xy
0 = 0 (10.95-c)
zz0 = ,ET (10.95-d)
95 Those expressions are then substituted into Eq. 8.12

Z Z
f0e = BT D0 d
, BT 0d
(10.96)

e
t
and integrated numerically.
10.6 Computer Implementation

Adapted from Hinton and Owen, ``Finite Element Programming''
96 The computer implementation of a numerically integrated isoparametric element is summa-

rized as follows.
But rst, it is assumed that this operation is to be performed in a function called stiff and
it takes as input arguments elcod, young, poiss, type, ndime, ndofn, ngaus. In turn it
will compute the stiness matrix stiffmat of element ielem.
1. Retrieve element geometry and material properties for the current element
2. Zero the stiness matrix
3. Call function dmat to set the constitutive matrix De of the element
4. Enter (nested) loop covering all integration points
(a) Look up the sampling position of the current point (p ; q ) (s, t) and their weights
(weigp)
(b) Call shape function routine sfre given p ;eq which will return the shape function Nie
(shape) and the derivatives @N @Ni
@ and @ (deriv) at the point p ; q
i
e e
(c) Call another subroutine (jacob), given Nie , @N @
i and @Ni at point p ; q will return
@
e @Nie
cartesian shape function derivatives @N @x and @y (cartd), the Jacobian matrix J
i e
(jacm), its inverse Je ,1 (jaci), its determinant det Je (djac) and the x and y
coordinates all at the point p; q
e e
(d) Call strain matrix (bmatps) routine, given Nie , @N @x
i , @Ni , at p ; q will return the
@y
strain matrix Bei (bmat)
(e) Call a routine (dbmat) to evaluate De Bei (dbmat)

(f) Evaluate Bei T De Bej detJe integration weights and assemble them into the element
Draft
stiness matrix Keij
(g) Assemble De Be (smat into a stress array for later evaluation of stresses from the
nodal displacements.
5. Write Stiness matrix
idime, ndime Index, Number of dimensions (2 for 2D)
idofn,ndofn Index, Number of degree of freedom per node
ielem,nelem Index, number of elements
igaus,jgaus,ngaus Index, Index, Number of Gauss rule adopted
inode, nnode Index, number of nodes per element
kgasp,ngasp Kounter, number of Gauss points used
type 1 for plane stress; 2 for plane strain
poiss Poisson's ratio
young Young's modulus
elcod(ndime,nnode) Local array of nodal cartesian coordinates of the element currently under con
x ( 1 ; 1 )
eration y(1 ; 1 ) y(8 ; 8 ) x ( 8 ; 8 )
s coordinate of sampling point
t coordinate of sampling point
gpcod(ndime,ngasp) Local array of cartesian coordinates of the Gauss pointsfor element curre
under consideration y(GG1 ;; GG1 xy((GG5 ;; GG5 ))
x (
1 1 5 5
posgp(mgaus) coordinates of Gauss point
weigp(mgaus) Weight factor for Gauss point
Suggested list of variables: shape(nnode) Shape
" function# associated with each node of current element at (p
N1 (p ; p )
..
.N8 (p ; p )
deriv(ndime,nnode) Shape
@N1 function derivative at sampling point (p; p ) within the elem
( p ; p ) @N8 (p ; p )
@N@ @
@N
@ (p ; p ) @ (p ; p )
1 8
cartd(ndime,nnode) Cartesian shape function derivatives associated with the nodes of
current
@N element sampled at any point (p ; p ) within the elem
1 (p ; p ) @N8 (p ; p )
@N@x @x
@N
@y (p ; p ) @y (p ; p )
1 8
djacb Determinant of the Jacobian matrix sampled at any point (p; p ) within
element
jacm(ndime,ndime) Jacobian matrix at sampling point
jaci(ndime,ndime) Inverse of Jacobian matrix at sampling point
bmat(nstre,nevab) Element strain 2 @N
matrix at any 3
point within the element B = [ B1 B2 B
i 0
@x @N
where Bi = 4 0 @yi 5
@Ni @Ni
@y @x
dbmat(istre,ievab) stores DB
10.7 MATLAB Code for Shape Functions

97 Matlab code to generate shape function plots
10.7 MATLAB Code for Shape Functions 10{35
% Shape FUnctions
Draft
X=-1:1/20:1;
Y=X;
YT=Y';
XT=X';
N9=(1-YT.*YT)*(1-X.*X);
N8=0.5*(1-YT.*YT)*(1-X);
N7=0.5*(1-XT.*XT)*(1+Y);
N6=0.5*(1-YT.*YT)*(1+X);
N5=0.5*(1-XT.*XT)*(1-Y);
N4=0.25*(1-XT)*(1+Y)-0.5*(N7+N8);
N3=0.25*(1+XT)*(1+Y)-0.5*(N6+N7);
N2=0.25*(1+XT)*(1-Y)-0.5*(N5+N6);
N1=0.25*(1-XT)*(1-Y)-0.5*(N8+N5);
meshc(X,Y,N1)
print -deps2 shap8-1.eps
c=contour(X,Y,N1);
clabel(c)
print -deps2 shap8-1-c.eps
meshc(X,Y,N8)
c=contour(X,Y,N8);
clabel(c)
N1=N1-0.25*N9;
meshc(X,Y,N1)
c=contour(X,Y,N1);
clabel(c)
N8=N8-0.5*N9;
meshc(X,Y,N8)
c=contour(X,Y,N8);
clabel(c)
meshc(X,Y,N9)
c=contour(X,Y,N9);
clabel(c)

Draft

Draft
Chapter 11
WEIGHTED RESIDUAL
METHODS
Adapted from Ottosen (1992)
11.1 Introduction
1 Thus far, the nite element method was derived from a variational principle through the
Rayleigh-Ritz method.
2 In Elasto-Statics, the variational principle used was the minimization of the total potential
energy, and the resulting weak formulation is equivalent to the equation of equilibrium (strong
form).
3 In many branches of physical sciences, a variational principle may not be available, and all
what is available is a dierential equation and its associated boundary conditions. Note that a
variational formulation is not possible because the order of the dierential equation is odd.
4 It is for those problems that the weighted residual methods are employed.
5 The resulting formulation is an integral one, and is thus \weak".
11.2 General Formulation

11.2.1 Dierential Operators
6 Considering a general dierential equation
Governing Dierential Equation L + g = 0;
(11.1)
Boundary conditions Bi () = qi; ,i
11{2 WEIGHTED RESIDUAL METHODS
where L is a dierential operator, (assuming a 1D problem) = (x) is an unknown function
Draft
which represents the state variable to be determined (i.e. displacement, temperature, head,
etc...), g(x) is a known forcing function.
7 We assume that the dierential operator to be symmetric and positive denite,
Z Z
Symmetric (L[u])vd
= (L[v])ud
Z

(11.2)
Positive Denite (L[u])ud
> 0

where u and v are any functions which satisfy essential and natural boundary conditions.
11.2.1.1 Application to 1D Axial Member
8 As an example, let us consider the steady state response of a bar. The governing dierential
equation and boundary conditions are
Governing Dierential Equation ,EA @@x2 u2 = 0
Essential Boundary conditions ujx=0 = 0 (11.3)
Natural Boundary conditions u
EA x x=L = P
Hence
L = ,EA @x@ 22 ; = u; g = 0; (11.4)
B1 = 1; q1 = 0; B2 = EA x ; q2 = P ;
9 To determine whether the operator L is symmetric and positive denite, we consider P = 0,
and integrating by part twice1 we obtain
l
Z l @ 2u @u
Z l
,EA @x2 vdx = , EA @x v + EA @x@u @v dx (11.5-a)
0 0 0 @x
l l
@u

@v
Z l
= , EA @x v + EAu @x , EA @x

@ 2 v udx (11.5-b)
2 0
0 0
But since the boundary conditions are u = v = 0 at x = 0 and @u=@x = @v=@x = 0 at x = l,
then we only have
,EA @@xu2 vdx = ,EA @x @ 2 v udx
Z l 2 Z l
2 (11.6)
0 0
hence the operator is symmetric.
We can also conclude that the operator is positive denite from Eq. 11.5-a
2
Z l @ 2u Z l
@u
,EA @x2 udx = EA @x dx (11.7)
0 0
Z b Z b
1 From Eq.2.11: u(x)v0 (x)dx = u(x)v(x)jba , v(x)u0 (x)dx
a a

11.2 General Formulation 11{3
11.2.2 Residual Formulation
Draft
10 We now alter Eq. 11.1, and for a 1D problem rewrite it as

Z b
w(L + g)dx = 0 (11.8)
a
where w is an arbitrary weight function2 . We note that through this equation, the governing
dierential equation is satised in a weak sense.
11 We now seek an approximate numerical solution for the unknown function (x), hence, in
general we may assume
(x)app = a1 1 (x) + a2 2 (x) + + an n(x)
= a (11.9-a)
where ai are the unknown parameters, and (x) are prespecied trial functions3 of x.
12 Substituting the previous equation into Eq. 11.12
Z b
w(Lapp + g)dx = 0 (11.10)
a
Since app will in general not satisfy the dierential equation exactly, then
Lapp + g = R (11.11)
Z b
wR = 0 (11.12)
a
where R(x) is a measure of the error, and is called the Residual; We thuss impose the require-
ment that weights and residuals be orthogonal functions4.
13 The residual clearly depends on the coecients ai , thus our objective is to select the weight
w(x) in such a way that the weighted residuals w(x)R(x) over a , b is zero.
14 Arbitrary weight functions are selected rst
w = c1 W1 (x) + c2W2 (x) + 8 + cnWn9(x)

>
> 1
> c (x) > >
>
<
= b W1 W2 Wn c > > c 2 ( x) =
(11.13-a)
>
> >
>
:
cn(x) ;
2 Note similarity with the derivation of the principle of virtual work from the equilibrium equation and bound-
ary condition.
3 Later on in the Galerkin Method, which is a special form of Weighted Residuals, will correspond to the
displacement, to the shape functions N, and a to the nodal displacements u.
R Two vectors a and b are orthogonals if a b = 0, similarly, two functions u(x) and v (x) are orthogonals if
4 T
v(x)u(x) = 0.
and Wi (x) are predened functions of x, ci are parameters. Hence, we can rewrite Eq. 11.12
Draft
as Z b
c WT Rdx = 0
T (11.14)
a
But since c does not depend on the coordinates, then
Z b
a
WT Rdx = 0 (11.15)
This equation really represents a system of n equations.

15 Substituting Eq. 11.12, and since a does not depend on the coordinates
R = L( a) + g = L( )a + g (11.16)
Hence, taking the weighted average

Z !
b Z b
WT L( )dx a = , Wgdx (11.17)
a | a{z }
| {z }
Ke f
or
2 Z b Z b Z b 3 8 Z b 9
6 W1 L( 1 )dx W1 L( 2)dx W1 L( n)dx 7
>
>
>
> W1 gdx >
>
>
>
6 Z ab Z ab Z ab 7 >
>
> Z ab >
>
>
6 7 > >
6 W2 L( 1 )dx W2 L( 2)dx W2 L( n)dx 7 >
< W2 gdx >
=
Ke = 6
6
6
a
.. a
.. .. a
..
7
7
7
;f = > a
.. >
> >
6
6 Z . . . . 7
7
>
>
>
>
. >
>
>
>
4 b Z b Z b 5 >
>
Z b >
>
Wn L( 1 )dx WnL( 2 )dx WnL( n )dx >
: Wngdx >
;
a a a a
(11.18)
16 Ke is thus an n by n matrix, and from the preceeding equation we can ssolve for thee
unknown coecients a.
11.3 Weighted Residual Methods

17 The previous formulation was very general, and dierent techniques will vary according to
the selected weights, i.e. our choice for W.

11.3 Weighted Residual Methods 11{5
11.3.1 y Point Collocation Method
Draft
18 In this method, the weight function w is based on Dirac's delta function (x , xi ) and thus
19 The residual is set to be exactly equal to zero at n points. This is achieved by adopting for
the weight function w the Dirac's delta function (x , xi ) where
(
(x , xi ) = 1 if x = xi (11.19-a)
0 otherwise
Z 1
(x , xi)dx = 1 (11.19-b)
,1
11.3.2 y Subdomain Collocation Method

20 We subdivide the region of interest into n subregions, and within each one of them the
integral of the residual is set to zero.
11.3.3 y Least-Squares Method
21 The inteegral of the square of the residuals are minimized with respect to ai .
Z
I = R2 (x; y; z; a1 ; ; an)dx (11.20-a)
@I = 0; i = 1; 2; ; n (11.20-b)
@ai
11.3.4 Galerkin Method

22 In the Galerkin method, we select
W= (11.21)
i.e. the weight functions are equal to the trial functions. Since the trial functions are orthogonal
to the residuals, then Eq. 11.15 becomes
Z b T
Rdx = 0 (11.22)
a

and
Draft
2 Z b Z b Z b 3 8 Z b 9
1 L( 1 )dx 1 L( 2 )dx 1 L( n )dx 1 gdx
>
> >
>
6 7 >
> >
>
6 Z ab Z ab Z ab 7 >
>
> Z ab >
>
>
6 7 > >
6
2 L( 1 )dx 2 L( 2 )dx 2 L( n )dx 7 >
<
2 gdx
>
=
Ke = 6
6
6
a
.. .. a
.. a
..
7
7
7
;f = > a
.. >
> >
6
6 Z . Z
. . Z b
. 7
7
>
>
>
> Z
. >
>
>
>
4 b b 5 >
> b >
>
n L( 1 )dx n L( 2 )dx n L( n )dx
>
: n gdx
>
;
a a a a
(11.23)
11.4 Applications of the Galerkin Method

23 We will apply the Galerkin method to two classes of problems.
24 We start with elasticity problems, to show that the Galerkin Method would result in exactly
the same formulation as the one obtained from the variational principle.
25 Following this \validation" of the method, we shall consider (in the next chapter) a class of
problems which does not have a variational principle, and thus the Galerkin method is the only
applicable technique. The second application will be the heat equation.
11.4.1 3D Elasticity
11.4.1.1 y Derivation of the Weak Form
26 We will now apply the Galerkin method to the equation of elasticity and show that we will
retrieve the principle of virtual work which was derived from a variational principle. Hence, in
this particular casse the two methods are indeed (as anticipated) equivalent.
27 Starting with the equilibrium equation (Eq. 3.35)
LT + b = 0 (11.24)
where = Lu and
8 9
>
> xx >
>
2 @ 0 @y@ @z@ 0
0
3 >
>
>
> yy >
>
>
>
8
bx
9
@x >
<
zz >
= >
< >
=
LT = 64 0 @y@ 0 @x@ 0 @z@ 75 ; = > xy >
; b=> by >
; (11.25)
0 0 @z@ 0 @x@ @y@ >
>
>
>
> xz
>
>
>
>
>
: bz ;
>
: >
;
yz

11.4 Applications of the Galerkin Method 11{7
28 Expanding the equations of equilibrium we have
Draft
@xx + @xy + @xz + bx = 0
@x @y @z
@yx + @yy + @yz + b = 0 (11.26)
@x @y @z y
@zx + @zy + @zz + bz = 0
@x @y @z
29We multiply the rst equation in Eq. 11.26 by the arbitrary function wx and we integrate
over the volume5
:
wx @x d
+ wx @y d
+ wx @@zxz d
= 0
@ @
Z Z Z
xx xy (11.27)

30 We now apply the divergence theorem6 , (Eq. 2.16) which yields

wxxxnxd, , @x xxd
+ wx xy ny d, , @w
@w
Z ZZ Z
x x d
xy
,
,
@y
+ wx xz nz d, , @w
Z Z Z
x d
+ wxbxd
= 0 (11.28-a)
@z xz
,

31 Recalling that the tractions are given by Eq. 3.4

tx = xx nx + xy ny + xz nz
ty = yx nx + yy ny + yz nz (11.29)
tz = zx nx + zy ny + zz nz
then the preceding equation reduces to

Z
wxtxd, ,
Z
@wx + @wx + @wx d
+ Z w b d
= 0 (11.30)
,
@x xx @y xy @z xz
x x
32 Similarly, we obtain for the other two equations of equilibrium

Z
wy ty d, , @w y
Z
@w y @wy
Z
yx + @y yy + @z yz d
+ wy by d
= 0 (11.31-a)
,
@x
Z
Z
wz tz d, , @w z @w z @w z
Z
, @x zx + @y zy + @z zz d

+ wz bz d
= 0 (11.31-b)

33 Summing those three equations

Z Z
(wx tx + wy ty + wz tz )d, + (wx bx + wy by + wz bz )d
,

,
Z
@wx + @wy + @wz +
xx @y yy @z zz

@x

@wx + @wy + @wx + @wz + @wy + @wz d
= 0 (11.32-a)

@y @x xy @z @x xz @z @y yz
5 Note similarity with the derivation of the principle of virtual work.
6 (R vi;i d
= R vi ni d,)

,

Draft
34 We next focus on the third term in the preceding equation. For w = b wx wy wz cT , then
(Lw)T = b @w x @wy @wz @wx @wy @wx @wz @wy
@x ; @y ; @z ; @y + @x ; @z + @x ; @z + @y ; c
@wz (11.33)
and
(Lw)T : = @w x + @wy + @wz
@x xx @y yy @z zz
@wx @wy @w x @w z @w y @w z
+ @y + @x xy + @z + @x xz + @z + @y yz(11.34-a)
35 Hence, substituting Eq. 11.34-a into Eq. 11.32-a we obtain

Z Z Z
(Lw)T d
= wT td, + w T bd
(11.35)

,
36 But since the L operator is symmetric, from Eq. 11.2, the above equation can also be written
as
Z Z Z
wT (L)d
= wT td, + wT bd
(11.36)

,
which is the weak form of the dierential equation of equilibrium subjected to the traction
(natural) boundary conditions.
37 The weight vector w is completely arbitrary. In the principle of virtual displacement, it
would correspond to the virtual displacement.
11.4.1.2 FE Discretization
38 Given that the displacement eld is written as
u = Nu (11.37)
where N are the shape functions, and u are the nodal known displacements. Note that this is
the application of Eq. 11.9-a
39 The Galerkin method uses the shape functions for the weight (functions Wi ) Hence, Eq.
11.13-a will be
w = cN (11.38-a)
and
Lw = LNc = Bc (11.39)
11.4 Applications of the Galerkin Method 11{9
40 Inserting the last two equations into the weak form, Eq. 11.36, yields
Draft
Z Z Z
cT
B T d
,
,
N T td, ,

N T bd
= 0 (11.40)
(Note similarity with Eq. 11.14). Since c is an arbitrary matrix, we conclude that
Z Z Z
BT d
= NT td, + NT bd
(11.41)

,
This equation is applicable to both linear and nonlinear systems. The right hand side repreent
the eect of the load.
41 Next we introduce a constitutive model, Eq. 3.62 which is rewritten in vector form
= D( , 0 ) (11.42)
42 The stress and strain are given by

= Lu = LNu = Bu (11.43-a)
= DBu , D0 (11.43-b)
43 Inserting those two equations into Eq. 11.41, yields

Z Z Z Z
BT DBd
u = NT td, + NT bd
+ BT D0d
(11.44)
|
{z } | , {z } |
{z } |
{z }
Ke f1 fb f0
44 Thus, using the Galerkin approach, we have recovered the same stiness formulation as the
one previously obtained from a Variational Principle.
45 Whereas, there may not be any clearer advantage in using the Galerkin approach when a
variational principle is available, this may be the only formulation possible in the absence of
the second.

Draft

Draft
Chapter 12
FINITE ELEMENT
DISCRETIZATION OF THE
FIELD EQUATION
Adapted from Ottosen (1992)
1 Having \proven" the validity of the Galerkin method by its ability to recover the variational
based formulation, we now turn our attention to a problem which (strictly speaking) could only
be handled by such an approach.
2 As a vehicle for such an application, we will consider the eld equation which was discussed
in Chapter 4.
12.1 Derivation of the Weak Form

3 Our starting point will be the eld equation, Eq. 4.20
,div (Dr) , Q = c @
@t (12.1)
4 Recalling (Eq. 4.5) that q = ,Dr, and that for steady state problems the right hand side
reduces to zero, and nally (for the mere sake of clarity) substituting by T , this equation
reduces to
div
|
q{z, Q} = 0 (12.2)
L+g
12{2 FINITE ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION OF THE FIELD EQUATION
5 The boundary conditions are given by
Draft
Essential, Temperature ,T T = g
Natural, Flux ,q qn = qt n = qf (12.3)
Natural, Convection Flux ,c qc = h(T , T1 )
6 We now apply Eq. 11.12 Z
w(div q , Q)d
= 0 (12.4)

for 2D problems, we replace d

by tdA
Z Z
wdiv qtdA , wQtdA = 0 (12.5)
A A
7 Applying Green-Gauss Theorem1 , Eq. 2.19, the rst term becomes

Z I Z
wdiv qtdA = wtqT nd, , (rw)T qtdA (12.6)
A , A
8 Thus Eq. 12.5 becomes
Z I Z
(rw)T qtdA = wtqT nd, , wQtdA (12.7)
A , A
which is the weak form.
9 Applying the boundary conditions, , = ,T + ,q
Z Z Z Z
(rw)T qtdA = wqf td, + wqn td, , wQtdA (12.8)
A ,q ,T A
where along ,q the ux (which may include concvection) is known but the temperature is
not, and along ,T , the temperature is known but ux is not. This equation is valid for any
constitutive relation and is analogous to Eq. 11.36.
10 Applying Fourrier Law, we obtain
Z Z Z Z
(rw)T DrTtdA = , wqf td, , wqn td, + wQtdA (12.9)
A ,q ,T A
This is the weak form of our problem.
11 By extension, the weak form in 3D would be
Z I I Z
(rw)T DrTdV = wqf dS , wqndS + wQdV (12.10)
V Sq ST V
1R R H
A div qdA = , q
T nd, , R R
A( r)T qdA
12.2 FE Discretization 12{3
12.2 FE Discretization
Draft
12 The temperature eld is expressed in terms of the nodal ones

T = NT (12.11)
where N are the shape functions, and T are the nodal known temperatures.
13 The ux is given by q = ,DrT where
rT = b @T @T cT (12.12)
@x @y
furthermore, the ux qn at the boundary is given by qn = qT n.
14 Substituting
rT = rNT = BT (12.13)
where "
@Ni #
B = @N @x
i (12.14)
@y
15 Note, this denition of the B matrix for scalar eld problems, should not be confused with
the one for vector problems, Eq. ??
2 @Ni 0
3 2 @Ni 0 3
@x @
B = 64 0 @Ni 7
= J,1 64 0 @Ni 7
(12.15)
@y 5 @ 5
@Ni @Ni @Ni @Ni
@y @x @ @
12.2.1 No Convection
16 Substituting the previous set of equations, Eq. 12.9 reduces to
Z Z Z Z
(rw)T DBtdA T =, wqf td, , wqntd, + wQtdA (12.16)
A ,q ,T A
17 In accordance with the Galerkin method, the weight function w is

w = Nc (12.17)
Since w is arbitrary, the matrix c is also arbitrary, thus
r w = rNc = Bc (12.18)
and since w is a scalar
w = cT NT (12.19)
18 Inserting those equations into Eq. 12.16
Draft
"Z Z Z Z #
cT A
BT DBtdA T+
,q
NT q f td, +
,T
NT q ntd, ,
A
NT QtdA =0 (12.20)
19 But since this expression should hold for any arbitrary cT matrix, we conclude that
KeT = fZbe + fQe (12.21)
Ke = ABT DBtdA (12.22)
Z Z
fbe = , NT qf td, , NT qntd, (12.23)
,q ,T
Z
fQe = , NT QtdA (12.24)
A
12.2.2 Convection
20 Next we consider the eet of the convection term, and thus
, = ,q + ,T + ,c (12.25)
The presence of the convection term aects only fb in Eq. 12.24 which now becomes
Z Z Z
fb = , NT qf td, , NT qntd, , NT qctd, (12.26)
,q ,T ,c
and based on Newton's convection boundary condition (Eq. 4.4)

qc = h(T , T1 ) (12.27)
or
qc = hNT , hT1 (12.28)
21 Substituting into Eq. 12.26 yields
Z Z Z Z
fb = , ,q
NT qf td, ,
,T
NT q n td, ,
,c
hNT Ntd, T + T1
,c
NT htd, (12.29)
22 Using this relation, Eq. 12.24 becomes

12.3 Illustrative Examples 12{5
(Ke + Kec )T = fbe + fQe (12.30)
Draft
Z
Ke = BT DBtdA (12.31)
Z A
Kec = hNT Ntd, (12.32)
,
Zc Z Z
fbe = , NT qf td, , NT qntd, + T1 NT htd, (12.33)
,q ,T ,c
Z
fQe = , NT QtdA (12.34)
A
Note the analogy between this \load case" and P- eects in structural engineering. As will be
seen in chapter 15, the geometric stiness matrix (KG ), which accounts for large deformation,
will be very similar to Kc .
12.3 Illustrative Examples
Example 12-7: Composite Wall

Let us consider a composite wall made up of three materials, (k1 = 20 W/mo C, k2 = 30
W/mo C, k3 = 50 W/mo C),
The outer temperature is T0 = 20o C , convection heat transfer takes place on the inner surface
of the wall with the uid temperature T1 = 800o C , the lm coecient (or convection term)
h = 25 W/m2 :oC. We seek the temperature distribution across the wall.
Solution:
Draft
1. Selecting linear elements, we have

T () = NT = 1 ,2 T 1 + 1 +2 T 2 (12.35-a)
| {z } | {z }
N1 N2
2
= x , x (x , x1) , 1 = L2 (x , x1 ) , 1 (12.35-b)
2 1
2
d = L dx (12.35-c)
dx = L d 2 (12.35-d)
dT = dT d = 2 dN :T
dx d dx L d
= L2 , 12 12 T = BT
h i
(12.35-e)
B = L1 ,1; 1
h i
(12.35-f)
2. The conductivity matrix for the one dimensional element is

D=k (12.36)
3. Substituting into Eq. 12.34, we obtain
Element Conductivity Matrix:
Z Z L T
Ke = BT DBtdA = B DBdx
A 0
= kL
Z 1
2 ,1 B Bd(
T
)
= kL
2 Z 1
1 ,1 h
,1; 1 d
i
2 L ,1 1
" #
k 1
= L ,1 1 , 1 (12.37-a)
"
1 2 # "
1 2 #
20
K1 = 0:3 ,11 ,1 = 66:67 ,66:67 (12.37-b)
1 ,66:67 66:67
"
2 3 # "
2 3 #
K2 = 030 1 ,1 = 200:00 ,200:00 (12.37-c)
:15 ,1 1 ,200:00 200:00
3 4 # " 3 4 #
Draft
"
K3 = 050 1 ,1 = 333:34 ,333:34 (12.37-d)
:15 1 1 , ,333:34 333:34
2
1 2 3 4 3
66:67 ,66:67
K = 664
6
, 66 : 67 66 : 67 + 200:00 ,200:00 7
200:00 + 333:34 ,333:34 75 (12.37-e)

7
,200:00
,333:34 333:34
2
1 2 3 4 3
66:67 ,66:67 0: 0:
= 664 ,660::67 ,266 :67 ,200:00 0: 777
6
200:00 533:34 ,333:34 5 (12.37-f)

0: 0: ,333:34 333:34
Element Convection Matrix: Since convection occurs only at one point, 1, we just add the
convection term h = 25 to K1;1
2
1 2 3 4 3
66:67 + 25 ,66:67 0: 0:
6 ,66:67 266 : 67 , 200 : 00 0: 777
6
K = 64 0: ,200:00 533:34 ,333:34 5
0: 0: ,333:34 333:34
2
1 2 3 4 3
91:67 ,66:67 0: 0:
= 664 ,660::67 ,266 :67 ,200:00 0: 777
6
200:00 533:34 ,333:34 5 (12.38-a)

0: 0: ,333:34 333:34
Element heat rate vector: Since there isZno heat generation
Z Q, fQ = 0, andZ we do not have
a distributed convection (hence fb = , NT qf td, , NT qntd,+ T1 NT htd, = 0
,q ,T ,c
and we only have a point convection load
P1 p
8 9 8 9
(800)(25)
P2 p
>
> >
> >
> >
>
> > > >
< = <
0 =
>
>
>
P3 p >
>
>
=>
>
>
0 >
>
>
(12.39)
:
P4 ? ; :
P4 ? ;
where P4 corresponds to the point heat ux transmitted at node 4.

Solve
Draft
2 38 9 8 9
91:67 ,66:67 0: 0: >
> T1 ? >
> >
> (800)(25) >
>
7> > > >
6
6 ,66:67 266:67 ,200:00 0: 7
<
T2 ? =
=>
<
0 =
(12.40)
6
4 0: ,200:00 533:34 ,333:34 7
5>>
>
T3 ? >
>
> >
>
0 >
>
>
0: 0: ,333:34 333:34 :
T4 = 20 ; :
P4 ? ;
4. In this case, one of the essential boundary conditions is non-zero, hence following a
procedure similar to the one outlined in Eq. this reduces to
8 9
2 38 9 8 9
81:67 ,66:67 0: >
< T1 ? >
= >
< 20; 000: >
=
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
0 (12.41-a)
=
6
4 ,66:67 266:67 ,200:00 7
5 T2 ? = 0 , 20: > 0 >
0: ,200:00 533:34 >
: T3 ? >
; >
: 0 >
; >
>
:
>
,333:34 >
;
8 9
>
> >
>
> >
=
<
20; 000: =
(12.41-b)
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
:
6; 666:80 ;
and the solution is 8 9 8 9

>
< T1 >
= >
< 304:6 >
=
T2 => 119:0 oC (12.42)
> > >
: T3 ; : 57:1 ;
Verication We can check the numerical solution by verifying that

q = T1 , T2 = q = T2 , T3 = q = T3 , T4
x1 ,x2 x2 ,x3 x3 ,x4 (12.43)
k1 k2 k3
Example 12-8: Heat Transfer across a Fin

A metallic n with thermal conductivity k = 360 W/m.o C, 0.1 cm thick and 10 cm long
extends from a plane whose temperature is 235 o C.

Draft
We seek to determine the temperature distribution and amount of heat transfered from the n
to the air at 20o C where the lm coecient h=9 W/mo C.
23 Using a three element discretization, and assuming the tip of the n to be isolated.
Solution:
Element conductivity matrix: From the previous example,

Z Z L T
Ke = BT DBtdA = B DBdx
A 0
kL
= 2
Z 1
BT Bd
,1 ( )
kL
= 2
Z 1
, 1 h
, 1 ; 1
i
d
1,1
" #
= Lk ,11 ,11 (12.44-a)
"
1 2 #
K1 = 0360 1 ,1 (12.44-b)
:033 ,1 1
"
2 3 #
K2 = 0360 1 ,1 (12.44-c)
:033 ,1 1

3 4 #
Draft
"
K3 = 0360 1 ,1 (12.44-d)
:033 1 , 1
2
1 2 3 4 3
1 ,1
360 6
,
K = 0:033 664 1 1 + 1 ,1 7
7
(12.44-e)
,1 1 + 1 ,1 75
,1 1
2
1 2 3 4 3
1 ,1
6 ,1 2 ,1
= 0360
6 7
6
:033 4 ,1 2 ,1 75
7
(12.44-f)
,1 1
Convection Matrix Contrarily toZthe previous example, convection occurs along the element,
hence using Eq. 12.34 Kec = hNT Ntd, The shape functions for the linear element
,c
are given by Eq. 12.35-a
1, 1+
N = b | {z2 } | {z2 } c (12.45-a)
N1 N2
( )
1,
NT N = 2 b 1, 1+ c (12.45-b)
1+ 2 2
2
2 3

1, 2 1+ 1,
= 2 2 2 7
6
4
1+ 1,

1+ 2
5 (12.45-c)
2 2 2
Z 1 " #
NT N = 13 21 12 (12.45-d)
,1
24 Substituting, the element convection stiness matrix (dropping the t term which cor-
responds to the third dimension) will thus be
Z Z L
Kec = ,c
hN Nd, = h NT Nd,
T
0
(12.46)
Given that we have two surfaces across which convection occurs, and that this term stems
from the convection heat loss in an element of thickness t, we rewrite the previous equation
as
Kc = 2th NT Ndx
Z L
(12.47)
0
but, from Eq. 12.35-d dx = L2 d , thus
Draft
Kc = hLt
Z 1
NT Nd (12.48)
,1
Inserting the term from Eq. 12.45-d we nally obtain
" #
Kc = hL 2 1
3t 1 2 (12.49)
25 As for the conduction stiness matrix, the assembled convection stiness matrix will
be
1 2 3 432
2 1
(9)(3 : 33 10 ,2 ) 6
61 4 1
7
Kc = 3(10,3 ) 6
4
7
1 4 1 75 (12.50)
1 2
Element heat rate vector: Can be determined from
Z Z Z
fb = , N qf td, , N qntd, + T1 NT htd,
T T (12.51)
,q ,T ,c
however in this problem, only the third term is non-zero.

Following a similar procedure as above,
Z
fbe = T1 NT htd, (12.52-a)
,
Zc
= T1 h NT d, (12.52-b)
,c
( )
1,
= 2T1
2t
hL Z 2
1+ d (12.52-c)
,c 2
( )
= T1thL 11 (12.52-d)
Assembling the load vector for this problem would yield

8 9
> 1 >
,2 > >
fb = (20)(9)(310:33,3 10 ) >
> >
<
2 =
(12.53)
>
>
2 >
>
>
:
1 ;

Solution of the system becomes
Draft
2 3
1 2 3 4 3 1 2 3 43 8
T1 p
2 2 9
6
6 1 ,1 2 1 7
7>
7>
>
>
6
6 360 6 ,1
6
2 ,1 7 (9)(3 : 33 10 ,2 ) 6
1 4 1 7
77
>
<
T2 ? >
=
6 6
6 0:033 4
7
,1 2 ,1 5
7 + 3(10,3 )
6
6
4
7 7
1 4 1 577 > T3 ? >
=
6 > >
7> >
6
4 ,1 1 1 2 5
:
T4 ? ;
8 9
> 1 >
(20)(9)(3:33 10 ),2 >
>
<
2
>
>
=
10,3 > 2 >

(12.54-a)
>
> >
>
:
1 ;
2 3
2
1 2 3 4 3 2
1 2 3 4 3 8 9
6
6
6
10; 800: ,10; 800: 0: 0: 200: 100: 0: 0: 777 > > T1 = 235 >
>
77 > >
6 ,10; 800: 21 ; 600: , 10 ; 800 : 0: 777 + 6 100: 400: 100: 0 : T2 ?
6 6 6 < =
6
6 6
4 0: ,10; 800: 21; 600: ,10; 800: 5 4 0:
6
77
100: 400: 100: 7 >
77
5 > T3 ? >
=
6 > >
>
6
4 0: 0: ,10; 800: 10; 800: 0: 0: 100: 200: 75 : T4 ? ;
8 9
>
>
>
P1 ? > >
>
<
12; 000: = (12.54-b)
>
>
>
12; 000: >
>
>
:
6; 000: ;
2 38 9 8 9
11; 000: ,10; 700: 0: 0: >
> 235: >> >
> P1 ? > >
7>
6 ,10; 700:
6
22 ; 000 : , 10 ; 700 : 0: 7
<
T2 ? = 12; 000: >
>
= >
< =
(12.54-c)
6
4 0: ,10; 700: 22; 000: ,10; 700: 7
5>>
>
T3 ? >>
>
>
>
>
12; 000: >
>
>
0: 0: ,10; 700 11; 000: :
T4 ? ; :
6; 000: ;
As in the previous example, we rewrite this last equation as
2 38 9 8 9 8 9
22; 000: ,10; 700: 0: < T2 ? >
> = < 12; 000: >
> = < ,10; 700 >
> =
6
4 , 10 ; 700: 22; 000: , 10; 700 : 7
5 T 3 ? = 12 ; 000 : , 235 : 0 :
0: ,10; 700: 11; 000: > : T ? >
4
; >
: 6; 000: > ; >
: 0: > ;
8 9
< 2:514 10 >
> 6
=
= > 12; 000: > (12.55-a)
: 6; 000: ;
Solving, we obtain 8 9 8 9
< T2 >
> = < 208:77 >
> =
T = 194 :25 oC (12.56)
> 3 > > >
: T4 ; : 189:50 ;
Heat loss in the n can be computed from H = Pe H e where H e = h(Tavg , T1)As sand the
surface area of each element is As = 2(1 0:0333)m2
12.4 Comparison Between Vector and Scalar Formulations 12{13
Draft
12.4 Comparison Between Vector and Scalar Formulations

23 We now complement Table 4.2, by contrasting major governing equations in both scalar and
vector problems, Table 12.1.

Draft
Scalar Vector
Conduction Solid Mechanics
I Dierential
T
Equation
div q + Q = 0 L +b = 0 Balance/Equilibrium
T u State variable
rT = Lu \kinematic"
q Flux vector
qn = qT n t = n Flux at boundary
q = ,DrT = D Constitutive law
T on ,T u on ,u Essential BC
qn on ,q [ ,c t on ,t Natural BC
Z Z IIZ Weak Formulation
Z
wT (L)d
= wT td, BT d
= NT td, Discretized Weak Form

Z,
Z,
+ wT bd
+ NT bd
III Discretized Solution

T = NT u = Nu State variables
rT = BT Bu
= 2 3 Flux
@N @Ni 0
i @x
B = @x
@N i B = 4 0 @N i
@y 5 State variable gradient
@y @Ni @N i
@y @x
(Ke + Kec )T = fZbe + fQe + P Ke ue = fe + f0e + P Balance/Equilibrium
R
Ke = BT DBtdA Ke = T

e B DBd
Stiness matrix
Z A
Kec = hNT Ntd, Convection Stiness Matrix
Z,c
R
fbe = , NT qf td, fe = ,t N
T ^td, Boundary forces
Z ,q
, NT qn td,
Z ,T Z
fQe = , NT QtdA fe = NT bd
Body forces
A Z
e
+ BT D0 d
Initial strain
Z
e
, BT 0 d
Initial stress

t
Table 12.1: Comparison of Scalar and Vector Field Problems, Revisited

Draft
Chapter 13
TOPICS in STRUCTURAL
MECHANICS
13.1 Transformations
13.1.1 Vectors
1 We transform an arbitrary vector V, from (x; y; z ) coordinate system to (x0 ; y0 ; z 0 ), Fig. 13.1:
through the following transformation
8 9 2 38 9
>
< Vx0 >
= lx0x lx0y lx0z >
< Vx >
=
>
Vy0 >
= 4 ly0 x ly0 y ly0 z
6 7
5
>
Vy >
(13.1)
: Vz0 ; lz0x lz0 y lz0z : Vz ;
| {z }
,
where lij is the direction cosine of axis i with respect to axis j , Fig. 13.2, and thus the rows
of the matrix correspond to the rotated vectors with respect to the original ones corresponding
to the columns.
lij direction cosines of rotated axis i with respect to original axis j .
l1j = (l11 ; l12 ; l13 ) direction cosines of x
l2j = (l21 ; l22 ; l23 ) direction cosines of y
l3j = (l31 ; l32 ; l33 ) direction cosines of z
i.e. l11 = cos , l12 = cos , and l13 = cos
13{2 TOPICS in STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
Draft
Figure 13.1: Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation
Figure 13.2: 3D Vector Transformation

13.1 Transformations 13{3
2 Since the transformation matrix [,] is orthogonal, we have:
Draft
8 9 2 38 9
>
< Vx >
= lx0x ly0 x lz0x >
< Vx0 >
=
>
Vy >
= 4 lx0 y ly0 y lx0 y
6 7
5
>
Vy0 >
(13.2)
: Vz ; lx0z ly0 z lz0z : Vz0 ;
| {z }
,
[ ],1 =[ ]T,
3 Alternatively, we can dene
2 3 2 3
lx0 x lx0 y lx0 z l1 m1 n1
[,] = 64 ly0 x ly0 y ly0 z 75 = 64 l2 m2 n2 7
5 (13.3)
lz0 x lz0 y lz0 z l3 m3 n3
13.1.2 Strains
4 @x0 = l1 , @y0 = m1 and @z0 = n1 , and applying the chain rule
Starting from @x @x @x
@u0 = l @u + m @v + n @w (13.4)
@x0 1 @x0 1 0
@x 1 @x0
applying again the chain rule to each one of the right hand side terms
@u = l @u + m @u + n @u (13.5)
@x0 1 @x 1
@y 1 @z
which yields 8 9
> @u00 >
8 @u 9
>
> @x >
> >
> @x >
>
>
>
> @u00 >
>
>
2
l1 , m1 , n1 , 7
3 >
>
> @u >
>
>
< @y = < @y =
@u00
@z = l , m2 , n2 , 5 >
6
4 2 @u
@z (13.6)
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
>
>
>
>
>
>
l3 , m3 , n3 , 99 >
>
>
>
: @w
>
>
>
>
>
;
: @w0 ;
@z 91 @z 91
5 From the strain denition in terms of displacement derivatives, and and collecting terms, we
obtain
2
l12 m21 n21 l1 m1 m1 n1 n1 l1 3
6 l2 m22 n23 l2 m2 m2 n2 n2 l2 77
6 2
6
0 = 6
6
l32 m23 n23 l3 m3 m3 n3 n3 l3 777
6 2l1 l2 2m1 m2 2n1 n2 l1 m2 + l2 m1 m1 n2 + m2 n1 n1 l2 + n2 l1 7 (13.7)
6 7
4 2l2 l3 2m2 m3 2n2 n3 l2 m3 + l3 m2 m2 n3 + m3 n2 n2 l3 + n3 l2 5
2l3 l1 2m3 m1 2n3 n1 l3 m1 + l1 m3 m3 n1 + m1 n3 n3 l1 + n1 l3
| {z }
,"

13.1.3 Stresses
Draft
6 From energy consideratios we have

T = 0T 0 (13.8-a)
T = T ,T" 0 (13.8-b)
or
= ,T" 0 (13.9-a)
0 = ,," T (13.9-b)
or
2
l12 m21 n21 2l1 m1 2m1 n1 2n1 l1 3
6 l2 m22 n23 2l2 m2 2m2 n2 2n2 l2 77
6 2
6 2
0 = 6
6 3
l m3 n3
2 2 2l3 m3 2m3 n3 2n3 l3 777
6 l1 l2 m1 m2 n1 n2 l1 m2 + l2 m1 m1 n2 + m2 n1 n1 l2 + n2 l1 7 (13.10)
6 7
4 l2 l3 m2 m3 n2 n3 l2 m3 + l3 m2 m2 n3 + m3 n2 n2 l3 + n3 l2 5
l3 l1 m3 m1 n3n1 l3m1 + l1 m3 m3 n1 + m1 n3 n3l1 + n1l3
| {z }
,
13.1.4 Constitutive Matrix
7 The constitutive model should be independent of axis orientation, hence = D or 0 = D0 0 .
8 If D0 is known and we seek D, then substituting from above we obtain
= ,T" 0 = ,T" D0 0 = ,T" D0 ," (13.11)

or
D = ,T" D0 ," (13.12)
9 It should be noted that this operation is only needed for anisotropic constitutive models.
13.1.5 Stiness Matrix
10 From d0 = ,d and p = ,T p0 substituting
kd = p = ,T p0 = ,T k0d0 = ,T k0,d (13.13)
or
k = ,T k0 , (13.14)

13.2 Condensation/Substructuring 13{5
13.2 Condensation/Substructuring
Draft
11 Condensation is the process of reducing the number of d.o.f. by substitution. At an element

level, we may want to condense an internal node (such as in the Lagrangian element), at the
global level, this is closely associated with substructuring.
12 Let us consider kd = p and let d be partitioned into
( )
fdg = ddrc (13.15)
where the subscripts r and c refer to retained and condensed d.o.f. respectively.
13 For substructuring, subscripts r and c refer to interface and interior d.o.f. Hence,
" #( ) ( )
krr krc dr = pr (13.16)
kcr kcc dc pc
or
k0 dr = p0 (13.17)
where
k0 = krr , krck,cc1 kcr (13.18-a)
p0 = p0r , krck,cc1 pc (13.18-b)
14 Noting the common form of the above two equations, we deduce that condensation may
also be viewed as a transformation from a d; p; k system to a dr ; p0 ; k0 through the following
transformation
k0 = ,Tc k,c (13.19-a)
p0 = ,Tc p (13.19-b)
where ( )
,c = ,kccI kcr
,1
(13.20)
15 k0 is a r by r matrix, whereae k was r+c by r+c (yet we still have to separately decompose
kcc which is c by c.

13.3 Inclined Boundary Conditions
Draft
13.4 Element Evaluation

13.4.1 Patch Test
16 The patch test is a check which ascertains whether a patch of innitesimally small elements
subjected to constant strain reproduces exacly the constitutive behavior of the material through
correct stresses.
17 It has been argued that an element which passes the patch test satises the two essential
conditions for convergence.
18 There are three forms for the patch test (Zienkiewicz), Fig. 13.3.
Figure 13.3: *Patch Tests
1. Insert the exact (analytical) solution for all the nodal displacement in d and verify that
Kij dj , pi = 0 (13.21)
2. Insert the exact (analytical) solution for all nodal displacements on the boundaries of the
patch and internal node displacement di is found from
di = Kii,1 (pi , Kij dj ) i 6= j (13.22)
3. Specify the minimum number of essential (displacement) B.C., and apply natural (trac-
tions) B.C. Solve for
Kd = p (13.23)
and compare with the exact solution.

13.4 Element Evaluation 13{7
19 The patch test may pass by an individual element, but fail by an assemblage of such elements.
Draft
20 Failure of the patch test is also an indication of lack of stability. That is we have zero-energy
deformation (as detected by the eigenvalue test) is present.
13.4.2 Eigenvalue Test
21 The stiness matrix is, by denition, singular due to the fact that equilibrium relations are
embedded in its formulation, or alternatively, the assumed displacement eld on which it is
based is supposed to provide for rigid body motions (translations and/or rotations).
22 The augmented stiness matrix may be expressed as:
" #
[k] = [B[d][d] ],1 [B[d][d] ],[1B[B] ]T
,1 ,1 T
(13.24)
where B is the statics (or equilibrium) matrix, relating external nodal forces to internal forces;
d is a exibility matrix, and d,1 is its inverse or reduced stiness matrix. We note that the
stiness matrix is obviously singular, since the second \row" is linearly dependent on the rst
one (through [B]) and thus, its determinent is equal to zero.
23 The reduced stiness matrix, which is the inverse of a exibility matrix, is not.
24 The internal strain energy stored in an element can be determined from
U = 12 buc fFg
= 12 buc[K] fug (13.25)
25 If we consider a system where the load fFg applied to each node is proportional to the
element nodal displacement fug by a factor , we have:
[K] fug = fug (13.26)
or
([K] , [I]) fug = 0 (13.27)
26 This is by denition an eigenproblem. There will be as many eigenvalues i as there are
degrees of freedom (or rows in [K]). To each eigenvalue i corresponds an eigenvector fugi .
27 If the eigenvectors are normalized such that:
buci fugi = 1 (13.28)

then Eq. 13.26 becomes:
buci [K] fugi = i (13.29)
and this last equation, when compared to Eq. 13.25, shows that the eigenvalue i is equal to
Draft
twice the internal strain energy stored in an element undergoing a (normalized) deformation
dened by fugi .
28 Hence, we observe that:
1. In a rigid body motion, all nodes displace by the same amount, and there are no internal
strains. Hence in a rigid body motion the strain energy U (and thus corresponding )
must be equal to zero.
2. There should be as many zero eigenvalues as there are possible independent rigid body
motions (i.e. number of equations of equilibrium). For a two dimensional Lagrangian
element, there should be three zero eigenvalues, corresponding to two translations and
one rotation.
3. Too few zero eigenvalues is an indication of an element lacking the capability of rigid body
motion without strain.
4. Too many zero eigenvalues is an indication of undesirable mechanism (or failure).
5. Eigenvalues should not change when the element is rotated.
6. Similar modes (such as exure in two orthogonal directions) will have identical eigenvalues
(for isotropic material).
7. When comparing the stiness matrices of two identical elements but based on dierent
formulations, the one with the lowest strain energy (tr[K] = i) is best.
29Hence, the element stiness matrix will have:
Order: corresponds to the number of degrees of freedom (i.e size of the matrix).
Rank: corresponds to the total number of linearly independent equations which is equat to
the order minus the number of rigid body motions.
Rank Deciency: would be equal to the total number of zero eigenvalues minus the rank.
30 For a square bilinear element the non-zero eigenvectors are shown in Fig. 13.4.
13.4.3 Order of Integration
13.4.3.1 Full Integration
31For numerically integrated elements, a question of paramount importance is the order of the
numerical integration. If the order of integration is too

Draft
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8
Figure 13.4: Eigenvectors Corresponding to a) Non-Zero and b) Zero Eigenvalues for a Square
Bilinear element
High: it would certainly result in an exact formulation, which however may be computationally
expensive.
Low: Then we may have rank deciency.
Hence, we ought to properly select the order of numerical quadrature.
32 We recall that
1. We seek to integrate F = BT DBdetJ.

2. The Jacobian is constant only for parallelograms.
3. In Gaussian Quadrature, integration with n points correctly integrate a polynomial of
order 2n , 1 (whereas for Newton-Cotes it was n , 1).
Hence, for a bilinear parallelogram element, F is a polynomial function, of order 2, in terms of
the natural coordinates and which can be exactly integrated by n = 2 points (i.e 2 2).
33 By similar arguments, a quadratic quadrilateral should be integrated by three points.
34 Those orders of approximations are only valid for parallelograms, as the edge becomes in-
clined, then the error increases.
13.4.3.2 Reduced Integration
35 Reduced integration, i.e. using fewer Gauss points than required for an exact integration,
will cause the element to soften because higher order polynomial terms may vanish at the points
of lower order rule.

36 In an elastic body, the FE solution permits only those displacements which can be represented
Draft
by a linear combination of the shape functions. In general, the exact displacement eld will
dier from the assumed displacement, in other words the shape functions prevent the structure
from deforming the way it wants1 .
37 Given that the stiness formulation is too sti, (Ref. Sect. ??), the softening introduced by
a reduced numerical integration is benecial.
38 Recommended orders of integration for quadrilaterla elements are shown in Table 13.1.
Element Reliable Integration Reduced Integration

4-node 2x2 -
4-node distorted 2x2 -
8-node 3x3 2x2
8-node distorted 3x3 2x2
9-node 3x3 2x2
9-node distorted 3x3 2x2
Table 13.1: Full and Reduced Numerical Integrations for Quadrilateral Elements
.
39 If the element is articially softened, then there will be spurious zero energy modes, and the
stiness matrix will be rank decient, i.e. its rank is less than the number of element d.o.f.
minus the number of rigid body modes.
40 The independent displacement modes of a bilinear element are shown in Fig. 13.5. First
4 3
1 2 3 4
1 2
5 6 7 8
Figure 13.5: Independent Displacement Modes for a Bilinear Element

three modes are rigid body motion, the next three are constant strains, and the last two are
bending modes.
1 This
is analogous to trucating a Fourrier series, which otherwise could have been an excat substitute to a
set of physical observations.

41 Since the element does not provide any resistance to all spurious zero-energy modes (which
Draft
can nevertheless be used in linear combination with the other modes to describe the displace-
ment eld), then the eect of reduced integration is to soften the stiness of the FE model.
42 Should we adopt a reduced integration scheme, we will substantially reduce the computa-
tional eort, however we will forfeit some very special properties of the displacement method,
namely: a) Boundedness and b) monotonic convergence toward an exact solution.
43 An illustration of problems arising with reduced integration is illustrated for the following
elements
Q4 For a single point integration, the Gauss point is at the center. At the center of an element
under bending "xx = "yy = xy = 0, accordingly U = 0 for the corresponding modes 4
and 5 in Fig. 13.4, those spurious modes will disappear if n = 2.
Q9 Displacement is given by u = 32 2 , 2 , 2 and v = 0. If the element is integrated by
2x2 points, at = = p13 it can be shown that in those points the strains are zero and
the corresponding mechanisms, or hourglass are shown in Fig. 13.6.
Eight- or nine-node elements Nine-node element only

Nine-node element only Eight- or nine-node elements
Figure 13.6: Hourglas Modes in Under-Integrated Quadratic Element
Q8
13.4.3.3 Selective Reduced Integration
44 In selective integration, we integrate the dierent strain terms with dierent orders of inte-
gration.
45 More about this technique in subsequent chapter.

Draft
Figure 13.7: Rectangular Bilinear Element Subjected to Bending
13.5 Parasitic Shear/Incompatible Elements

13.5.1 Q4, The Problem
46 The shape functions for the bilinear element are given by Eq. 10.19
N1 (; ) = 4 , ,
1 (1 )(1 ); N2 (; ) = ,
4 (1 + )(1 );
1
(13.30)
N3 (; ) = 1 (1 + )(1 + );
4 N4 (; ) = ,
4 (1 )(1 + );
1
where = x=a and = y=b.

47 Imposing the displacement eld eld of Fig. 13.7 The bilinear element and correct displace-
ments and strains are given by Table 13.2.
Bilinear Exact
Element Formulation
u u u
v 0 2b + (1 , ) 2a
(1 , 2 ) au 2 bu
"xx ua ua
"yy 0 , ua
xy ub 0
Table 13.2: Bilinsear and Exact Displacements/Strains
48 From this table we note that parasitic shear contributes to the strain energy stored in the
element (which is equal to PT :d). Hence for a given imposed displacement, the forces would
be larger and M1 > M2 .
49 Computing the ratio of strain energies of the two elements, we obtain
" #
M1 = 1 1 + 1 a 2 (13.31)
M2 1 + 1 + 2 b
13.5 Parasitic Shear/Incompatible Elements 13{13
Draft
Figure 13.8: Displacements Associated with Incompatible Modes for the Q6 Element
hence, as a=b increases, the element \locks" (a term which will be explained in later chapters).
13.5.2 Q6, The Solution
50 Comparing the displacement elds in Table 13.2 we observe that the bilinear element errs
from the exact solution by omitting the displacement mode associated with (1 , 2 ) and (1 , 2 ).
51 We can remedy to this situation by adding the missing modes as internal nodes
X
u = Niui + (1 , 2 )a1 + (1 , 2 )a2 (13.32-a)
X
v = Ni vi + (1 , 2 )a3 + (1 , 2 )a4 (13.32-b)
where the Ni are given by Eq. 13.30, and ai are nodeless d.o.f. The element now has 6 degrees
of freedom, and hence the element is referred to as Q6.
52 The B matrix would have to be correspondingly adjusted. and following its formulation, the
additional d.o.f. ai are eliminated through condensation (Sect. 13.2).
53 The Q6 element is incompatible (or nonconforming) due to the square distribution of u or v
along the edge which is dened by only two nodes, Fig. 13.8.
54 The softening in this case counters the inherent overstiness of the standard assumed dis-
placement formulation.
13.5.3 QM6, Further Enhancements
55 It can be shown that the Q6 element passes the patch test only if it is rectangular.
56 To remedy to this deciency, we consider that portion of the B matrix associated with the
nodeless d.o.f. and label it Ba , and then the corresponding consistent nodal load vector is
Z e
pa = ,
BTa 0 d
e (13.33)

where 0 represent the initial stresses caused by the standard element formulation associated
Draft
with dr on the nodal d.o.f.
57 Because the standard isoparametric element passes the patch test, when 0 is constant,
without this additional load associated with the ai , then pea should also be zero for constant 0
or Z 1 Z 1
BTa tdetJdd = 0 (13.34)
,1 ,1
For general (non-rectangular elements) this equation is not satised and the patch test fails.
58 This can be articaily remedied in forming Ba and integrating by using J0 where the ja-
cobian is evaluated at = = 0 rather than at the Gauss quadrature point, and we use the
corresponding t0 for the thickness.
59 When such an operation is performed, the resulting element is called the QM6, and it works
almost as well as the quadratic element if rectangular, and is considerably more accurate than
the bilinear element.
60 Stresses are computed with all the d.o.f., including the ai . Better results are achieved if
element nodal loads pe that are associated with incompatible modes are set to zero during
recovery of the associated d.o.f. ai (following condensation).
13.6 Rotational D.O.F.

61 drilling d.o.f. are rotations at the corner. In the context of plane elements, they are associated
with parabolic displaced shapes of the edges, Fig. 13.9.
62 Assuming rotation ! i and ! j at nodes i and j of an element side of length L, the end moments
of an immaginary beam will be
M = 2EI (2! + ! )
i L i j (13.35-a)
Mj = 2EI
L ( ! i + 2! j ) (13.35-b)
Hence, from M = Mi + (Mj , Mi ) Lx and the vitual force method we can solve for the midside
edge-normal displacement
= L8 (! j , !i ) (13.36)
63 Hence the edge displacement is caused by two parts: translation and parabolic distorsion:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
u = L , s ui + s uj + L2,L s s(!j , !i ) cos (13.37)
v L vi L vj sin
and similar expressions can be written for other edges.
13.7 Constraints 13{15
Draft
Figure 13.9: Side Displacements Induced by Drilling d.o.f.
13.7 Constraints

Draft
Figure 13.10: Hybrid

Draft
Chapter 14
PLATES
Adapted from Pilkey & Wunderlich
1 This chapter will cover the transverse deformation of plates. The approach followed will be
consistent with the nite element formulation, Fig. 14.1.
Fundamental Relations
Draft
Kinematics Constitutive Equilibrium
?
Dierential Equation
?
Variational Formulation
?
Finite Element Discretization
Figure 14.1: Finite Element Formulation

14{2 PLATES
14.1 Fundamental Relations
Draft
14.1.1 Equilibrium
2 Considering an arbitrary plate, the stress are given by, Fig. 14.2, resultants per unit width
Figure 14.2: Stresses in a Plate

are given by
8 Z t
2
>
>
>
> Nxx = xx dz
>
>
> , 2t
Z t >
< Z t
2 2
Membrane Force N = t
dz Nyy = yy dz
,2 >
>
> , 2t
>
> Z t
> 2
>
>
: Nxy = xy dz
, 2t
8 Z t
2
>
>
>
> Mxx = xxzdz
>
>
> , 2t (14.1-a)
Z t >
< Z t
2 2
Bending Moments M = zdz Myy = yy zdz
, 2t >
>
> , 2t
>
> Z t
> 2
>
>
: Mxy = xy zdz
8 , 2t
Z t
> 2
Z t
>
>
>
< Vx = xz dz
Transverse Shear Forces V = 2
dz , 2t
Z t
, 2t >
>
>
> Vy = 2
yz dz
:
, 2t
3 Note that in plate theory, we ignore the eect of the membrane forces, those in turn will be
accounted for in shells.
14.1 Fundamental Relations 14{3
4 The equation of equilibrium is derived by considering an innitesimal element tdx dy subjected
Draft
to an applied transverse load pz . We would have to consider three equations of equilibrium,
Fig. 14.3:
Figure 14.3: Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Plate Element
Summation of Forces in the z direction

@Vx dxdy + @Vy dxdy + p dxdy = 0 (14.2)
@x @y z
or
@Vx + @Vy + p = 0 (14.3)
@x @y z
Summation of Moments about the x axis
@Mxy dxdy + @Myy dxdy , V dxdy = 0 (14.4)
@x @y y
or
@Mxy + @Myy , V = 0 (14.5)
@x @y y
Summation of Moments about the y axis

@Myx + @Mxx , V = 0 (14.6)
@y @x x

14{4 PLATES
Since Mxy = Myx , those equations can be expressed in matrix form as
Draft
8 9
2 3>> Mxx >
> 8 9 8 9
@
@x0 @y@ ,1 0 >
>
>
< Myy >
>
>
= >
< 0 >
= >
< 0 >
=
6
4 0 @y@ @x@ 0 ,1 7
5
>
Mxy >
+> 0 >
=> 0 > (14.7)
0 0 0 @x@ @
@y
>
>
>
>
Vx >
>
>
>
: pz ; : 0 ;
| {z }: Vy ;
LT | {z }
M
Note that the left matrix corresponds to LT where the 1 term has been substituted by ,1
14.1.2 Kinematic Relations
5 From Fig. 14.4 we have ve displacements u; v; w; xx and yy . However, two of the three
displacements, u; v can be expressed in terms of the xx and yy which are the rotations of the
Figure 14.4: Displacements in a Plate

plate middle surface. The third displacement being the transverse one w.
6 We will use a notation consistent with the traditional one adopted for plate bending, rather
than one consistent with the coordinate directions as used in nite element.
7 The middle surface will be assumed to remain unstrained, and that plane sections remain
plane. When shear deformations will later be taken into account, then the plane will not
necessarily remain normal to the middle surface.
14.1 Fundamental Relations 14{5
8 Based on the plane section remaining plane assumption, we have,
Draft
8 9 2 38 9
< u >
> = z 0 0 > < xx > =
>
v >
= 4 0 z 0 5
6 7
>
yy >
(14.8)
: w; 0 0 1 : w ;
9 However, from Eq. ?? we have = Lu or
2 @ 3
8
> "xx 9
> @x 0 0
> >
0 @ 0
>
>
>
> "yy >
>
>
>
6
6 @y
78
7
u
9
>
<
"zz >
=
=
6
6
6
0 0 @z@ 7>
7<
7 v
>
=
(14.9)
xy @ @
@x 0
> > 6 7> >
>
>
xz
>
> 6 @y
@
7: w ;
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
6
4 @z 0 @x@ 7
5 | {z }
:
yz ;
0 @z@ @y@ u
| {z } | {z }
L
10 Since w corresponds to the transverse de ection of the middle surface, and does not vary
with z , then "zz = 0.
11 Substituting Eq. 14.8, we obtain
8 9 8 9 8 9
>
> "xx >
> >
> zxx;x >
> >
> zxx >
>
>
>
>
>
>
"yy >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
zyy;y >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
zyy >
>
>
>
>
<
"zz = > z ( 0+ ) > = > 2z0 >
= < = < =
(14.10)
>
>
>
xy >
>
> >
> xx;y yy;x >> >
> xy >
>
>
>
>
>
:
xz >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
(xx + w;x) > >
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
xz > >
>
>
yz (yy + w;y ) yz ;
Note that this equation assumes that the displacement w is small compared to the thickness
of the plate, and he the rotation is small. Because the rotation is small, its square is negligible
with respect to unity, and hence the curvature
@ @
= (1 +@x2)3=2 @x (14.11)
is equal to the rate of change of rotation.
12 Hence, the kinematic relation for the transverse displacement of a plate is
8 9 2 @ 3
>
> xx >> @x @0 0
78 9
6 0 0
> > 6
< yy >
> >
> = 6 @ @y 7>
7 < xx >
=
2 = 6 @ 0 7
xy 6 @y @x yy
>
>
> >
> 6
1 0 @ 7
7>
: w ; > (14.12)
>
> xz >
>
> 4 @x 5
:
yz ;
0 1 @y@ | {zu }
| {z } | {z }
L
14{6 PLATES
14.1.3 Constitutive Relations
Draft
13 For three dimensional continuum, the strain-stress relation is

8
>
>
"xx
9
>
>
2
1 , , 38
>
> xx
9
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
" yy
>
>
>
>
>
6 ,
6 1 , 0 7>
7
>
>
>
>
yy
>
>
>
>
>
<
"zz = 1 66 , , 1
= 6 7
7
7
<
zz
=
(14.13)
>
>
>
xy >>
>
E 6
6
2(1 + ) 0 0 77 > >
>
xy >>
>
>
>
>
>
:
xz >>
>
>
;
4 0 0 2(1 + ) 0 5> >
>
>
:
xz >>
>
>
yz 0 0 2(1 + ) yz ;
But From Eq. 14.10 "zz = 0, and we can neglect zz which is much smaller than the other
stresses. Hence, inverting the previous equation yields
8 9 2 38 9
>
> xx >
> 1 0 >
> " xx >
>
>
< yy =
>
>
>
>
>
E
6
6 1 0 0 7
7
>
>
>
< " yy
>
>
>
=
xy = 6
0 0 1 , 7
xy (14.14)
>
xz >> 1 , 6
26 2
,
7
7> >
0 > xz >
>
> >
> 1 >
> >
>
>
>
:
yz ;
>
4
0 2 5
0 1,2 : yz ;
> >
| {z } | {z } | {z }
D
Note that the shear modulus is = 2(1+ E .
)
14 We now seek to write moments in terms of the curvatures, Fig. 14.5, introducing the stresses
Figure 14.5: Positive Moments and Rotations

from Eq. 14.14 into Eq. 14.1-a, and using Eq. 14.10 we derive the rst term
Z t Z t
Mxx = 2
zdz = 2 E (" + " )zdz = Z 2t E (z + z )zdz
,2 t xx , 2t 1 , 2
xx yy
, 2t 1 , 2
xx yy
Z t
= 1 ,E 2 (xx + yy ) 2t z 2 dz = 12(1Et, 2 ) (xx + yy )
3
(14.15-a)
,2
14.2 Kirchho 14{7
Draft
15Following a similar procedure for the other two terms, we obtain the following moment-
curvature relation
8 9 2 38 9
< Mxx >
> = Et 3 1 0 >
< xx >
=
>
M yy >
= 6
1 0
12(1 , 2 ) 0 0 1, >
4
7
5 yy > (14.16)
: M : 2
xy ; 2 xy ;
| {z } | {z }| {z }
M D
16The 12(1Et,3 2 ) term is referred to as the exural rigidity and is analogous to the exural stiness
EI of a beam (if the plate has unit width, and = 0, then EI = Et3=12).
14.2 Kirchho
17 This theory, is primarily applicable to thin plates in which shear deformations can be ne-
glected.
14.2.1 Fundamental Relations
18In this formulation, shear deformations are neglected, and formulation is analogous to the
conventional Euler-Bernouilli beam theory.
Kinematic Relations Since shear deformations are neglected, xz = yz = 0 and thus the
last two relation of Eq. 14.10 reduce to
xx = ,w;x and yy = ,w;y (14.17)
and the rst three strains become
xx = ,z @@xw2 ; yy = ,z @@yw2 ; @2w ;
2 2
xy = ,2z @x@y (14.18)
or 8 9 8 9
>
< xx >
=
>
>
< , @x@222 >
>
=n o
yy = > , @y@ 2 w
>
: 2xy >
; : ,2 @ @
> >
>
; | {z } (14.19)
| {z } |
@x @y
{z }
u
L
Constitutive Relation The constitutive relation of Eq. 14.16 still applies
8 9 2 38 9
< Mxx >
> = Et 6 1 1
3 0 > < xx > =
M yy = 12(1 , 2 ) 4 0 0 0 75 > yy >
(14.20)
>
: M >
; 1, : 2 ;
xy 2 xy
| {z } | {z }| {z }
M D

14{8 PLATES
Equilibrium The equilibrium equation, as expressed by Eq. 14.7 still holds. If we were to
Draft
substitute the second and third relations into the rst one, then we would obtain the
following equilibrium relation in terms of the moments
@ 2 Mxx + 2 @ 2 Mxy + @ 2 Myy + p = 0 (14.21)
@x2 @x@y @y2 z
(Note the similarity with the corresponding equations for beam exure ddx2 M2 , Vx = 0)
14.2.2 Dierential Equation
19If we combine the kinematic with the constitutive relation, 14.19 and 14.20 respectively we
obtain 2
8 9 @ 22 + @ 22 3
>
< M xx =
>
Et3 66 @x@ 2 @y2 7 n o
>
M yy >
= , 12(1 , 2 ) 4 @y 2 + @ 7
@x2 5 w (14.22)
: M
xy ;
(1 , ) @x @y
@ @
20 Finally, we substitute the equilibrium equation, 14.21, into the previous one,
@4w + 2 @4w + @4w = pz (14.23)
@x4 @x2 @y2 @y4 Et3 2
12(1, )
or
r4 w = pz (14.24)
Et3
12(1, 2 )
Note the similarity with the corresponding equation for beams
@ 2 EI @ 2 w = p (14.25)
@x2 @x2 z
14.2.3 Stresses
21Combining the stress-strain relation of Eq. 14.14, with Eq. 14.18, and 14.22, the stresses
could be expressed in terms of the moments
xx = M xxz
t3=12 ; yy = M yy z
t3 =12 ; xy = M xy z
t3 =12
(14.26)
again we note the analogy with the exural stress expression in beams = My
I . Using the three
dimensional equilibrium equation, Eq. 3.30:
@xx + @xy + @xz = 0
@x @y @z
14.2 Kirchho 14{9
@yx + @yy + @yz = 0 (14.27-a)
Draft
@x @y @z
@zx + @zy + @zz = 0
@x @y @z
integrating the rst equation yields

xz = ,
Z z @xx + @xy dz = Z t=2 12z @Mxx + @Mxy dz
t=2 @x @y z t3 @x @y
Z t=2
= 12
t3 zVxdz (14.28-a)
z
Finally
2 " # 2 " #
xz = 32Vtx 1 , 2tz and yz = 32Vty 1 , 2tz (14.29)
Thus the shear stress distribution across the plate thickness is parabolic (though they tend to
be very small compared to xy , and the peak shear stresses occur at the middle surface (z = 0)
where
xz jmax = 23 Vtx and yz jmax = 32 Vty (14.30)
Finally, it can be shown that zz varies cubically.
14.2.4 Variational Formulation
22 Prior to the nite element discretization, we seek to obtain from the previously derived
relations a variational formulation of the problem.
23 The internal virtual work is given by
Z Z
Wi = , t dA = , t MdA (14.31)
A A
where M = D is obtained from Eq. 14.20, and = Lu is obtained from Eq. 14.19.
24 Accounting for the external virtual work, we obtain
Z Z Z
W = Wi + We = , ut (LT DL)udA + ut p V dA + utpd, = 0 (14.32)
| A {z } A ,p
| {z }
where pv contain the applied transverse loading pz , and p the edge loading ps.
25 Substituting for the LT DL term we obtain
2 38 9
1 0 >
> , @x@222 >>
,2 @x@ @y@ c 12(1Et, 2 ) 64 1
3 < =
kL = LT DL = b , @x@22 , @y@22 0 7
5 , @y@ 2 >
0 0 1, >
2
>
: ,2 @x@ @y@ >
;
14{10 PLATES
= K
Draft
" ! !#
@ 2 @ 2 + @ 2 + 2(1 , ) @ @ @ @ + @ 2 @ 2 + @ 2 (14.33-a)
@x2 @x2 @y2 @x @y @x @y @y2 @y2 @x2
and nally, noting that u = w, the virtual work becomes
Z Z
W = , w (KLwpz ) dA + ,p wps d = 0 (14.34)
A ,
14.3 Reissner-Mindlin
26This theory, is primarily applicable to thick plates in which shear deformations can not be
neglected.
14.3.1 Fundamental Relations
27In this formulation, shear deformation is accounted for and is the extension of the Timo-
shenko's beam theory.
Kinematic: The kinematic relation of Eq. 14.12 still holds and is written in slightly modied
form
8 9 2 @ 3
< xx >
> @x 0 ( )
=
yy > = 4 0 @y 5
6 @ 7 xx (14.35-a)
>
: 2 ; @ @ yy
xy @y {z @x } | {z }
| {z } |
Lf
8 9
(
xz
) "
@ 1 0
#>
< w >
=
= @x
@ xx (14.35-b)
yz @y 0 1 >
: >
yy
;
| {z } | {z }
Ls | {z }
u
Equilibrium: The equilibrium equation, Eq. 14.7 also still holds

8 9
2 3>> Mxx >
> 8 9 8 9
@
@x0 @y@ ,1 0 >
>
>
< Myy >
>
>
= >
< 0 >
= >
< 0 >
=
6
4 0 @y@ @x@ 0 ,1 7
5
>
Mxy >
+> 0 >
=> 0 >
0 0 0 @x@ @
@y
>
>
>
> Vx >
>
>
>
: pz ; : 0 ;
| {z }: Vy ;
LT =b LTf LTs c | {z }
M

14.3 Reissner-Mindlin 14{11
Constitutive: the constitutive relation of Eq. 14.16 must be augmented to account for the
Draft
relationships between xz and yz (which are no longer negligible in this case) with Vx
and Vy respectively. This is obtained by equating the internal work with the external one
Z Z Z
xz xz dzdA = Vx xz dA (14.36)
A z A
Recalling that xz = xz we have
2 (2 " #)
Z Z
xz xz dzdA = 2Z
xz
Z
dzdA =
Z Z t=2
1 3 V x 1, 2t z dzdA
A z A z A ,t=2 2 t
2
=
Z
8 3 V x t dA =
Z
6 Vx
2
dA =
Z
V 6 Vx dA (14.37-a)
x
A 15 2 t A 5 t A 5 t
Hence, comparing with Eq. 14.36 we conclude that xz = 65 Vtx , and the nal constitutive
matrix becomes
8 9 2 2 3 38 9
>
> Mxx >
>
1 0 >
> xx >
>
>
>
>
< Myy >
>
>
= 6 K4 1
6 6
0 7
5 0 7>
7>
7<
> yy >
>
>
=
6
0 0 1,
>
Mxy >
= 6
6 2 "
7
# 7> 2xy > (14.38)
>
>
>
>
Vx >
>
>
>
6
4
0 10 01
7>
5>>
>
xz >
>
>
>
:
Vy ; :
yz ;
| {z } | {z }| {z }
M D
where K = 12(1Et,3 2 ) and = 56 t
28 The constitutive matrix can be symbolically written as
" #
D = D0f D0s (14.39)
14.3.2 Dierential Equation

28 The dierential equation for the Mindlin plate will not be derived in this course.
14.3.3 y Variational Formulation
29 The internal virtual work is expressed through two distinct terms
Z Z
,Wi = tMdA + t VdA (14.40-a)
Z A A Z
= (Lf ) Df Lf dA + (Ls u)t Ds Ls udA
t (14.40-b)
Z A Z A
= Lf Df Lf dA + ut L| tsD{zs L}s udA
t t (14.40-c)
A | {z } A
kLf kLs
14{12 PLATES
Draft
30 Substituting
Z
@ @ + @ 1, @ @ @ + @ 1, @
W = ,K b xx yy c @ @ + @ 1, @ @ @@y + @@y1,2 @@x
@x @x @y 2 @y @x xx dA
A| {z } @y @x @x 2 @y @y @y @x 2 @x } | yy
{z }
t | {z
L
kf
| {z }
Internal, Bending
2 @ @ @ @ @ @ 3( )
5 t
Z @x @x +
@ @y @y @y @x w
,6 b w xx yy c 4
@y 1 0 5 xx dA
A| {z
u t
} @
@x 0 1 yy
| {z }| {z }
kLs u
| {z }
Internal, Shear
( ) ( )
Z pz Z ps
+ b w xx yy c 0 dA + b w xx yy c 0 dA (14.41-a)
A| {z
ut
} 0 ,| {z
ut
} 0
| {z } | {z }
pv p
| {z }
External
After substitution, and accounting for the external work, we obtain
W = ,K
Z
k dA +
t L 6 k s (1 , ) Z
u k udA
t L

A f t2 A s
Z Z
+ ut pV dA + ut pd, = 0 (14.42)
A ,
kLf = Lf Df Lf
t (14.43)
kLs = LtsDsLs (14.44)
where ks = 5=6 is the shear correction factor
Z
W = b w xx yy c
A
2 @ 5t @ @ 5t @ @ 5t 5t @ 3(
@x 6 @x + @y 6 @y @y 6 6 @x w )
@ 5 t @ @ @ K (1, ) @ 5 t @ @ @ K (1, ) @
4 @y 6 @x K @x + @y 2 @y + 6 @x K @y + @y 2 @x 5 xx dA
5t @ @ K @ + @ K (1, ) @ @ K @ + @ K (1, ) @ + 5t yy
6 @x @y @x @x 2 @y @y @y @x 2 @x 6
( ) ( )
Z pz Z ps
b w xx yy c 0 dA + b w xx yy c 0 dA = 0 (14.45-a)
A 0 , 0
14.3.4 Summary
31 Table 14.1 summarizes some of the major equations governing plate bending, and contrasts
them with the equivalent elasticity ones.
2 @
Elasticity
3 Kinematic
Plate Theory (Kirchho/Mindlin)
Draft
8 @x 0 0
> "xx 9 0 @ 0 ( )
=
< "yy > 6 @y @ 7 ux xx
@ 22
, @x
"zz 0 0 @z 7 @
" xy =6
6 @ @ 0 7 uy yy = , @y22 w
>
: "xz >; 4 @y
@ @x @ 5 uz 2xy @ | {z }
"yz @z 0 @x | {z } | {z } ,2 @x
@ @y
u
| {z } 0 @ @ u
| {z }
@z @y L
| {z }
L #
Victor Saouma
" @
xx @x 0 n on o h @ i w
yy = 0 @ xx ; xz = @x 1 0 xx
@ @y
@ yy yz @
@y 0 1
2xy @y @x | {z } | {z } | {z
yy
| {z } | {z }
}| {z }
Ls u
14.3 Reissner-Mindlin
Lf
8 9 Equilibrium 9
" @ @ @ # > xx > " @ @ # 8 Mxx
@x 0 0 @y @z 0 < yy = bx @x 0 @y ,1 0 < Myy = 0 0
0 @
@y 0 @
@x 0 @
@z
zz =0 by 0 @
@y @
@x 0 ,1 Mxy + 0 = 0
@ @ @ > xy + bz @ @ : Vx ; pz 0
0 0 @z 0 @x @y : xz >
; | {z } 0 0 0 @x @y Vy
| {z } yz | {z } | {z }
LT | {z } b LT
M 9
" @
0 @ ,1 0
# 8 Mxx
= 0
@x @ @y
@
< Myy 0
0 @y 0 ,1
@x Mxy + 0 = 0
0 0 @x 0
@ @y@ : Vx ; pz 0
| {z }| Vy
{z }
LT =b LTf LTs c M
8 2 1 Constitutive
> xx 9 0 0 0 38 "xx 9
=
< yy > 1 0 0 0 > =
< "yy > Mxx 1 0 xx
zz = 6 1 0 0 0 7 "zz Myy =K 1 0 yy
xy 4 0 0 0 0 1,
> ;
: yz > 0 0 0 0
0 5 > "xy >
0 : "yz ; Mxy 0 0 2 2xy
zx 0 0 0 0 0 "zx | {z } | {z }| {z }
| {z } | {z }| {z } M D
D 8 9 2 38
xx 1 0 xx 9
< M
Myy = K 1 0 0 < yy =
=6 0 0 1, 7
Mxy 4 2 h i 5 2xy
: Vx ; 1 0 : xz ;
Vy 0 0 1 yz
| {z } | {z }| {z }
M D
= E(1, ) 1,2
= 2(1 K= Et3 = 65 t
(1+ )(1,2 ) ; = 1, ; , ) 12(1, 2 ) ;
Virtual Work Z Z
R R R
=
(Lu)T Dd
,
uT bd
, ,t
uT ^td, = 0 W = , w (KLwpz ) dA +
,p wps d = 0
Z A Z , Z Z
W = ,K t kLf dA + 6ks (1t2, ) ut kLs udA + ut pV dA + ut pd, = 0
A A A ,
14{13
Finite Elements
Table 14.1: Comparison of Governing Equations in Elasticity and Plate Bending
14{14 PLATES
14.4 Finite Element Formulations
Draft
32Numerous elements have been proposed for plate bending. An ideal plate element should
have the following properties:
1. Formulation should be based on continuum mechanics and plate theory, the nodal d.o.f.
are the transverse displacement w, and sectional rotations xx and yy .
2. The element should be \numerically correct", and convergent. The element stiness
matrix must contain the three rigid-body modes and no rank deciency (spurious zero-
energy modes).
3. The element should not \lock" in thin plate analyses.
4. The predictive capability of the element should be insensitive to element geometric dis-
tortions.
33 Since plate structure is a special case of shell structures, and plates under large displacement
exhibit shell characteristics (through membrane actions), similar formulations can be employed
for both plates and shells.
14.4.1 Rectangular Element
14.4.1.1 Formulation
34 The stiness matrix, including shear deformation eects, for a rectangular element, Fig. ??
will be developed.
Figure 14.6: Rectangular Plate Element
35 The selected degrees of freedom are w; xx and yy , thus

8 9 2 38 9
>
< w >
= N1 N2 N3 N4 0 0 >
< w >
=
xx = 6
4 0 N1 N2 N3 N4 0 7
5 xx
>
: yy >
; 0 0 N1 N2 N3 N4 >
: yy
>
;
14.4 Finite Element Formulations 14{15
" #( )
= Nw 0 w
Draft
0 N
where
N1 = (1 , )(1 , ); N2 = (1 , ); N3 = ; N4 = (1 , ) (14.47)
Note that the natural coordinate system selected has its origin at node 1, and 0 ; 1. Thus
through these shape functions, we will have a rst order (C0 ) element, for which displacement
and rotations will be continuous along the boundaries (since xx and yy are also variables).
36 The stiness matrix, for a Mindlin plate, will be derived on the basis of the principle of
virtual work from Eq. 14.42
2 3
tkLf dA + 6ks (1t2, )

6Z Z 7
,Wi = K 6
6 ut kLsudA775 (14.48)
4
| A {z } | A {z }
Flexure Shear
where kLf = Ltf Df Lf , and kLs = Lts Ds Ls .
37 The rst integral will lead to the stiness matrix corresponding to bending, kf , and the
second one to the stiness matrix corresponding to shear deformations ks .
38 We recall that LN = B, and that x = a and y = b , hence
@ = 1 @ and @ = 1 @ (14.49)
@x a @ @y b @
thus substituting Eq. 14.35-a
2 1 @ 3
a @ 0
4 0 1 @ 5 (1 , )(1 , ) (1 , ) (1 , ) 0 0 0 0
1 @
b1 @
@ 0 0 0 0 (1 , )(1 , ) (1 , ) (1 , )
|
b @ {z a @ } | {z }
N
Lf
2 1, 1, 3
, a a a , a 0 0 0 0
=4 0 0 0 0 , 1,b , b 1, 5 (14.50-a)
, 1,b , b 1, , 1,a 1,a b b
, a
|
b b {z a }
B
39 We note that Lf = Lu (used in elasticity) for in plane deformation, and Df = 12t2 D, thus
the stiness matrix for bending can be formed directly from the stiness matrix for in-plane
deformation.
40 Upon substitution and integration we obtain
kf = 24(1Et, 2 ) 12
t 2

14{16 PLATES
w1 w2 w3 w4 x1 x2 x3 x4 y1 y2 y3 y4
Draft
2 3
0
6
6
0 0 7
7
6
6
0 7
7
6 0 7
6
6 A C ,A =2 B 2 ,3 ,2 3 77
6
6 A B ,A =2 3 ,2 ,3 2 77
6
6 A C ,2 3 2 ,3 77
6
6
A ,3 2 3 ,2 7
6 A B ,A=2 C 777
6
6 A C ,A=2 7
4 A B 5
A
(14.51-a)
where = b=a, = a=b, 1 = 1 , , 2 = 3(1 + ), 3 = 3(1 , 3 ), A = 8 + 41 ,
B = ,4 , 21 , C = ,8 + 21 , and A , B , C are obtained by interchanging
and in the expressions of A , B , C respectively.
41 Considering the second integral in Eq. 14.48, and substituting from Eq. 14.39
kLs = L"tsDsLs # (14.52-a)

Ds = 10 01 (14.52-b)
= 56 t (14.52-c)
we obtain
Z Z
K ut kLs udA = K (Lts u)t ILs udA
A Z A
= K (Lt Nu)t Ls NudA
AZ s
= Kut Bts Bs dAu (14.53-a)
A
Recalling that Bs = Ls N, and substituting from Eq. 14.35-b for Ls we obtain
Z
ks = Bts BsdA (14.54-a)
" #
Bs = B 11 B12
B21 0 B23
0 (14.54-b)
Note that the rst row and second row in the second equations correspond to xz and yz
respectively.
42 Upon substitution,
h i
B11 = , (1,a ) (1,)
a

a , a (14.55-a)
h i
B12 = (1 , )(1 , ) (1 , ) 1 , (14.55-b)
Draft
h i
B21 = , (1,b ) , b b (1,b ) (14.55-c)
h i
B12 = (1 , )(1 , ) (1 , ) (1 , ) (14.55-d)
43In order to facilitate the integration of ks , a one point Gauss integration = = 0:5 is used.
Upon substitution
" #
Bs =
c , 21a 21a 21a , 21a 1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4 0 (14.56)
, 21b , 21b 21b 21b 0 1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
Finally ks is obtained from Z

ks = Bb t Bb sdA
A s
(14.57)
which gives
ks = 241
2
w1 w2 w3 w4 x1 x2 x3 x4 y1 y2 y3 y4 3
6 ,6 ,6 6 ,3b ,3b ,3b ,3b ,3a ,3a ,3a ,3a
6
6
6 6 ,6 3b 3b 3b 3b ,3a ,3a ,3a ,3a 77
6 6 ,6 3b 3b 3b 3b 3a 3a 3a 3a 7
6
6 6 ,3b ,3b ,3b ,3b 3a 3a 3a 3a 77
6
6 1:5ab 1:5ab 1:5ab 1:5ab 7
7
6
6 1:5ab 1:5ab 1:5ab 7
7
6
6 1:5ab 1:5ab 7
7
6
6
1:5ab 7
6
6
1:5ab 1:5ab 1:5ab 1:5ab 7
7
6 1:5ab 1:5ab 1:5ab 7
7
4 1:5ab 1:5ab 5
1:5ab
(14.58-a)
where = ab , = ab , = + , and = , .
44 The nal element stiness matrix is
ke = K [kf + ks] (14.59)
and in terms of the global stiness matrix we will have

P
[Kf + Ks] u = K (14.60)

14{18 PLATES
14.4.1.2 Shear Locking
Draft
45 Through inspection of the previous equation, and noting that = 6ks (1t2, ) , we observe that
for very thin plates is very large, hence as t ! 0; ! 1. Hence, unrealistic u = 0 can be
obtained independently of the load. This phenomena is called locking (of the displacements).
46 Locking occurs also in thin beam elements when shear deformation eects are accounted for.
47 To alleviate the locking problems is to make Ks singular so that Ks is nite. This can
be accomplished through reduced numerical integration for ks , Table 14.2, which in turn will
reduce the rank of the matrix.
Integration Rule
Full Reduced Selective
kf ks kf ks kf ks
Bilinear 4 nodes, 12 d.o.f. 2x2 2x2 1x1 1x1 2x2 1x1
Quadratic 9 nodes, 27 d.o.f. 3x3 3x3 2x2 2x2 3x3 2x2
Serendipity 8 nodes, 24 d.o.f. 3x3 3x3 2x2 2x2 3x3 2x2
Table 14.2: Integration Rules for Mindlin Plate Elements
48The same phenomena occurs for beams. This is illustrated by evaluating the de ection of a
cantilever beam, due to both exural and shear deformation, under a point load
w = PL
3
+ PL = PL3 1 + 3EI (14.61)
EI ks A EI ks AL2
or 3
!
w = PL 1 + 3 ; = ks AL2 = k L 2 = O L2 (14.62)
EI EI sE r h2
Hence, as the slenderness ratio increases, shear deformation decreases. Furthermore, Euler
theory is recovered if the shear stiness ! 1, however shear locking can occur for small .
49 Shear locking eects are aggravated by large element distortions.
14.4.2 Nonconforming Kirchho Triangular Element

14.4.2.1 Formulation
50Since rectangular elements can hardly accommodate general boundary conditions, and since
quadrilateral elements can more readily be obtained through an assemblage of triangular ele-
ments rather than through the distortions of a rectangular element, we consider next the three
noded, nine dof. Kirchho element.

51 The element is shown in Fig. 14.7, has the following 3 dof at each node: displacement w, and
Draft
slopes xx = , @w
@x and yy = , @y . Because the complete cubic polynomial expansion contains
@w
10 terms (1; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 2 ; 3 ), yet we have only nine dof's, thus we opt instead to
2 2 3 2
a natural coordinate system and we express the displacement as
w = w1 + w2 (14.63)
where w1 corresponds to the rigid body part, and w2 the displacements incurred when the
triangle is simply supported at the nodes.
52 w1 has three rigid body motions, Fig. 14.7
Figure 14.7: Triangular Plate Element in Natural Coordinate System
1. Translation: in the z direction with w1 = cst.

2. Rotation about side 1: of the triangle. This results in a rigid body translation in the
z direction of line ab which is parallel to side 1 is w1 = h1 . If we consider a triangle
with vertex b, than this point would have L1 = A1 =A = h1 =h, thus w1 = h1 = hL1 or
w1 = (cst)L1 .
3. Rotation about side 2: where w1 = (cst)L2 .
Thus for rigid body motions we can write:
w1 = wb1 L1 + wb2 L2 + wb3 L3 (14.64)

14{20 PLATES
53Since the element has 9 dof, a cubic polynomial will be used for shape functions; i.e. the
Draft
shape function can be a linear combination of the cubic terms
L21 L2 ; L22 L3 ; L23 L1; L22L1 ; L23 L2 ; L21 L3 ; L1 L2 L3 (14.65)
Note that if we were to substitute into
8 9 2 38 9
>
< L1 >
= x2 y3 ,x3 y2 y23 x32 >
< 1 >
=
L2 = 4 x3 y1 ,x1 y3 y31 x13
6 7
5 x (14.66)
>
: L3 >
; x1 y2 ,x2 y1 y12 x21 >
: y >
;
where xij = xi , xj , then we will have a cubic polynomial in terms of x and y.

54 Since w1 took already care of the rigid body movements, the cubic terms can be used for w2 .
55 Zienkiewicz found it convenient to form the terms of w2 as follows

1 1
w2 = wb4 L3 L1 + 2 L1 L2 L3 + wb5 L3L2 + 2 L1 L2 L3
2 2

b 2 1 b 2 1
+w6 L1 L3 + 2 L1 L2 L3 + w7 L1 L2 + 2 L1 L2 L3

b
1 b 2 1
w8 L2 L3 + 2 L1 L2 L3 + w9 L2L1 + 2 L1 L2 L3
2 (14.67-a)
56 Hence
w = w1 + w2 = Nu wb (14.68)
where Nu and wb are dened in Eq. 14.64 and 14.67-a.
57 The unknown quantities w bi can in turn be expressed in terms of the nodal unknown dis-
@x and yy = , @y in Eq. 14.68.
placements by substituting w, xx = , @w @w
58 The nodal displacement are hence expressed as
u = Nb uwb (14.69)
where u = b w1 x1 y1 w3 x3 y3 c thus wb = N
b ,1 u = Gu and
u
w = NuGu = Nu (14.70)
with w = N1 u1 + N2 u2 + N3 u3 where u1 = b wi xxi yyi cT
59 Upon substitution, it can be shown that
8 9T
>
< L1 + L21 L2 + L21 L3 , L1 L2 , L1 L23 >
=
N1 = > ,b3(L21L2 + 12 L1 L2L3) + b2(L21 L3 + 12 L1 L2L3) (14.71)
: c3 (L21 L2 + 21 L1 L2 L3 ) , c2 (L21 L3 + 12 L1 L2 L3 ) >
;

where b2 = x1 , x3 , b3 = x2 , x1 , c2 = y3 , y1 , and c3 = y1 , y2. The other two shape functions
Draft
can be obtained by cyclic permutation of sux 1-2-3.
60 Finally, the stiness matrix is derived from Eq. 14.34
Z Z
W = , w kL wpz dA + ,pwps d = 0 (14.72)
A S
where
kL = LT DL (14.73)
Thus
Z
ke = NT LT DLNdA (14.74)
Z A
pe = NT pz dA (14.75)
A
These matrices are evaluated using
Lk1 Ll2 Lm3 dA = 2A (2 + kk!+l!ml +! m)!
Z
(14.76)
A
14.4.2.2 Nonconformity
61 Considering Fig. 14.8
6y 1
Draft
2 3
- x
2 3
Figure 14.8: Edges of Adjacent Triangular Elements

it can be shown that the displacement w along sides 2-3 (where L1 = 0) are cubic and is the
same for element 1 as for element 2 (since they share the same nodal d.o.f.). The four terms of
the cubic polynomial can be uniquely determined from w2 ; w3 ; xx2 and xx3 at nodes 2 and 3.
Hence, both w and xx = , @w @x are continuous along side 2-3 for both elements.

14{22 PLATES
62 However, for yy = , @w
@y things are quite dierent. If we set L1 = 0 and take the derivative
Draft
of w in Eq. 14.68, then we have
,yy = @w
@y = 0 + 1 x + 2 x
2 (14.77)
but since we only have two d.o.f. (yy at nodes 2 and 3), then the parameters can not be
uniquely expressed in terms of these two d.o.f. Hence, we will have discontinuity of normal
slope, or kinks.
63 Elements with element boundary discontinuity are referred to as nonconforming elements.
64 This nonconforming element, nevertheless is a viable one as the 3 rigid body modes, and
constant strains are present. In addition, it passes the patch test.
65 Despite its nonconformity, this element is quite appealing because the deformation is ex-
pressed only in terms of the middle surface de ection w.
14.4.3 Discrete Kirchho Triangle
66 From the previous formulation, it is apparent that it is dicult to formulate a compatible
triangular element with 9 d.o.f. using a single polynomial approximation for w.
67 A viable approach consists in starting with the thick plate, or Reissner-Mindlin plate theory,
by separating the d.o.f. for translation and rotations and making them independent one from
the other. These in turn are made continuous at the inter-element boundaries, thus ensuring
C0 continuity. Since the plate is very thin, the term corresponding to shear deformation in the
virtual work will be neglected. The shape functions will be designed to ensure compatibility,
thus the element will be conforming. Finally, the Kirchho plate theory assumptions will be
only introduced at discrete points along the element boundaries.
68 The starting point will be Eq. 14.40-c, Fig. 14.9
Z Z
,Wi = t Ltf Df Lf dA + ut LtsDs Ls udA (14.78)
A A
where the rst term corresponds to exure, and the second one to the eect of shear which will
be neglected.
69 Since for bending, only the rotations appear in the formulation, the rotations can be approx-
imated by
X6 X6
xx = Ni xi; yy = Ni yi (14.79)
i=1 i=1
70 The shape functions Ni for the natural coordinates with quadratic expansions are
N1 = L1 (2L1 , 1) = (1 , L2 , L3 )(1 , 2L2 , 2L3 )
3
u
y Formulations
14.4 Finite Element 14{23
u
6 6 u
5
Draft
u
1 u4
u
2
- x
Figure 14.9: Discrete Kirchho Triangular Element
[0,60] N2 = L2 (2L2 , 1)
N3 = L3 (2L3 , 1)
N4 = 4L2 L3
N5 = 4L1 L3 = 4(1 , L2 , L3 )L3
N6 = 4L1 L2 = 4(1 , L2 , L3 )L2 (14.80-a)
71 For this element, so far we have a total of 12 dof, and we seek to formulate it in terms of only
9 dof, 3 at each corner node corresponding to wi ; ixx and iyy thus we need to impose certain
constraints for this reduction.
72 Hence, Kirchho assumptions will be selectively applied:
1. Zero transverse shear strains at the corners: or from Eq. 14.35-b
8 9
( ) "
@ #> w > ( ) ( ) ( )
xz 1 0 0 xx = , w;x
< =
yz = @x
@ 0 1 >
xx >
= 0 ) yy ,w;y (14.81)
@y : yy ;
2. Zero transverse shearstrain at the midside nodes: or

tk = ,w;sk (14.82)
14{24 PLATES
where k is a supercript denoting the midside nodes only, tk is a rotation about the normal
Draft
to the boundary at node k, and wsk is the derivative of w with respect to the s direction
along the boundary.
3. Linear variation of the tangential slope: , i.e the rotation about the s direction at the
middle nodes is the average of the rotations at the end nodes
nk = 21 (ni + nj ) (14.83)
where the corner nodes i , j are 2-3, 3-1, and 1-2. k corresponds to the midside nodes.
73 We let the displacement of w along the boundary of length lij to be cubic
w = a0 + a1 s + a2s2 + a3 s3; w0 = a1 + 2a2 s + 3a3 s (14.84)
and thus w0 = w;s varies quadratically and the three coecients can be obtained by matching
w;s = ,n at the three points along the edge. Applying the boundary conditions at s = 0 and
s = lij in terms of both w and w;j , we have 4 equations to determine the four coecients,
wi = 0 ats = 0 node i (14.85-a)
wi0 = a1 ats = 0 (14.85-b)
wj = a0 + a1 lij + a2 lij2 + a3lij3 ats = lij node j (14.85-c)
wj0 = a1 + a2 lij + a3lij2 ats = lij (14.85-d)
yielding
w;sk = , 23l wi , 41 w;si + 23l wj , 41 w;sj (14.86)
ij ij
74 Since the rst term of Eq. 14.40-c, does not involve w, there is no need to dene an interpo-
lation function for w inside the element.
75 Relations between xx , yy and nodal variables n and t are given by
( ) " #( ) " #( )
xx = cos ij , sin ij n = , cos ij sin ij w;n (14.87)
yy sin ij cos ij t , sin ij cos ij w;s
and ( ) " #( )
w;n
w;s = ,sin
cos ij , sin ij
ij , cos ij
xx
yy (14.88)
76 Substituting the last three equation into Eq. 14.79 at each node to obtain xi and yi to nd
the shape functions results in
xx = Nxvi ; yy = Ny vi (14.89)
or
Draft
8 9
>
>
>
w1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
1x >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
1y >
>
>
>
>
( i ) " >
#>
> w2 >
>
>
= N x1 Nx2 Nx3 Nx4 Nx5 Nx6 Nx7 Nx8 Nx9
< =
xx
2x (14.90)
iyy N N N N N N N N N
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y9 > >
| {z } | {z
>
}>
>
>
>
2y >
>
>
>
>
N >
>
>
> w3 >
>
>
>
> >
>
>
>
>
>
3x >
>
>
>
>
:
3y ;
| {z }
v
where
Nx1 = 1:5(a6 N6 , a5 N5 ); Ny1 = 1:5(d6 N6 , d5 N5 )
Nx2 = N1 , b5 N5 , b6N6 ; Ny2 = Nx3
Nx3 = ,c5 N5 , c6 N6 ; Ny3 = N1 , e5 N5 , e6 N6
Nx4 = 1:5(a6 N4 , a5 N6 ); Ny4 = 1:5(d4 N4 , d6 N6 )
Nx5 = N2 , b5 N6 , b6N4 ; Ny5 = Ny3 (14.91)
Nx6 = ,c6 N6 , c4 N4 ; Ny6 = N2 , e5 N6 , e4 N4
Nx1 = 1:5(a6 N5 , a5 N4 ); Ny1 = 1:5(d5 N5 , d4 N4 )
Nx2 = N3 , b5 N4 , b5N5 ; Ny2 = Nx3
Nx3 = ,c4 N4 , c5 N5 ; Ny3 = N3 , e4 N4 , e5 N5
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
and ak = , xlij2ij , bk = 4 xijl,ij2 2 yij , ck = 34 xijlij2yij , dk = , ylij2ij , ek = 4 yijl,ij2 2 xij and k = 4; 5; 6
corresponds to sides ij =23, 31, and 12 respectively.
77 With the shape functions thus dened, we can nally determine the stiness matrix from
the principle of virtual work (Eq. 14.40-c). Since shear deformations are neglected, we use only
the rst part.
Z
Wi = T Ltf Df Lf dA (14.92-a)
A | {z }
kLf
Z
= vi T NT Ltf Df Lf NdAvi (14.92-b)
ZA
= vi T BT Df BdA vi (14.92-c)
| A {z }
ke
(14.92-d)
Thus the stiness matrix can be evaluated

14{26 PLATES
14.5 Summary
Draft
78 Major conclusions
1. Two theories: thin plates (Kirchho/Euler bernouilli), and thick plates (Mindlin-Reissner/Timoshenko),
without and with shear deformations.
2. Strong analogy between plates and beams.
3. If membrane actions are accounted for, lead to formulation of shell elements.
4. ) M , " ) .
5. If thick plate theory is applied to thin plates, will have shear locking problems.
6. Shear locking is alleviated by reduced integration of the shear components.
7. FOr thin plate theory, will have non-conforming elements if only 3 d.o.f. are adopted at
each node.
8. The DKT element alleviated this problem.
9. Reduced integration will alleviate problems arising from mesh distortions.
10. Shear locking is primarily an issue for 3 node and 4 node elements. Higher order ex-
pansions preform much better, whereby Lagrangian 6 and 16 node elements perform
signicantly better than their Serenditpity counterparts of 8 node and 12 node elements.
11. The usual 3 DOF/node Kirchho elements do not maintain normal slope continuity.

Draft
Chapter 15
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
15.1 Strong Form
1 Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744.
2 An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all bers remain elastic until buck-
ling occur.
3 For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig.
15.1. Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection
P P
x
x and y are
principal axes
x
Slightly bent position

L
Figure 15.1: Euler Column

is present.
15.1.1 Lower Order Dierential Equation
4 At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the
concentric load P , gives rise to a moment
Mz = ,Py (15.1)
15{2 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
Note that the value of y is irrelevant.
Draft
5 Recalling that
d2 y = Mz (15.2)
dx2 EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following dierential equation
d2 y , P = 0 (15.3)
dx2 EI
6 P , the solution to this second-order linear dierential equation is
Letting k2 = EI
y = ,A sin kx , B cos kx (15.4)
7 The two constants are determined by applying the boundary conditions

1. y = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. y = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0 (15.5)
8 This last equation can be satised if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no de ection; 2) kL = 0, that
is no applied load; or 3)
kL = n (15.6)
,
P = n 2 or
Thus buckling will occur if EI L
P = n L2EI
2 2
9The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature de ection, will occur for n = 1; Thus
Euler critical load for a pinned column is
Pcr = LEI
2
2 (15.7)
10 The corresponding critical stress is
cr = E2
2
L
(15.8)
r
where I = Ar2 .
11 Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.

15.1 Strong Form 15{3
15.1.2 Higher Order Dierential Equation
Draft
12 In the preceding approach, the buckling loads were obtained for a column with specied
boundary conditons. A second order dierential equation, valid specically for the member
being analyzed was used.
13 In the next approach, we derive a single fourth order equation which will be applicable to
any column regardelss of the boundary conditions.
14 Considering a beam-column subjected to axial and shear forces as well as a moment, Fig.
15.2, taking the moment about i for the beam segment and assuming the angle dxdv between the
axis of the beam and the horizontal axis is small, leads to
2
dM ( dx ) dV
M , M + dx dx + w 2 + V + dx dx , P dx dx = 0 dv (15.9)
15 neglecting the terms in dx2 which are small, and then dierentiating each term with respect
to x, we obtain
d2 M , dV , P d2 v = 0 (15.10)
dx2 dx dx2
16 However, considering equilibrium in the y direction gives
dV = ,w (15.11)
dx
17 From beam theory, neglecting axial and shear deformations, we have
d2 v
M = ,EI dx (15.12)
2
18Substituting Eq. 15.11 and 15.12 into 15.10, and assuming a beam of uniform cross section,
we obtain
EI d v4 , P d v2 = w
4 2
(15.13)
dx dx
19 P , the general solution of this fourth order dierential equation to any set
Introdcing k2 = EI
of boundary conditions is
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + C3 x + C4 (15.14)
20 If we consider again the satbility of a hinged-hinged column, the boundary conditions are
v = 0; v;xx = 0 at x = 0 (15.15)
v = 0; v;xx = 0 at x = L
Draft
w(x)
P P
x
dx
y,u
w
M
V
P i V+ x dx
V
v P
x
dx
M+ M
x dx
i i P
P
j
P
j
dx
Figure 15.2: Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P

15.1 Strong Form 15{5
substitution of the two conditions at x = 0 leads to C2 = C4 = 0. From the remaining condtions,
Draft
we obtain
C1 sin kL + C3 L = 0 (15.16-a)
,C1k sin kl = 0
2 (15.16-b)
these relations are satised either if C1 = C3 = 0 or if sin kl = C3 = 0. The rst alternative
leads to the trivial solution of equilibrium at all loads, and the second to kL = n for n =
1; 2; 3 . For n = 1, the critical load is
Pcr = LEI
2
2 (15.17)
which was derived earlier using the lower order dierential equation.
21 Next we consider a column with one end xed (at x = 0), and one end hinged (at x = L).
The boundary conditions are
v = 0; v;xx = 0 atx = 0 (15.18)
v = 0; v;x = 0 atx = L
These boundary conditions will yield C2 = C4 = 0, and
sin kL , kL cos kL = 0 (15.19)
But since cos kL can not possibly be equal to zero, the preceding equation can be reduced to
tan kL = kL (15.20)
which is a transcendental algebraic equation and can only be solved numerically. We are
essentially looking at the intersection of y = x and y = tan x, Fig. 15.3 and the smallest
P , the smallest critical load is
positive root is kL = 4:4934, since k2 = EI
Pcr = (4:4934) 2 EI
2
EI = (15.21)
L2 (0:699L)2
Note that if we were to solve for x such that v;xx = 0 (i.e. an in ection point), then x = 0:699L.
22 We observe that in using the higher order dierential equation, we can account for both
natural and essential boundary conditions.
15.1.3 Slenderness Ratio
23 For dierent boundary conditions, we dene the slenderness ratio
= lre
q
where le is the eective length and is equal to le = kl and r the radius of gyration (r = AI ).
24 le is the distance between two adjacent (ctitious or actual) in ection points, Fig. 15.4

10.0
Draft
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Figure 15.3: Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged
Column
15.2 Weak Form
15.2.1 Strain Energy
25 Considering a uniform section prismatic element, Fig. ??, subjected to axial and exural
deformation (no shear), the axial strain-displacement relation is given by1
!
du
"x = dx , y dx2 + d 2v 1 dv 2 (15.22)
|{z} 2| {zdx }
Axial |Flexure
{z }
Large Deformation
26 we note that the rst and second terms are the familiar components of axial and exural
strains respectively, and the third one (which is nonlinear) is obtained from large-de ection
strain-displacement.
27 The Strain energy of the element is given by
Z
U e = 12 E"2x d
(15.23)

1 For an innitesimal segment of initial length dx, subjected to a vertical displacement v;x dx, ds = (1+ v 2 ) 21
2
;x
ds,dx v;x
(1 + 12 v;x2 )dx, the strain will be "= dx 2 . This corresponds to the Green-Lagrange strain which is
"x = u;x + 12 (u2;x + v;x2 + w;x2 ).
15.2 Weak Form 15{7
Draft
Pcr Pcr Pcr
i.p.
l/4 i.p.
i.p.
<kl<l
kl=l kl= l l l
2
2
l
i.p.
l/4
i.p.
i.p.
Pcr Pcr Pcr
k=1 k=1/2 1/2<k<1
Pcr Pcr Pcr

i.p.
l l<kl<
8
i.p. l
l
kl=21
kl=1
Pcr
Pcr Pcr
i.p.
l<kl<
8
i.p.
k=2 k=1
Figure 15.4: Critical lengths of columns

28 Substituting Eq. 15.22 into U e we obtain
Draft
2 !2 !
2 4
e 1
U = 2
Z Z
4
du + y 2 d v
2 1 dv du
+ 4 dx , 2y dx dx d2 v
L A dx dx2 2
! #
d2 v
,y dx dv 2 + du dv 2 EdAdx (15.24-a)
2 dx dx dx
29 Noting that Z Z Z
dA = A; ydA = 0; y2 dA = I (15.25)
A A A
for y measured from the centroid, U e reduces to
2 !2 3

Z
U e = 12 4A dxdu 2 + I d2 v
dv 4 + A du dv 2 5 Edx (15.26-a)
+ A4 dx
L dx2 dx dx
4
We discard the highest order term A4 dx
dv in order to transform the above equation into a
linear instability formulation.
30 Under the assumption of an independent prebuckling analysis for axial loading, the axial
load Px is
Px = EA du
dx (15.27)
Thus Eq. 15.26-a reduces to
2 ! 3
U e = 21
Z
EA du
2
d2 v 2 + P dv 2 5 dx
dx + EI (15.28)
4 x dx
L dx2
31We can thus decouple the strain energy into two components, one associated with axial and
the other with exural deformations
U e = Uae + Ufe (15.29-a)
2
EA du
Z
Uae = 12 dx dx (15.29-b)
L2 3
!
1 Z
d 2v 2
dv 2
Ufe = 2 4EI dx2 + Px dx 5 dx (15.29-c)
L

15.2 Weak Form 15{9
15.2.2 Euler Equation
Draft
32Recall, from Eq. 6.15 that a functional in terms of two eld variables with higher order
derivatives of the form
Z Z
= F (x; y; u; v; u;x ; u;y ; v;x; v;y ; ; v;yy )dxdy (15.30)
There would be as many Euler equations as dependent eld variables, Eq. 6.16
8
@ 2 @F @ 2 @F @ 2 @F
@u , @x @u;x , @y @u;y + @x2 @u;xx + @x@y @u;xy + @y2 @u;yy = 0
< @F
> @ @F @ @F
@ 2 @F @ 2 @F @ 2 @F (15.31)
: @v , @x @v;x , @y @v;y + @x2 @v;xx + @x@y @v;xy + @y2 @v;yy = 0
> @F @ @F @ @F
33 For the problem at hand, those two equations reduce to

Z h
Ufe = 12 EIv;xx
i
2 + P v 2 dx (15.32)
x ;x
L| {z }
F
and the corresponding Euler equation will be
@ @F + @ @F = 0
, @x
2
(15.33)
@v;x @x2 @v;xx
The terms of the Euler Equation are given by
@F
@v;x = Px v;x (15.34-a)
@F = EIv (15.34-b)
@v;xx ;xx
Substituting into the Euler equation, and assuming constant Px , and EI , we obtain
d4 v , P d2 v = 0
EI dx (15.35)
4 x dx2
which is identical to Eq. 15.13

15.2.3 Discretization
34 Assuming a functional representation of the transverse displacements in terms of the four
joint displacements
v = N (15.36-a)
dv
dx = N;x (15.36-b)
d2 v = N (15.36-c)
dx2 ;xx

Draft
35 Substituting this last equation into Eq. 15.29-c, the element potential energy is given by
e = Ufe + W e (15.37-a)
1 n o 1 n o
= 2 be c[ke ] e + 2 be c[kg ] e , bc fPg (15.37-b)
where Z
[ke ] = EI fN;xxg bN;xxcdx (15.38)
L
and
Z
[kg ] = P fN;xg bN;xcdx (15.39)
L
where [ke ] is the conventional element exural stiness matrix.
36 [kg ] introduces the considerations related to elastic instability. We note that its terms solely
depend on geometric parameters (length), therefore this matrix is often referred to as the
geometric stiness matrix.
37 Using the shape functions for exural elements, Eq. 7.43, and substituting into Eq. 15.38
and Eq. 15.39 we obtain
2
u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2 3
EA
L 0 0 , EA
L 0 0
6
6 0 12EI
L3
6EI
L2 0 , 12LEI3 6EI
L2
7
7
6
6
ke = , EA
6
0 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 , 6LEI2 2EI
L 7
7
7 (15.40)
6 0 0 EA 0 0 7
6 L L 7
6
40 , 12LEI 3 , 6LEI2 0 12EI
L3 , 6EI 7
L2 5
0 6 EI
L2
2 EI
L 0 , L2 6 EI 4EI
L
which is the same element stiness matrix derived earlier in Eq. 9.7.
38 The geometric stiness matrix is given by
2 u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2 3
0 06 L0 0 06 0
6
6
6
0 5 10 0 , 5 10L 2 777
0 10L 152 L2 0 , 10L , L30 77
kg = PL (15.41)
6
6
6 0 06 0L 0 0 0 7
6
6
6
0 , 5 , 10 0 65 , 10L 777
4 0 10L , L302 0 , 10L 152 L2 5
39 The equilibrium relation is thus

k = P (15.42)
15.3 Elastic Instability 15{11
where the element stiness matrix is expressed in terms of both the elastic and geometric
Draft
components)
k = ke + kg (15.43)
40 In a global formulation,we would have
K = Ke + Kg (15.44)
41 We assume that conservative loading is applied, that is the direction of the load does not
\follow" the de ected direction of the member upon which it acts.
15.3 Elastic Instability

42 In elastic instability, the intensity of the axial load system to cause buckling is yet unknown,
the incremental stiness matrix must rst be numerically evaluated using an arbitrary chosen
load intensity (since Kg is itself a function of P ).
43 For buckling to occur, the intensity of the axial load system must be times the initially
arbitrarily chosen intensity of the force. Note that for a structure, the initial distribution of P
must be obtained from a linear elastic analysis. Hence, the buckling load, P is given by
P = P (15.45)
44 Since the geometric stiness matrix is proportional to the internal forces at the start, it
follows that
Kg = Kg (15.46)
where Kg corresponds to the geometric stiness matrix for unit values of the applied loading

( = 1).
45 The elastic stiness matrix Ke remains a constant, hence we can write
(Ke + Kg ) , P = 0

46The displacements are in turn given by
= (Ke + Kg ),1P
and for the displacements to tend toward innity, then
jKe + Kg j = 0 (15.47)

which can also be expressed as
Draft
jK,g 1Ke + Ij = 0 (15.48)
47 Alternatively, it can simply be argued that there is no unique solution (bifurcation condition)
to .
48 The lowest value of , crit will give the buckling load for the structure and the buckling
loads will be given by
Pcrit = critP (15.49)
49 The corresponding deformed shape is directly obtained from the corresponding eigenvector.
Example 15-9: Column Stability

Determine the buckling load of the following column.
P
1
2
3
(1) l
5
6 4
l
(2)
8
9
Solution:

The following elastic stiness matrices are obtained
Draft
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 3
EA
L 0 0 , EA
L 0 0
6
6 0 12EI
L3
6EI
L2 0 , 12LEI3 6EI
L2
7
7
k1e =
6
6
6
0 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 , 6LEI2 2EI
L 7
7
7 (15.50-a)
6
6 , EA
L 0 0 EA
L 0 0 7
7
6
4 0 , 12LEI3 , 6LEI2 0 12EI
L3 , 6EI 7
L2 5
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 , L2
6EI 4EI
L
2
4 5 6 7 8 9 3
EA
L 0 0 , EA
L 0 0
6
6 0 12EI
L3
6EI
L2 0 , 12LEI3 6EI
L2
7
7
k2e =
6
6
6
0 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 , 6LEI2 2EI
L 7
7
7 (15.50-b)
6
6 , EA
L 0 0 EA
L 0 0 7
7
6
4 0 , 12LEI3 , 6LEI2 0 12EI
L3 , 6EI 7
L2 5
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 , L2
6EI 4EI
L
Similarly, the geometric stiness matrices are given by
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
60
6
6
5 10
L 0 , 65 10L 777
k1g = ,LP
6
60
6
L
10
2 L2
15 0 , 10L , L302 77 (15.51-a)
60 0 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
4 0 ,5 , 10L ,
6 6 0 6 L 7
5 10 5
0 10L , L302 0 , L
10 15 L
2 2
2
4 5 6 7 8 9 3
4 5 6 7 8 9
60
6
6
5 10
L 0 , 65 10L 777
k2g = ,LP , 10L , L302 77
6 L 2 L2
60 0
6
60
10
0
15
0 0 0 0 7 (15.51-b)
6 7
4 0 ,5 , 10L ,
6 6 0 6 L 7
5 10 5
0 10L , L302 0 , L
10 15 L
2 2
The stiness matrices Ke and Kg can now be assembled from the element stinesses. Elim-
inating rows and columns 2, 7, 8, 9 corresponding to zero displacements in the column, we
obtain
1 4 3 5 6
2 AL2 2
I 2 , I2
AL 0 0 0 3
6, I
6 AL
EI 2 ALI 0 0 0 777
Ke = L3 66 0
6
0 4L ,6L 2L2 77
2 (15.52)
4 0 0 ,6L 24 0 5
Victor Saouma 0 0 2L2 0 8L2 Finite Elements

and
Draft
1 4 3 5 6
2
0 0 0 0 0 3
60 0 0 0 0 2 77
, P 6
, ,
Kg = L 66 0 0 15,LL 1012 30L 777
6 2 2 L (15.53)
40 0 10 5 0 5
0 0 ,30L2 0 154 L2
noting that in this case Kg = Kg for P = 1, the determinant jKe + Kg j = 0 leads to
1 4 3 5 6
1
AL2 , ALI 2 0 0 0

I
4

, ALI 2 2 ALI 2 0 0 0

4 3 4
3
0 0 4L , 15 EI ,6L + 10 EI 2L + 30 EI = 0
2 2 L 1 L 2 1 L (15.54)
3 2
5

0 0 ,6L + 101 L
EI4 24 , 125 L
EI 0

4
6 0 0 1 L
2L2 + 30 EI 0 8L2 , 15 EI
4 L
introducing = ALI 2 and = L 2

EI , the determinant becomes

1 4 5 3 6
1 ,

0 0 0
4 , 2 ,

0 0 0
3 0 0 2 2 , 15 ,6,L + 10 2 + 30 = 0

(15.55)
5 0 0 ,6L + 10 12 2 , 5

,
0
6 0 0

2 + 30 0 4 2 , 15
Expanding the determinant, we obtain the cubic equation in
33 , 2202 + 3; 840 , 14; 400 = 0 (15.56)
and the lowest root of this equation is = 5:1772 .
We note that from Eq. 15.21, the exact solution for a column of length L was
Pcr = (4:4934) (4:4934)2 EI = 5:0477 EI
2
l2 EI = (2L)2 L2 (15.57)
and thus, the numerical value is about 2.6 percent higher than the exact one. The mathematica
code for this operation is:
(* Define elastic stiffness matrices *)
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },

{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
Draft
}
ke1=N[ke[e,a,l,i]]
ke2=N[ke[e,a,l,i]]
(* Assemble structure elastic stiffness matrices *)

ke={
{ke1[[3,3]], ke1[[3,5]] , ke1[[3,6]] },
{ ke1[[5,3]], ke1[[5,5]]+ke2[[2,2]], ke1[[5,6]]+ke2[[2,3]]},
{ ke1[[6,3]], ke1[[6,5]]+ke2[[3,2]], ke1[[6,6]]+ke2[[3,3]]}
}
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke1]]
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke]]
(* Define geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg[p_,l_]:=p/l{
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
kg1=kg[p,l]
kg2=kg[p,l]
(* Assemble structure geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg={
{kg1[[3,3]], kg1[[3,5]] , kg1[[3,6]] },
{ kg1[[5,3]], kg1[[5,5]]+kg2[[2,2]], kg1[[5,6]]+kg2[[2,3]]},
{ kg1[[6,3]], kg1[[6,5]]+kg2[[3,2]], kg1[[6,6]]+kg2[[3,3]]}
}
(* Determine critical loads in terms of p (note p=1) *)
p=1
keigen= l^2 (Inverse[kg] . ke)/( e i)
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen]]
(* Alternatively*)
knew =ke - x kg
pcrit2=NSolve[Det[knew]==0,x]
Example 15-10: Frame Stability

Determine the buckling load for the following frame. Neglect axial deformation.

Draft
P P
15
I=200
I=50 6
10
I=100
Solution:
The element stiness matrices are given by
2
u1 2 0 0 3
20 1; 208
k1e = 664 1;208
6
96; 667 777 (15.58-a)
5

u1 2
2
0 0 3
0:01 0:10
k1g = ,P 64 0:10 16 :00
6
6 777 (15.58-b)
5

2
0 2 0 3 3

k2e = 664 128 ; 890 64; 440 777
6
5 (15.58-c)

64; 440 128; 890
2
u1 3 0 0 3
47 1; 678
6 1; 678 80; 556 7
6 7
ke = 64
3
75 (15.58-d)


u1
3 0 0 3
Draft
2
0:01667 0:1
k3g = ,P 64 0 :1 9 :6 775
6 7
6
(15.58-e)

The global equilibrium relation can now be written as
(Ke , P Kg ) = 0 (15.59)

u1 2 3
(66:75) , P (0:026666) (1; 208:33) , P (0:1) (1; 678:24) , P (0:1)

(1; 208:33) , P (0:1) (225; 556:) , P (16:) (64; 444:4) , P (0) = 0 (15.60)

(1; 678:24) , P (0:1) (64; 444:) , P (0) (209; 444:) , P (9:6)
The smallest buckling load amplication factor is thus equal to 2; 017 kips.
(* Initialize constants *)
a1=0
a2=0
a3=0
i1=100
i2=200
i3=50
l1=10 12
l2=15 12
l3=6 12
e1=29000
e2=e1
e3=e1
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=ke[e1,a1,l1,i1]
ke2=ke[e2,a2,l2,i2]
ke3=ke[e3,a3,l3,i3]
kg[l_,p_]:=p/l{
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }

}
Draft
kg1=kg[l1,1]
kg3=kg[l3,1]
(* Assemble structure elastic and geometric stiffness matrices *)
ke={
{ ke1[[2,2]]+ke3[[2,2]] , ke1[[2,3]] , ke3[[2,3]] },
{ ke1[[3,2]] , ke1[[3,3]]+ke2[[3,3]] , ke2[[3,6]] },
{ ke3[[3,2]] , ke2[[6,3]] , ke2[[6,6]]+ke3[[3,3]] }
}
kg={
{ kg1[[2,2]]+kg3[[2,2]] , kg1[[2,3]] , kg3[[2,3]] },
{ kg1[[3,2]] , kg1[[3,3]] , 0 },
{ kg3[[3,2]] , 0 , kg3[[3,3]] }
}
(* Determine critical loads in terms of p (note p=1) *)
p=1
keigen=Inverse[kg] . ke
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen]]
modshap=N[Eigensystems[keigen]]
15.4 Geometric Non-Linearity

50From Eq. 15.43 is evisent that since kg depends on the magnitude of Px , which itself may
be an unknown in a framework, then we do have a geometrically non-linear problem.
Example 15-11: Eect of Axial Load on Flexural Deformation

Determine the midspan displacement and member end forces for the beam-column showwn
below in terms of Px ; The concentrated force is 50kN applied at midspan, E=2 109 kN/m2
and I=2 10,3 m4 .
50
80,000
6m 6m
Solution:
Using two elements for the beam column, the only degrees of freedom are the de ection and
rotation at midspan (we neglect the axial deformation).
15.4 Geometric Non-Linearity 15{19
The element stiness and geometric matrices are given by
Draft
0 0 0 0 v1 2
2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
60
6 222 ; 222 : 666 ; 666: 0 ,222; 222: 666; 666: 77
[K1e ] = 666 00 666;0666: 2; 6660; 666
6
0: ,666; 666: 1; 333; 333 777 (15.61)
6
0 0 0 7
7
4 0 ,222; 222: ,666; 666: 0 222; 222: ,666; 666: 5
0 666; 666: 1; 333; 333 0: ,666; 666: 2; 666; 666
0 v1 2 0 0 0
2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
60
6 222; 222: 666; 666: 0 ,222; 222: 666; 666: 77
[K2e ] = 666 00 666;0666: 2; 6660; 666 00: ,6660; 666: 1; 3330; 333 777
6 7
(15.62)
6 7
4 0 ,222; 222: ,666; 666: 0 222; 222: ,666; 666: 5
0 666; 666: 1; 333; 333 0: ,666; 666: 2; 666; 666
0 0 0 0 v1 2
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 3
6 0 ,16; 000 ,8; 000 0 16; 000 ,8; 000 77
6
[K1g ] = 666 00 ,8;0000 ,640; 000 00 8; 000 16; 000 777
6
0 0 77 (15.63)
6
40 16; 000 8; 000 0 ,16; 000 8; 000 5
0 ,8; 000 16; 000 0: 8; 000 ,64; 000
0 v1 2 0 0 0
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 3
6 0 ,16; 000 ,8; 000 0 16; 000 ,8; 000 77
6
[K2g ] = 666 00 ,8;0000 ,640; 000 00 8; 000 16; 000 777
6
0 0 77 (15.64)
6
40 16; 000 8; 000 0 ,16; 000 8; 000 5
0 ,8; 000 16; 000 0: 8; 000 ,64; 000
Assembling the stiness and geometric matrices we get

v1 2
[K] = 412; 444: 0: (15.65)
0: 5; 205; 330
and the displacements would be
v1 = ,0:00012123 (15.66)
2 0

and the member end forces for element 1 are given by
Draft
8 9 8 9
>
> Plft >
> >
> ulft >
>
>
>
>
<
Vlft >
>
>
=
>
>
> vlft >
>
>
Mlft < lft =
Prgt = [K1e ] + [K1g ] urgt
>
> >
> >
> >
>
>
>
>
:
Vrgt >
>
>
;
>
>
>
:
vrgt >
>
>
;
Mrgt rgt
2
0 0 0 0 v1 2 3 8 9
0 0 0 0 0 ;0 >
> 0 >
>
60
6
206; 222: 658; 667: 0 ,206; 222: 658; 667: 77>
>
>
<
0 >
>
>
=
= 60
6
658; 667: 260; 2670 0 ,658; 667: 1; 349; 330 7
7
0
60 0 0 0 0 0 7> 0 >
40 ,206; 222 ,658; 667: 0 206; 222: ,658; 667: 5 >
>
>
> ,0:00012123 >
>
>
>
0 658; 667: 1; 349; 330 0 ,658; 667: 2; 602; 670 : 0 ;
8 9
>
> 0 > >
>
>
>
<
25: > >
>
= 79:8491 = (15.67-a)
>
> 0: >
>
>
>
:
,25: > >
>
>
79:8491 ;
Note that had we not accounted for the axial forces, then
( ) ( )
v1 = ,0:0001125 (15.68-a)
2 0
8 9 8 9
>
> Plft >
> >
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
Vlft >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
25: >
>
>
>
>
<
Mlft =
=
<
75: =
(15.68-b)
>
>
>
Prgt >
>
>
>
>
>
0: >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
Vrgt >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
,25: >
>
>
>
;
Mrgt 75:
Alternatively, if instead of having a compressive force, we had a tensile force, then
( ) ( )
v1 = ,0:000104944 (15.69-a)
2 0
8 9 8 9
>
> Plft >
> >
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
Vlft >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
25: >
>
>
>
>
<
Mlft =
=
<
70:8022 =
(15.69-b)
>
>
>
Prgt >
>
>
>
>
>
0: >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
Vrgt >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
,25: >
>
>
>
;
Mrgt 70:8022
We observe that the compressive force increased the displacements and the end moments,
whereas a tensile one stiens the structure by reducing them.
The Mathematica to solve this problem follows
Draft
OpenWrite["mat.out"]
a1=0
a2=0
e=2 10^9
i=2 10^(-3)
i1=i
i2=i1
l=6
l1=l
l2=6
p=-80000 (* negative compression *)
load={-50,0}
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=N[ke[e,a1,l1,i1]]
ke2=N[ke[e,a2,l2,i2]]
(* Assemble structure elastic stiffness matrices *)
ke=N[{
{ ke1[[5,5]]+ke2[[2,2]], ke1[[5,6]]+ke2[[2,3]]},
{ ke1[[6,5]]+ke2[[3,2]], ke1[[6,6]]+ke2[[3,3]]}
}]
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke]]
kg[p_,l_]:=p/l {
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
kg1=N[kg[p,l1]]
kg2=N[kg[p,l2]]
(* Assemble structure geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg=N[{
{ kg1[[5,5]]+kg2[[2,2]], kg1[[5,6]]+kg2[[2,3]]},
{ kg1[[6,5]]+kg2[[3,2]], kg1[[6,6]]+kg2[[3,3]]}
}]
(* Determine critical loads and normalize wrt p *)
keigen=Inverse[kg] . ke
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen] p]
(* Note that this gives lowest pcrit=1.11 10^6, exact value is 1.095 10^6 *)

Draft
(* Add elastic to geometric structure stiffness matrices *)
k=ke+kg
(* Invert stiffness matrix and solve for displacements *)
km1=Inverse[k]
dis=N[km1 . load]
(* Displacements of element 1*)
dis1={0, 0, 0, 0, dis[[1]], dis[[2]]}
k1=ke1+kg1
(* Member end forces for element 1 with axial forces *)
endfrc1=N[k1 . dis1]
(* Member end forces for element 1 without axial forces *)

knopm1=Inverse[ke]
disnop=N[knopm1 . load]
disnop1={0, 0, 0, 0, disnop[[1]], disnop[[2]]}
(* Displacements of element 1*)
endfrcnop1=N[ke1 . disnop1]
Example 15-12: Bifurcation

Analyse the stability of the following structure. Compare the axial force caused by the
coupled membrane/ exural eects with the case where there is no interaction.
1,000
12 12
1 2
Solution:

In the following solution, we will rst determine the axial forces based on the elastic stiness
Draft
matrix only. Then, on the basis of those axial forces, we shall determine the geometric stiness
matrix, and solve for the displacments. Because of the non-linearity of the problem, we may
have to iterate in order to reach convergence. Following each analysis, we shall recompute the
geometric stiness matrix on the basis of the axial loads detemined from the previous iteration.
Note that convergence will be reached only for stable problems. If the method fails to
converge, it implies possible biurcation which could be caused by elastic displacements ap-
proaching L sin , due to either being too small, or E being too small (i.e not sti enough).
NEEDS SOME CORRECTION

a1 = 1
a2 = 1
i1 = 1 1^3/12
i2 = i1
l1 = 12
l2 = 12
e1 = 200000
e2 = e1
e3 = e1
theta1 =N[Pi/8]
theta2 = Pi-theta1
load ={0, -1000, 0}
normold = 0
epsilon = 0.01
puncpl = load[[2]] / (Sin[theta1] 2)
(*
Define elastic stiffness matrices
*)
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_] := {
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
(*
Define geometric stiffness matrix
*)
kg[l_,p_] := p/l {
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
(*
Define Transformation matrix and its transpose

*)
Draft
gam[theta_] := {
{ Cos[theta] , Sin[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ -Sin[theta], Cos[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Cos[theta] , Sin[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , -Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 }
}
gamt[theta_] := {
{ Cos[theta] , -Sin[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Cos[theta] , -Sin[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 }
}
(*
Define functions for local displacments and loads
*)
u[theta_,v1_,v2_] := Cos[theta] v1 + Sin[theta] v2
(*
Transformation and transpose matrices
*)
gam1 = gam[theta1]
gam2 = gam[theta2]
gam1t = gamt[theta1]
gam2t = gamt[theta2]
(*
Element elastic stiffness matrices
*)
ke1 = ke[e1, a1, l1, i1]
ke2 = ke[e2, a2, l2, i2]
Ke1 = gam1t . ke1 . gam1
Ke2 = gam2t . ke2 . gam2
(*
Structure's global stiffness matrix
*)
Ke={
{ Ke1[[4,4]] + Ke2[[1,1]] , Ke1[[4,5]] + Ke2[[1,2]] , Ke1[[4,6]] + Ke2[[1,3]] },
{ Ke1[[5,4]] + Ke2[[2,1]] , Ke1[[5,5]] + Ke2[[2,2]] , Ke1[[5,6]] + Ke2[[2,3]] },
{ Ke1[[6,4]] + Ke2[[3,1]] , Ke1[[6,5]] + Ke2[[3,2]] , Ke1[[6,6]] + Ke2[[3,3]] }
}
(*
======= uncoupled analysis ==========
*)
dise=Inverse[Ke].load
u[theta_,diseg1_,diseg2_] := Cos[theta] diseg1 + Sin[theta] diseg2
uu1 = u[ theta1, dise[[1]], dise[[2]] ]
uu2 = u[ theta2, dise[[1]], dise[[2]] ]
up1 = a1 e1 uu1/l1
up2 = a2 e2 uu2/l2

15.5 Summary 15{25
(*
Draft
========== Coupled Nonlinear Analysis ==============
Start Iteration
*)
diseg = N[dise]
For[ iter = 1 , iter <= 100, ++iter,
(* displacements in local coordinates *)
disloc={ 0,0,0,
u[ theta1, diseg[[1]], diseg[[2]] ],
u[ theta2, diseg[[1]], diseg[[2]] ],
0};
(* local force *)
ploc = ke1 . disloc;
p1 = ploc[[4]];
p2 = p1;
kg1 = kg[ l1 , p1 ];
kg2 = kg[ l2 , p2 ];
Kg1 = gam1t . kg1 . gam1;
Kg2 = gam2t . kg2 . gam2;
Kg={
{ Kg1[[4,4]] + Kg2[[1,1]] , Kg1[[4,5]] + Kg2[[1,2]] , Kg1[[4,6]] + Kg2[[1,3]] },
{ Kg1[[5,4]] + Kg2[[2,1]] , Kg1[[5,5]] + Kg2[[2,2]] , Kg1[[5,6]] + Kg2[[2,3]] },
{ Kg1[[6,4]] + Kg2[[3,1]] , Kg1[[6,5]] + Kg2[[3,2]] , Kg1[[6,6]] + Kg2[[3,3]] }
};
(*
Solve
*)
Ks = Ke + Kg;
diseg = Inverse[Ks] . load;
normnew = Sqrt[ diseg . diseg ];
ratio = ( normnew-normold ) / normnew;
Print["Iteration ",N[iter],"; u1 ",N[u1],"; p1 ",N[p1]," ratio ",N[ratio]];
normold = normnew;
If[ Abs[ ratio ] < epsilon, Break[] ]
]
Print[" p1 ",N[p1]," up1 ",N[up1]," p1/up1 ",N[p1/up1]," ratio ",N[ratio]]
15.5 Summary

Draft
STRONG FORM WEAK FORM
? ? ?
2 2
dx , y
"x = du
2nd Order D.E. 4th Order D.E. dv dv
+ 12 dx
dx2
2 B.C. 4 B.C.
? ?
d2 y
, EIP = 0 U= 1R
2
E" d
2
dx2
v = ,A sin kx , B cos kx
? ?
d4 v
EI , P = w
dx4
d2 v
dx2 K= Ke Kg
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + C3 x + C4
?
P = (Ke + Kg )
?
jKe + Kg j = 0
Figure 15.5: Summary of Stability Solutions

Draft
Chapter 16
MATERIAL NONLINEARITIES
Adapted from Zienkiewicz
16.1 Introduction
50 Given that an element stiness matrix is given by
Z
K =
BT DBd
(16.1)
material nonlinearity stems from the non-linear stress-strain relation embodied in the material
constitutive matrix D.
51 Recalling that the strains are derivatives of the displacement, the stiness matrix becomes
itself a function of the displacements, K = K(u) and is thus non-linear.
52 Nonlinear problems must be analysed incrementally. For the sake of discussion, we will
assume that the analysis is driven by increments of loads P.
53 At the end of each load increment, internal forces must be in equilibrium with the external
ones.
Rn+1 R(un+1) = R(un+1) , P = 0 (16.2)
where R is the reaction vector (or internal forces) corresponding to the total displacement
NX
elem Z NX
elem Z
R=
e
BT d
=
e
BT D j d
(16.3)
e=1 e=1
P is the vector of externally applied force in the increment,
u is the displacement vector,
R the residual force vector.
54 For equilibrium to be satised, the vector of reactions (or internal forces) R must be equal
to the one of external ones P.
16{2 MATERIAL NONLINEARITIES
55 We start the analysis from an equilibrium conguration, at the end of increment n such that
Draft
u = un; Rn = 0; P = Pn (16.4)
and apply an increment of load Pn such that
Pn+1 = P , n + Pn (16.5)
and we seek to determine the corresponding changee in displacement
un+1 = un + un (16.6)
We will keep Pn reasonably small to capture the full nonlinear response.
16.2 Iterative Procedures

16.2.1 Newton-Raphson Method/Tangent Stiness Method
56This is the most rapidly convergent process (albeit computationally expensive) of non-linear
problems. In this method, we start by approximating Eq. 16.2, Fig. 16.1
P
R2n+1 R3n+1
Draft
6 n +1
Pn+1
6 6 ? ? u
1 6
KT1
Pn R1n+1 6
u1n u2n
Pn ? ? u - -
n
u1n - 2
un -
- u
un u1n+1 u2n+1 u3n+1
Figure 16.1: Newton-Raphson Method

i
R(uin+1+1) R(uin+1) + @@Ru

uin = 0 (16.7)
n+1
where i is a counter starting from u1n+1 = un .

16.2 Iterative Procedures 16{3
57 Observing that
Draft
@R = @R = K (16.8)
@u @u T
where KT is the tangent stiness matrix. Thus, Eq. 16.7 yields
KiT uin = ,Rin+1 (16.9)
or
uin = ,(KiT ),1 Rin+1 (16.10)
58 Thus, a series of succesive approximations yields

uin+1+1 = un + uin = uin+1 + uin (16.11)
with i
X
uin = ukn (16.12)
k=1
This process is shown in Fig. ?? and converges very rapidly.
59 The major disadvantage of this method is that the tangent stiness matrix must be re-
assembled and decomposed for each integration step. This process can be computationally very
expensive.
16.2.2 Modied Newton-Raphson
60 This method is essentially the same as the Newton-Raphson however in Eq. 16.14 (KiT ) is
replaced by KT which is the tangent stiness matrix of the rst iteration of either 1) the rst
increment KT = K1T;0 , Fig. 16.2, or 2) current increment, Fig. 16.3 KT = K1T;n Fig. 16.2
uin = ,(KT ),1 Rin+1 (16.13)
61 In general the cpu time required for the extra iterations required by this method is less than
the one saved by the assembly and decomposition of the stiness matrix for each iteration.
62 It should be mentioned that the tangent stiness matrix does not necessarily have to be the
true tangent stiness matrix; an approximation of the true tangent stiness matrix or even the
initial stiness matrix will generally produce satisfactory results, albeit at the cost of additional
iterations.

Draft
R3n+1
Draft
P
R2n+1 R4n+1
6 n +1
Pn+1
6 6 ? ?? u
KT1
1 66
Pn R1n+1 6
u1n
Pn ? ? u -u-2n -
u3n
u1n2 -
un3 -
un -
- u
un u1n+1 u2 u3n+1
n+1
Figure 16.2: Modied Newton-Raphson Method, Initial Tangent in Increment
P R3n+1 R5n+1
Draft
R2 n+1 Rn+1
4
6 n +1
Pn+1
6 6 ? ? ?? u
1
K0 66
Pn R1n+1 6
6
? ?u
Pn
n - u4n
u-1nu-2nu-3n
-u1n 2
u-n3
un - - u
u2n+1 u4n+1
un u1n+1 u3n+1
Figure 16.3: Modied Newton-Raphson Method, Initial Problem Tangent

16.2 Iterative Procedures 16{5
16.2.3 Secant Newton
Draft
63This method is a compromise between the rst two. First we seek two displacements by two
cycles of modied Newto-Raphson, then a secant to the curve is established between those two
points, and a step taken along it, Fig. 16.4.
uin = ,(KT ),1 Rin+1 (16.14)
P
R2n+1 R3n+1 R4n+1
Draft
6 n +1
Pn+1
6 6 ? ? ? u
1 e
6
K0
6
Pn R1n+1
e
6
Pn ? ?u
n
u-1n u2n -u3n -
-u1n u2n - 2
un-
- u
un u1n+1 u2n+1 u3n+1
Figure 16.4: Incremental Secant, Quasi-Newton Method
64 Subsequently, each step will be taken along a secant connecting the previous two points.
Hence, starting with
u1n = ,K,T 1 R1n+1 (16.15)
the secant slope can be determined
u1n
(K2S ),1 = , (R1 , (16.16)
n+1 Rn+1 )
2
and then
u2n = ,(K2S ),1 R2n+1 (16.17)
uin = ,(KiS ),1 Rin+1 (16.18)
65 This process can be generalized to (Ki ),1 = , uin (16.19)
S (Rin,+11 , Rin+1 )
16.3 Acceleration of Convergence, Line Search Method
Draft
From Reich (1993)
66 The line search is an iterative technique for automatically under- or over-relaxing the dis-
placement corrections uj so as to accelerate the convergence of nonlinear solution algorithms.
67 The amount of under- or over-relaxation is determined by enforcing an orthogonality condi-
tion between the displacement corrections uj and the residual loads Rj +1, which amounts to
forcing the iterative change in energy to be zero.
68 The displacement corrections are multiplied by a scalar value sk dening the amount of
under- or over-relaxation such that the total displacements uj +1;k are dened as
uj+1;k = uj + sk uj (16.20)
69 For k = 0 and k = 1, the values of sk are 0.0 and 1.0, respectively. Therefore, uj +1;0 = uj
and uj +1;1 = uj +1 . The orthogonality condition is quantied by a scalar value gk representing
the iterative change in energy, which is dened as
gk = uj Rj+1;k (16.21)
where
Rj+1;k = P , R(uj+1;k) (16.22)
are the residual loads at the end of solution iteration j and line search iteration k.
70 g k can be expressed as a function of sk (see Figure ??) and the object of the line search is to
nd sk such that gk is zero. An estimate of sk+1 such that gk+1 is zero can be computed using
a simple extrapolation procedure based on similar triangles
sk+1 = sk (16.23)
g0 g0 , gk
On rearranging terms, sk+1 is dened as
!
sk+1 = sk g0 , gkg0 (16.24)
71 As a preventative measure, sk+1 is assigned a value of 5.0 for all sk+1 > 5:0 so that unre-
strained over-relaxation is inhibited. Once sk+1 is estimated, uj +1;k+1, Rj +1;k+1 , and Rj +1;k+1
are computed for the next line search iteration, Fig. 16.5.
72 The line search terminates after three iterations or when
j g0 j 0:8 (16.25)
j gk j
and g0 gk 0:001 j g0 j. Smaller tolerances may be used to determine if the line search has
converged, Zienkiewicz & Taylor (1991) prefer to use 0.6, but Criseld (1979) concluded that
there was little advantange to be gained by doing such.
16.4 Other Control 16{7
g
Draft
g0
g1
s1 s2 s
Figure 16.5: Schematic of Line Search (Reich 1993)
16.4 Other Control

73 So far we have assumed that the iterations are associated with positive increments of load P.
In some analysis, we may have instead displacement, relative displacement, or crack increment
control.
16.5 Convergence Criteria

From Reich (1993)
74 In all preceding methods, iterations are performed until one or all of a variety of convergence
criteria are satisied. Relative convergence criteria are optionally enforced on the displacements,
loads, and/or incremental energy to dene the termination conditions.
75 The relative displacement criteria is dened in terms of the displacment corrections duj and
the updated incremental displacements uj +1 as
u = k kuuj +1k2k
j
(16.26)
2
where k : : : k2 is the Euclidean norm.

76 The Euclidean norm, which is also known as the L2 norm, of a vector v is dened as
Draft
" N #1=2
X
k v k2 = v2
i (16.27)
i=1
where N is the size of v.
77 The relative load criteria is dened in terms of the updated residual loads Rj +1 and the
reactions Rj +1 as either
r = kk R
j +1 k2
Rj+1 k2 (16.28)
or
r = kk R
Rj+1 k1
j +1 k (16.29)
1
where k : : : k1 is the innity norm. The innity norm of a vector v is dened as
!
N
X
k v k1 = max jvij (16.30)
i=1
where N is the size of v.
78 The relative incremental energy criteria is dened in terms of displacment corrections uj , the
updated residual loads Rj +1 , the updated incremental displacements uj +1 , and the updated
reactions Rj +1 as
W = uuj +1 R Rj+1
j j +1
(16.31)
where the numerator is the change in the incremental energy for iteration j and denominator
is the incremental energy.
16.6 Plasticity

Draft
Chapter 17
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Adapted from Kishen Chandra
17.1 Introduction
50 The equations of equilibrium governing the linear dynamic response of a system of nite
elements is given by [?]:
MU + CU_ + KU = R (17.1)
where M , C and K are the mass, damping and stiness matrices, R is the external load
vector and U; U_ and U are the acceleration, velocity and displacement vectors of the nite
element assemblage.
51 Mathematically Equation 17.1 represents a system of linear dierential equation of second
order, and in principle, the solution of the equations can be obtained by standard procedures
for the solution of dierential equatons with constant coecients.
52 However, the procedures proposed for the solution of general systems of dierential equations
can become very expensive if the order of the matrices is large - unless specic advantage is
taken of the special characteristics of the coecient matrices M, C and K.
53 In practical nite element analysis, we are therefore mainly interested in a few eective
methods, namely direct integration and mode superposition. These two techniques are closely
related and the choice for one method or the other is determined only by their numerical
eectiveness. In the present implementation the direct integration method is employed.
17.2 Finite Element Formulation

54 The equilibrium equations of the element assemblage corresponding to the nodal point dis-
placement are given by Equation 17.1. The matrix M is the mass matrix of the structure and
17{2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
is obtained from [?]
Draft
XZ
M= N t NdV (17.2)
m V
is the mass density of the element.
55The matrix C represents the damping matrix which takes into account the energy dissipated
during vibrations and is given by:
XZ
C= N t NdV (17.3)
m V
is the damping property parameter of the element.
56 The matrix K is the stiness matrix of the element assemblage which is given by :
XZ
K= Bt CBdV (17.4)
m V
in the above equation B and C represent the strain - displacement matrix and the elasticity
matrix of the element.
57 The load vector R includes
1. the eect of the element body forces,

XZ
RB = N t fdV (17.5)
m V
2. the eect of the element surface forces,

XZ
RS = N t TdS (17.6)
m S
3. the eect of the element initial stresses,

XZ
RI = B tI dV (17.7)
m V
4. the concentrated loads,

Rc = P (17.8)
17.3 Direct Integration Method

58In direct integration the equations in 17.1 are integrated using a numerical step-by-step
procedure, the term "direct" meaning that prior to the numerical integration, no transformation

17.4 Newmark Method 17{3
of the equations into a dierent form is carried out. In essence, direct numerical integration is
Draft
based on two ideas.
59 First, instead of trying to satisfy equation 17.1 at any time t, it is aimed to satisfy only at
discrete time intervals t apart. This means that, basically, (static) equilibrium, which includes
the eect of inertia and damping forces, is sought at discrete time points within the interval of
solution.
60 The second idea on which a direct integration method is based is that a variation of displace-
ments, velocities and accelerations within each time interval t is assumed.
61 Assuming that the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors at time 0, denoted by U 0 ,
U_ 0 and U 0 , respectively are known, and let the solution to Equation 17.1 be required from time
0 to time T. In the solution the time span under consideration, T, is subdivided into n equal
time intervals t, and the integration scheme employed establishes an approximate solution at
times 0, t, 2t, , t, t + t, , T . Since an algorithm calculates the solution at the next
required time from the solutions at the previous times considered, the algorithms are derived
by assuming that the solutions at times 0, t, 2t, , t are known and that the solution at
time t + t is required next.
62 There are many commonly used eective direct integration methods such as
central dierence method
linear acceleration method
constant-average acceleration method
Newmark method
and so on.
Only the Newmark integration scheme will be explained.
17.4 Newmark Method

63 Consider the Taylor series expansions of the displacement and velocity terms about the values
at ti [?].
v(ti+1 ) = v(ti ) + t @v t2 @ 2 v j + t3 @ 3 v j
@t t=ti 2! @t2 t=ti 3! @t3 t=ti +1 where0 1 1 (17.9)
j +
v_ (ti+1 ) = v_ (ti ) + t @@tv2 jt=ti + 2!t @@tv3 jt=ti +2 where0 2 1
2 2 3
(17.10)
64 The above two equations represent the approximate displacement and velocity ( vi+1 and
v_ i+1 ) by a truncated Taylor series. Looking at the remainder term (last term above),
3 @2v j , @2v j
R1 = 3!t @@t3v jt=ti +1 ' 3!t @t2 ti+1t @t2 ti
3 3

17{4 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
' 3!t (vi+1 , vi )

2
Draft
' t2 (vi+1 , vi) (17.11)
65 Similarly,
2 @ 22v jt @2v
t +1 , @t2 jti
2 @3v t
R2 = 2! @t3 jt=ti +2 ' 2! @t i
t
' t (vi+1 , vi) (17.12)
and are parameters representing numerical approximations.
66 Substituting Equations 17.11 and 17.12 into Equations 17.9 and 17.10 respectively, we obtain,
vi+1 = vi + tv_ i + 2t vi + t2 (vi+1 , vi )

2
v_ i+1 = v_ i + tvi + t (vi+1 , vi )

67 By rearrangement, we obtain,
vi+1 = vi + tv_ i + t2 [(1=2 , )vi + vi+1] (17.13)
v_ i+1 = v_ i + t[(1 , )vi + vi+1 ] (17.14)
68 The scheme is explicit when is 0. When is 1/2, this explicit form has the same numerical
properties as the central dierence method.
69 From Eqn. 17.13, we have
vi+1 = 1 t2 [vi+1 , vi , tv_ i , ( 21 , )t2 vi ] (17.15)
70 Substituting Eqn. 17.15 into eqn. 17.14:

[v , v + ( , 1)tv_ + ( , 1 )t2 v ]
v_ i+1 = (17.16)
t i+1 i i 2 i
71 Substituting equations 17.15 and 17.16 into the equilibrium equation

Mvi+1 + Cv_ i+1 + Kvi+1 = fi+1 (17.17)
we obtain the equivalent static form,
i+1 = fi+1
Kv (17.18)

17.5 Flow Chart of Implementation 17{5
where
Draft
K = 1 t2 M + t C + K
C]v + [ 1 M + ( , 1)C]v_ + [( 1 , 1)M + t ( , 2)C]v
fi+1 = fi+1 + [ 1 t2 M + t i t i 2 2 i
vi+1 can be obtained by solving Eqn. 17.18.

72 The Newmark method is
1. unconditionally stable if
21
2
2. conditionally stable if
12
< 2
2 1=2
with the following stability limit: !tcrit = ( ,1=2)+[ =(2 =,2,+) ( ,1=2) ]
2
is the damping parameter.
17.5 Flow Chart of Implementation

1. Input: R(t0 ); R(t1 ); ; R(tN );
; ; t.
2. Assemble initial displacement array, initial velocity array and initial acceleration array.
3. Assemble initial loading vector Rn .
4. Start of Time Integration Loop. n = 0; 1; 2; ; N , 1 .
Assemble the Eective Force Vector fi+1.
Assemble the Eective Stiness Matrix K .
Solve the system of equations: K U = f.
Compute the velocities and acceleration at nodal points
output the displacements, velocities and accelerations at the nodal points to the
output le.
{6 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Store the displacements, velocities and accelerations at the current time step to the
Draft
previous time step.
5. End of time integration loop.
6. End of program.

Draft
Appendix A
MISC.
A.1 Units & Conversion Factors
length, m (meter) 1 inch = 0.0254 m; 1 m = 39.37 inch
Force, N (Newton) 1 lb = 4.4482 N; 1 N = 0.22481 lb
Mass, Kg (kilogram) 1 lbm = 0.45359 Kg; 1 Kg=2.2046 lb
Density, Kg/m3 1 lbm/ft3 = 16.018 Kg/m3 ;1 Kg/m3 =0.062428 lbm/ft3
Temperature, T T o F=[(9/5)To C+32]
Acceleration, m/s2 1 in/s2 = 0.0254 m/s2 ;
Stiness, N/m 1 lb/in = 175.1 N/m
Stress, Pa = N/m2 1 psi = 6,894.8 Pa; 1 MPa = 145.04 psi
Work, energy, N-m=Joule 1 ft-lbf= 1.3558 J; 1 J = 0.73756 ft- lbf
Power, J/s=W
Heat Transfer
Convection coecient, h 1 Btu/h.ft2 .o F = 5.6783 W/m2 .o C
Heat, J 1 Btu=1055.06 J; 1 Btu = 778.17 ft-lb
Heat Source/Sink, Q W/m3 =
Heat ux (q) 1 Btu/h.ft2 = 3.1546 W/m2
Specic heat, c 1 Btu/o F = 1,899.108 J/o C
Thermal conductivity, k 1 Btu/h.ft.o F = 1.7307 W/m.o C
Seepage Flow
permeability, k
Fracture
p Mechanics p
Stress intensity factor, K 1 MPa m=1.099 ksi in
Fracture energy GF 1 lb/in =.0057 N/m;
A{2 MISC.
A.2 Metric Prexes and Multipliers
Draft
Prex Abbreviation Multiplier

tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
deci d 10,1
centi c 10,2
milli m 10,3
micro 10,6
nano n 10,9
pico p 10,12

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DRAFT

Lecture Notes in:

Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

2 Mechanics (Fluid, Solid, Coupled):

1.2 Finite Element Discretization

1. Linear/quadratic/cubic: same degree of approximation along all sides

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

11Any displacement selected as characteristic of a node, is denoted as a degree of freedom

1.4 Computer Programs

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

1.6 Chracteristic Matrix

15Three major ways to derive the characterisitc matrix of an element

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

= @Ax + @Ay + @Az (2.1-g)

2.1.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation

2.2 Integral Theorems

2.2.2 Green-Gradient Theorem

2.2.4 Gauss-Divergence Theorem

11 For 2D-1D transformations, we have

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

12 If instead of q we have q where  is a scalar, then Gauss' divergence theorem becomes

2.3 Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Equations

B 2 , AC < 0 Elliptic uxx + uyy = 0 Lapalace Equation

Example 2-1: Seepage Problem;[?]

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Example 2-2: Difusion Problem;[?]

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

is at a constant initial temperature i when the surface at x = 0 is suddenly subjected to a

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Example 2-3: Wave Equation, [?]

Show that the problem-governing di erential equation is the wave equation

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Figure 3.1: Stress Components on an In nitesimal Element

Figure 3.2: Stress Traction Relations

tx = xxnx + xy ny + xz nz

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

6 Considering two points A and B in a 3D solid, the distance between them is ds

Figure 3.3: Strain De nition

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

From this equation, we note that:

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

which is called the Cauchy strain

Victor Saouma Finite Elements

ij;j + bi = 0 (3.30)

where  is the density, bi is the body force (including inertia).

Figure 3.4: Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates

Then we substitute ti = ij nj and apply the divergence theorm to obtain

17 Alternatively, the equation of equilibrium can be written as

3.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity

ij = Dijkl"kl i; j; k; l = 1; 2; 3 (3.38)

12 If instead of q we have q where is a scalar, then Gauss' divergence theorem becomes

is at a constant initial temperature i when the surface at x = 0 is suddenly subjected to a

Show that the problem-governing dierential equation is the wave equation

Figure 3.1: Stress Components on an Innitesimal Element

tx = xxnx + xy ny + xz nz

Figure 3.3: Strain Denition

ij;j + bi = 0 (3.30)

where is the density, bi is the body force (including inertia).

Then we substitute ti = ij nj and apply the divergence theorm to obtain

ij = Dijkl"kl i; j; k; l = 1; 2; 3 (3.38)

ij = Dijkl ("kl , "0kl ) + ij0 (3.45)

ij0 = ij + mij p mT = [ ,1; ,1; 0 ] (3.51)

b0i = bi , p;i , Dijkl T;i kl (3.59)

ij = ij0 , ij00 + ij0 (3.61)

ij = Dijkl ("kl , T kl ) , p ij (3.63)

Table 3.1: Number of Elastic Constants for Dierent Materials

Table 4.1: Selected Examples of Diusion Problems

Figure 4.2: Flux Through Sides of Dierential Element

where is the density, Note that another expression of I3 is t(I1 + I2 ).

Example 5-4: Global Stiness Matrix Assembly

Figure 5.2: Flowchart for Assembling Global Stiness Matrix

5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector

if i j (since we are storing only the upper half).

26 Previous exposure to the Direct Stiness Method is assumed.