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1. TORSIONAL PENDULUM
AIM
To determine the moment of inertia of the metallic disc and the rigidity
modulus of the material of the wire.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Torsion pendulum, two equal masses, Stop-clock, Screw gauge and Meter
scale
FORMULA
I
2 m d - d12 T02 Kg m2
T
2
2
-T
1
2
The Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire
8 I l
Nm -2
T02 r 4
T1 Time period when two identical masses are placed at the sec
maximum distance
I Moment of inertia of the disc kg-m2
PROCEDURE
One end of the long uniform metallic wire whose rigidity modulus to be
determined is clamped. On the other lower end, a heavy metallic disc is attached by
means of a chuck. The length of the suspension wire is fixed to a particular value say,
60 or 70 cm. Now the disc is slightly twisted so that it executes torsional oscillations.
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Care should be taken that the disc oscillates without wobbling. First few oscillations
are omitted. A mark is made on the disc such that time taken for 10 oscillations (to
and fro motion) are noted using stop-clock. Two trials are taken. The average of these
two trials gives the time period T0.
Now equal masses are placed on either side of the disc close to the
suspension wire. The distance d1 from the centre of one of mass and the suspension
wire is noted. Now the disc with masses at the minimum distance is made to execute
torsional oscillations. Time for 10 oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken. From this
mean period T1 is calculated.
Now the two masses are placed at the extreme ends of the disc and the
distance d2 from the centre of the one of the masses and the point of suspension wire
is noted. The disc is now subjected to torsional oscillations. Time for 10 oscillations is
noted. Two trials are taken. From this time period T2 is calculated.
Now the masses of any one of the cylinders is found. The radius of the
wire is measured by means of screw gauge and the length is measured using meter
scale. From this data the moment of inertia and the rigidity modulus of the material of
the wire are determined.
DIAGRAM
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Table : 1.1 To determine the Time period:
Without masses
With mass at
minimum distance d1=
------ x 10-2m
With mass at
maximum distance
d2= ------ x 10-2m
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean =
CALCULATION
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Length of the suspended wire l = x 10-2 m
Time period without masses T0 = sec
Time period when two identical masses are
placed at the minimum distance d1 T1 = sec
I
2 m d - d12 T02 Kg m2
T
2
2
-T 1
2
The Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is given by
8 I l
2 4 Nm -2
T0 r
RESULT
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
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A uniform rectangular beam, two equal knife edges, a weight hanger with
slotted weight, vernier microscope, pin, screw gauge and vernier caliper.
FORMULA:
m g l3
E 3
Nm-2
4b d y
PROCEDURE
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Fig. 2.
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Table 2.2. To find the breadth of the beam using vernier caliper
VSR OR =
CR=
MSR VSC x 10-3 m (MSR +
(OR ZC)
x 10-3 m Div VSR)
S.No. x 10-3 m
x 10-3 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean =
Table 2.3. To find the thickness of the beam using Screw gauge
(HSR OR = CR =
PSR HSC
S.No. x 10-3 m (PSR + HSR) (OR ZC)
x 10-3 m Div
x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean =
CALCULATION:
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m g l3
Youngs modulus of the beam E Nm-2
4b d3 y
RESULT:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
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AIM
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Graduated burette, Burette stand, Capillary tube, Rubber tube, Pinch clip ,
Wooden stand, Beaker , Liquid, Stop watch, Meter scale, Traveling microscope etc.
FORMULA
g r 4 ht
Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid N s m-2
8l v
PROCEDURE
Fix a clean dry burette in the stand which is as shown in figure 9.1. The well
cleaned capillary tube of uniform cross section is attached to the lower end of the
burette using rubber tube. The capillary tube is kept parallel to the work table
(horizontal) using wooden stand, in order to get uniform flow of liquid without any
gravitational effect. The mass(m1) of the clean and empty beaker ( if the density of
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the liquid is not given) can be found using a physical balance and place it on the work
table right below the free end of the capillary tube to collect the liquid.
To stop any flow of liquid the pinch clip is fit to the rubber tube and close it.
The burette is filled with the given liquid whose coefficient of viscosity is to be
determined using a funnel above the zero mark. The liquid must be free from
contamination in the form of precipitates or dirt etc. The pinch clip should be open
completely and the liquid is allowed to flow in a streamlined manner (flowing freely)
through the capillary tube drop by drop. The capillary tube should not be having any
bubbles, if any it has to be removed completely first.
A short length of thread is tied at the free end of the capillary tube and makes
it hanging from it so that the flowing liquid does not run along the surface of the tube,
but falls inside the beaker in the form of drops through the tip of the hanging thread.
Start the stop watch and note the time when the lower meniscus of the liquid crosses
zero mark, 5, 10, 15 ..40 cc in table 9.1. Using meter scale, the height h1 from
the surface of the table to the zero mark of the burette and the height h2 from the
surface of the table to 5cc mark of the burette for the first observation ( when the
liquid flows from zero mark to 5 cc mark).
The h1 and h2 values for other observations also should be recorded. The
height h0 from the surface of the table to the mid portion of the capillary tube can be
measured. The time taken for the flow of 5 cc of liquid can be calculated. The
pressure head (h) and also the product ht is also calculated. It is observed that the
height (h) decreases, the time of flow of liquid (t) increases and the product (ht) is a
constant.
The radius of the bore of the capillary tube is measured by using the traveling
microscope must be done very carefully. The preliminary adjustment of the
microscope and the least should be made. The capillary tube form the experimental
set up is detached and mount it over a stand in such a way that it is parallel to the
work table. The microscope is adjusted to view the inner diameter of the capillary
tube as shown in figure 9.2.
The vertical cross wire of the microscope is made to coincide with the left
edge v1 of the capillary bore (Fig 9.3) and the reading should be noted in table 9.2
from the horizontal scale of the microscope. Now the vertical cross wire is made to
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coincide with the right edge v2 of the capillary tube and the reading should be noted.
The horizontal cross wire is adjusted to coincide with bottom h2 of the capillary bore
and the reading should be noted. The diameter of the capillary bore is calculated by
finding the difference between v1 and v2 and h1 and h2. The mean diameter (2r) and
the radius (r) of the bore.
The length of the capillary tube (l) is measured using the meter scale. The
relevant values can be substituted in the formula and the coefficient of viscosity of the
liquid can be found.
DIAGRAM:
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Bottom Right
d1 d 2 d
Mean Diameter d = ------- cm Radius r = ------- cm
2 2
CALCULATION:
= .
RESULT:
The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid = ..Nsm-2.
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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Viscosity?
2. Define coefficient of viscosity.
3. What is pressure gradient?
4. Differentiate between the streamline flow and turbulent flow.
5. Give examples for highly viscous liquids.
6. Why the capillary tube should be of uniform cross section?
7. What is fluid resistance
8. What are the factors up on which the rate of flow of liquid through the capillary
tube depends?
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4. SPECTROMETER DISPERSIVE POWER OF
THE PRISM
sin A D 2
1. Refractive index of the prism,
sin A / 2
1 2
2. Dispersive power of the prism,
12 1
( 1 2 )
Where 12
2
Reflected
image VERNIER A VERNIER B 2A= R1R2 A
Right
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PROCEDURE:
The given prism is mounted vertically at the center of the prism table with Its
refracting edge facing the collimator, so that the parallel rays of light from the
collimator fall almost equally on the two faces of the prism as shown In fig 1.1. The
telescope is rotated to catch the reflected image from one of the faces of the prism and
fixed in that position. By adjusting the tangential screw, the image is made to
coincide with the vertical cross wire. The main scale and Vernier scale readings are
noted from both the vernier A and vernier B.
Similarly readings are taken for the image reflected by other refracting face of
the prism. The difference between the two readings gives 2A, where A is the Angle
of the prism. From this value, the angle of the prism is calculated.
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DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
The prism is mounted such that light emerging from the collimator is incident on
one of the refracting face of the prism. Rotate the telescope slowly to catch the
refracted image of any one of the colour which emerges from other refracting face of
the prism.
The prism table is rotated in such a direction that the refracted image move
towards the direct ray. The telescope is rotated carefully to the image in the field of
view. At one stage, the image retraces its original path. This is the position of
minimum deviation .At this stage fixes the telescope and adjusts the tangential screw
to coincide the image of each co lour with vertical cross wire. The corresponding
readings are tabulated. The prism is removed and the direct ray reading is noted.
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The difference between the direct ray and refracted ray reading for each color
gives the angle of minimum deviation (D). By subtracting A and D values, for
each and every colour can be calculated. By choosing any two colors and using
dispersive formula, can be calculated.
Direct ray
R2 R2
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RESULT:
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:
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5. AIR WEDGE
AIM:
To determine the thickness of the thin wire by forming interference fringes using
air-wedge arrangement.
APPARATUS:
Travelling microscope, Sodium vapour lamp, two optically plane rectangular
glass plates, Condensing lens and Reading lens
FORMULA:
PROCEDURE:
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DIAGRAM
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reflected beam is allowed to fall on the two plane glass plates. Now the interference takes
place between light reflected from top and bottom surface of the glass plates and the
fringes consisting of alternate bright and dark bands through the travelling microscope.
The microscope is adjusted so that the bright and dark fringes near the
edge of contact are made to coincide with the vertical cross wire of the telescope and it is
taken as nth fringe. The reading from the horizontal scale of the travelling microscope is
noted. Now the microscope is slowly moved with the help of horizontal screw until the
th
vertical cross wire coincides with the (n+5) fringe and the corresponding reading is
noted. Likewise the procedure is repeated up to 50 fringes (n+5, n+10, n+15.).From the
observed reading mean width of one fringe () is calculated.
Now the microscope is moved towards the specimen wire and the reading
(R2) is noted. Similarly the microscope is moved towards the edge of contact and the
reading (R1) is noted. From the difference (R2~ R1) the length between the specimen wire
and the edge of contact is determined. By knowing the values of , and l the thickness
of the given material is determined.
Table 5.1. To determine the distance between the edge of contact and the specimen
wire
Microscope reading
Position
MSR TR
VSC
10-2m 10-2m
Rubber band
(edge of (R1)
contact)
l = R2~ R1 .. 10-2m
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Table 5.2. To determine the band width ():
n
n+5
.
.
.
.
n+50
=. 10-2m
CALCULATION
Distance between the specimen wire and the edge of contact, l = 10-2m
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:
1. What is interference?
2. What is an air-wedge arrangement?
3. How interference fringes are formed in an air-wedge arrangement?
4. Why straight line fringes are formed in an air wedge arrangement?
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6. SPECTROMETER - GRATING
AIM:
To determine the number of lines per metre of the grating and the wavelengths
of the prominent lines of the mercury spectrum.
APPARATUS:
Spectrometer, grating, sodium and Mercury vapour lamps etc.
FORMULA:
sin
Nm
PROCEDURE
(A) To standardize the grating using sodium light:
The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The slit is illuminated
with sodium light. The telescope is brought in a line with the collimator and the direct
reading is taken on both the verniers. The prism table is firmly clamped and the telescope
is turned through 900 and fixed in this position (Fig.1). The grating is mounted on the
table so that the rulings on it are parallel to the slit. The grating platform is rotated till the
image of the slit reflected from the surface of the grating is seen in the telescope.
The platform is fixed in the position at which the vertical crosswire coincides with the
fixed edge of the image of the slit. The vernier table is rotated through exactly 450 in the
proper direction, so that the surface of the grating becomes normal to the collimator. The
prism table is a fixed in this position, now the grating is adjusted for normal incidence.
The telescope is now released and brought to the position of the direct image. On
either side of it are seen the diffracted images of the first order.
The telescope is turned to the left to view the first order diffracted image. The vertical
crosswire is made to coincide with the fixed edge of the image of the slit. Readings of
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both the verniers are taken (fig-2).The telescope is turned to the right. Reading are noted
when the crosswire coincides with the first order image on the right. The difference
between the two readings gives 2. Hence is determined (=5893 A0, m=1).The
number of lines per metre N of the grating is calculated using the relation
sin
N
m
Without disturbing the spectrometer replace the sodium vapour lamp by Mercury
vapour lamp whose wavelengths are to be determined. Rotate the telescope and observe
the dispersed diffracted spectral lines of Mercury light of first order and second order on
either side of central undispersed direct image are shown in Fig.3. Take reading on both
side for the first order diffraction pattern. The angle of diffraction for the different lines
of the first order is measured. The wavelength of each line is calculated using the
relation
sin
m
Nm
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LC = 1 ;VSR =VSC x LC
Angle of
Difference between
Reading of the diffracted image Mean 2 diffraction N = sin/m lines/m
the readings
Left Right Left Right
Ver A VerB VerA Ver B 2 2
A1 B1 A2 B2 A1 A2 B1 B2
M
VS T MS VS T MS VS T MS VS
S TR
R R R R R R R R R R
R
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Table 6.2. Determination of wavelength of mercury spectral lines
Colour of
Difference Angle of =
the Mean
Reading of the diffracted image between the diffraction sin/Nm
spectral 2
readings A
line
Left Right Left Right
Ver A VerB VerA Ver B 2 2
A1 B1 A2 B2 A1 A2 B1 B2
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
Red
Yellow II
Yellow I
Green
Bluish
green
Blue
Violet
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RESULT:
The number of lines in the given grating is=--------------lines/m
o
The wavelength of violet colour is=------------ A
o
The wavelength of Blue colour is=------------ A
o
The wavelength of Orange colour is=------------ A
o
The wavelength of red color is=------------ A
VIVA-QUESTION:
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AIM
To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Lees disc apparatus, bad conductors, stop-clock, thermometers, screw gauge,
vernier calipers, steam boiler
FORMULA
Thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
MSd r 2h 1 d
K
-1 -1
Wm K
r 2r 2h
2
dt 2
1 2
THEORY
The thickness of the bad conductor say card board and thickness of the metallic
disc are determined using a screw gauge. The radius of the metallic disc is found using a
vernier caliper. The mass of a metallic disc is also found using a common balance. The
readings are tabulated.
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The whole Lees disc apparatus is suspended from a stand as shown in the figure.
The given bad conductor is placed in between the metallic disc and the steam chamber.
Two thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted into the respective holes.
Steam from the steam boiler is passed into the steam chamber until the
temperature of the steam chamber and the metallic disc are stead. The Steady temperature
(1) of the steam chamber and (2) of the metallic disc recorded by the thermometers are
noted.
Now the bad conductor is removed and the steam chamber is placed in direct
contact with the metallic disc. The temperature of the disc rapidly rises when the
temperature of the disc rises about 10 C above 2 C, the steam chamber is carefully
removed after cutting of the steam supply.
When the temperature of the disc reaches 10 C above the steady temperature of
the disc i.e. (2+ 10)C, stop clock is started. Time for every one degree Celsius fall of
temperature is noted until the metallic disc attains a temperature (2 - 10)C.
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GRAPH
A graph is drawn taking time along the x-axis and temperature along the y-axis.
The cooling curve is obtained .To obtain the rate of the cooling (d/dt) 2
From this graph, a triangle is drawn by taking 1C above and 1C below the steady
temperature 2. Then the slope AB / BC gives the rate of cooling at (d/dt) 2
From these readings and using the given formula thermal conductivity of the
given bad conductor is calculated.
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Table 7.1. To find radius of the metallic disc (r) using Vernier Caliper
Least count = 0.01cm
S.No. MSR VSC VSR =(VSCXLC) Observed reading =MSR +
cm div. cm VSR
cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (r) = .. x 10-2 m
Table 7.2. To find thickness of the bad conductor (d) using Screw gauge
Table 7.3. To find thickness of the metallic disc (h) using Screw gauge
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Table 7.4. Determine the rate of cooling of metallic disc (d/dt) 2
RESULT
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8. ULTRSONIC INTERFEROMETER
1
Compressibility of the liquid (m2N-1)
v2
PROCEDURE:
The measuring cell which is an especially double walled cell for maintaining the
temperature of the liquid constant during the experiment is filled up with given liquid.
The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator
through a coaxial cable provided with the instrument. The micrometer screw is initially
set as 25 mm. The generator is switched on to excite the quartz crystal at its frequency to
generate ultrasonic waves in the liquid. This has to be done only after filling the liquid in
the measuring cell and not earlier. The generator consists of two knobs namely gain and
adj knobs, which for sensitivity regulation for greater deflection and for initial adjustment
of micrometer at zero initially. The adj knob is adjusted slightly to adjust the position of
the needle on the ammeter which is used to notice the number of maximum deflections.
The gain knob is rotated and set it to show maximum reading in the ammeter. The
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micrometer screw is adjusted which is on the top of the measuring cell which can lower
or raise the reflector in the liquid in the measuring cell through a known distance, to
move downwards.
The ammeter readings vary from maximum to minimum and from minimum to
maximum value and in between these maxima to minima there occur extra peaks due to a
number of reasons, but they do not affect the value of /2. The rotation of the micrometer
screw is continued in the same direction as before. The micrometer reading for the first
maximum is noted down and then for successive maxima shown by the interferometer
and 20 such readings are recorded. The distance moved by the micrometer screw for x
maxima is found and its mean value is found. The velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the
liquid medium using the relation v = 2df/x. The density of the liquid if given is noted, if
not given it standard value from the table has to be noted down. Then by substituting all
the values in the formula the compressibility of the given liquid can also be found.
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Table 8.1. Determination of the distance moved by the micrometer screw
LC = 0.01 mm
TR = PSR +(HSC xLC) x = ----------
Mean d = -------------------mm
RESULT:
The velocity of the ultrasonic waves in liquid v = ..ms-1
The compressibility of the ultrasonic waves in liquid = ..m2N-1
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are ultrasonic waves?
2. Define piezo electric effect.
3. Define an acoustic grating.
4. Explain inverse piezo electric effect.
5. Are ultrasonic waves electro-magnetic waves? Give proper reasons.
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APPARATUS REQUIRED:
FORMULA:
PROCEDURE
Make the circuit connections is made as shown in the figure. Note that the given
semiconductor (Ge or Si diode) whose band gap is to be determined must be connected to
the circuit through long wires soldered at its terminals such that it is reverse biased. Take
oil or water in the beaker and immerse the reverse biased diode with leads in the liquid
inside the beaker. Insert the thermometer in the beaker such that its mercury bulb is just
at the height of the diode.
Heat the liquid upto 70C using the heating system. Switch off the heating system
and allow the liquid to cool on its own. Switch on the regulated power supply and by
adjusting its knob set the current 0.5 V through the diode. When the temperature of the
diode in the liquid is 60C, note the current I flowing through the diode as shown in the
microammeter.
As the temperature of the diode falls, the current flowing through it decreases.
Note the current as shown by the micro ammeter for every one degree Celsius fall of the
temperature of the liquid until it falls to 50C.
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Graph
Draw graph with 103/ T along x- axis and log I along y-axis. The graph will be a
straight line. Determine the slope of the log I versus 103/ T from the graph. Substituting
the value of the slope and the Boltzmanns constant in the formula, calculate the band gap
(Eg) of the semiconductor.
DIAGRAM
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Table 9 Determination of band gap
0C = 273 K
RESULT:
Band gap of a semiconductor = . eV
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are semiconductors and how can you classify them?
2. Define Fermi level.
3. Define band gap or forbidden energy gap in a semiconductor material.
4. Define extrinsic semiconductor and give examples.
5. Define intrinsic or pure semiconductor and give examples.
6. Can water be used in place of oil for band gap determination?
7. How does the band gap change with temperature in semiconductors?
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AIM:
To determine the size of the micro particle using laser.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Laser source, Fine micro particles of nearly uniform size (Lycopodium powder),
Glass plate, White screen, Stands, Meter Scale
THEORY:
When laser is passed through a glass plate spread with fine micro particles, the beam
gets diffracted by the particles and circular rings are obtained on the screen. By
measuring the radii of the rings and the distance between the glass plate and the screen,
the size of the particle can be determined.
FORMULA:
n X 2n 2
Size of the microparticle (diameter) = 2d
X n2
Xn Distance of the nth order ring from the central spot of meter
the diffraction pattern
l Distance between the glass plate and the screen meter
PROCEDURE:
Sprinkle a thin uniform layer of lycopodium powder on a glass plate. Mount the
screen and glass plate upright. The light from laser source transmitted through the layer
of lycopodium in the glass plate is adjusted to form a diffracted image in the centre of the
screen. Diffracted circular fringes of laser co lour will e visible on the screen.
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After adjusting the distance of the glass plate from the screen so that the first ring
radius (x1) and second ring radius (x2) are measured from the central spot. Note the
distance (l) between screen and plate. Repeat the experiment radius of the first and
second rings after adjusting the distance between screen and plate. Calculate the value of
the diameter of the particle taking value from the previous experiment.
DIAGRAM :
Screen
Glass Plate with
fine particles
LASER
1
2
3
1
Mean 2d = 10-10 m
= 10-6 m
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CALCULATION:
1. Xn = x1
2d
1 .. 109 X12 2
X12
RESULT:
The average size of the micro particle measured using laser 2d = . m.
VIVA VOCA QUESTIONS:
1. How will you determine the size of the particle using laser?
2. What type of laser you use for the experiment? What is its wavelength?
3. What will you do to get clear diffraction pattern on the screen?
4. What is the difference between the diffraction by powder particle and grating?
5. Why is the diffraction pattern produced not in the form of concentric rings?
6. How will you measure the radii of rings?
7. What will happen to the order of spectrum, if the distance between the particle and
screen is increased?
8. What will happen to the order of spectrum, if particle size is decreased?
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AIM:
To determine the wavelength of the laser of the given laser source of light and
angle of divergence using grating.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Laser source, Laser Grating with stand (2500 lines per inch), Screen, Scale
THEORY:
When laser is incident normally on a plane diffraction grating, diffraction takes
place. The mth order maxima of the wavelength, will be formed in a direction if
d sin m
Where d is the distance between two lines in the grating.
FORMULA:
sin
Wavelength of the laser metre
Nm
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DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. To find the number of lines per meter in the grating
Grating
Laser x1
source x
Laser
x2
The initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The direct ray is coincided
with the vertical crosswire and the telescope is fixed. Now the vernier table is released
and both the verniers are made to coincide with 0 and 180 and the vernier table is fixed.
The telescope is released and moved towards the right side through 90 and fixed. The
grating is mounted on the grating table and rotated to the reflected image and coincided
with vertical crosswire. Now the vernier table is rotated 45 towards collimator and
grating will become perpendicular to the light rays. Telescope is moved to left and right
and the perpendicular order ray is coincided and the readings are noted in both the scales.
The number of lines per unit length of the grating can be calculated as follows
sin
N
m
Where, is the wavelength of sodium light (5893 10 -10 m)
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Table 10.2. To find the number of lines per unit length in the grating
2 = R1 - R2 2 = S1- S2
= =
Mean =
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Table 10.2 (a) Determination of wavelength of laser
Observation I l10-2 m
N =
Distance of the Wavelength
Order centre of the spot x1 x 2 sin
of from the central x= 1
x x Nm
diffraction maxima 2 tan tan 1
Left Right
(x1) (x2)
unit 10-2m 10-2m 10-2m m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean 1 = .. m
= ............10-10m
= ..
CALCULATION:
The wavelength of the given source of light is
sin
1 m
Nm
sin sin ..........
1 ................. m
Nm 1 ..........
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Table 10.2. (b) To find the angle of divergence
Angle of divergence
S.No. r1 r2 d1 d2 r -r
2 1
m m m m d 2 d1
degrees
RESULT:
(i) The wavelength of the laser = ..
(ii) The angle of divergence = .
PRECAUTIONS:
The experiment should be done in a dark room.
The grating should have a less number of lines.
Direct view of the laser should be avoided.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What does the term LASER stands for?
2. What is the principle of laser?
3. What are the properties of laser?
4. What are the different types of lasers available? Which one is used in this experiment?
5. What is stimulated emission?
6. Explain the basic mechanism of lasing action.
7. Mention a few applications of laser.
8. Distinguish between laser source and convention light sources.
9. What is an optical cavity?
10. What is population inversion? Explain why it is easier to achieve it in a four level
laser compared to that in a three level laser?
11. What is the wavelength of laser light from (a) Ruby laser, (b) He-Ne laser, and (c)
CO2 laser?
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12. What are the precautions to be taken while doing experiments with laser?
13. Will laser undergo diffraction through ordinary grating? Explain.
14. What is the difference between the phenomena that occur when light passes through
the prism and the grating?
15. What type of adjustments you will do to get clear diffraction pattern, if the screen
used in the experiments is (a) white wall (b) white chart pasted on the wall, and (c)
graduated scale?
16. What will the impact on the diffraction pattern on the screen, if the number rulings
per meter on the grating are changed?
17. What are central maximum and maxima?
18. Are the spectra of different orders of the same intensity?
19. What is the difference between laser grating and spectrometer grating?
20. Whether laser beam used in this experiment is a convergent beam (or) divergent
beam? Give reasons.
21. Compare the angle of divergence for an ordinary beam with a laser beam.
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AIM:
To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the given optical fibre.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Optical fiber cable, Laser source, Numerical aperture, White screen, with
concentric circles, scale.
THEORY:
Numerical aperture is a basic parameter of an optical fiber. It is a measure of light
gathering power or degree of openness of the fiber. It is the product of the refractive
index of the incident medium and the sine of the maximum ray angle.
FORMULAE:
w
(i) Numerical aperture of the optical fiber NA=
4l +w 2
2
PROCEDURE:
The numerical aperture jig consists of an iron or plastic stand with a moving
screen. In this screen, a number of concentric rings of varying diameter are present. In
front of it, a stand with a circular slit in the centre is provided which is connected to the
laser light source through the optical fiber cable. By moving the screen back and forth the
laser light from the circular slit is made to fall exactly on the circles with different
diameters. The distance l between the circular slit in the jig and screen for various
circular diameters are noted on a moving scale situated at the bottom of the jig. Thus by
knowing the values of l and w, the value of the numerical aperture is calculated. The
maximum divergent angle (the acceptance angle) is also determined.
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DIAGRAM:
Laser source
Laser
Fiber
1 Screen
Fig. 10.3. Determination of Numerical Aperture
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RESULT:
1. The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber NA = No unit
2. The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber a = Degree
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The optical fiber cables should not be bent and twisted to the higher
extent.
2. Avoid direct viewing of laser light
3. The knob in the power meter must be handled properly.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is an optical fiber? Explain briefly its structure.
2. What are the characteristics of optic fiber?
3. What is the need for a jacket in a optical fiber?
4. Why the relative index of cladding must always be higher than that of core?
5. Why light from a laser source and not from a LED is preferred for an optical
fiber?
6. How does an optical fiber work?
7. What is the principle used in optical fiber?
8. What is attenuation?
9. What are the reasons for the loss in optical fiber?
10. What are the different types of optical fibers?
11. Mention a few applications of optical fiber?
12. What are the advantages of optical communications over the other modes of
communications?
13. Define critical angle.
14. Define acceptance angle.
15. On what factors does the critical angle of incidence of core cladding interface
depend?
16. Define numerical aperture.
17. On what factors does the numerical aperture depend?
18. What is the mathematical expression for numerical aperture?
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A uniform rectangular beam, two equal knife edges, two weight hanger with
slotted weight, vernier microscope, pin, screw gauge, vernier caliper.
FORMULA:
3 M g a 2
E 3
Nm -2
2bd y
PROCEDURE
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unloading. The breadth and the thickness of the beam are measured with a vernier
calipers and screw gauge respectively. From the data Youngs modulus of the beam is
calculated.
Table 11.1 To find the depression (y)
Table 11.2. To find the breadth of the beam using vernier caliper
LC = 0.01cm
OR = MSR + (VSC x LC)
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Table 11.3. To find the thickness of the beam using Screw gauge
OR =
PSR HSC CR = OR ZC
S.No. PSR+ (HSC x LC)
x 10-3m Div x 10-3m
x 10-3m
1
2
Mean =
CALCULATION:
3 M g a 2
Youngs modulus of the beam E Nm -2
2 b d3 y
RESULT:
Youngs modulus of the material of the given beam E==----------------- Nm-2
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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is uniform bending?
2. Why should the beam be placed symmetrically on two knife edges?
3. How will you bring the beam to the elastic mode?
4. How should the adding of weights to the weight hangers on the beam be done?
5. Why should the measurement of thickness of the beam be done very accurately?
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12. CAREY-FOSTERS BRIDGE
Expt. No. Date:
AIM
To determine the specific resistance of the material of the given wire.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Carey foster bridge, coil of the given wire, Lechlanche cell (Bt), Key, Two equal
resistances P & Q, Galvanometer, high resistance, Jockey, Known resistance box (R).
FORMULA
1. Resistance of the given coil of wire X R 1 2 rb Ohm
X r2
2. Specific resistance of the given coil of wire ohm-metre
Symbol Explanation Unit
rb Resistance per meter length of the bridge wire ohm/meter
X Unknown resistance ohm
la, lb , l1 & l2 Balancing lengths meter
R Known value of resistance in the resistance box meter
r Radius of the given coil of wire meter
l Length of the given coil of wire meter
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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Table 12.1. Determination of unknown resistance X
OR =
PSR HSC CR = OR ZC
S.No. PSR+ (HSC x LC)
x 10-3m Div x 10-3m
x 10-3m
1
2
Mean(diameter d) =
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The total circuit is divided into two parts viz., primary and secondary circuit. In
the primary circuit the lechlanche cell (Bt) and key (K) is connected. In the secondary
circuit the galvanometer (G), high resistance (HR) and Jockey (J) is connected in series.
PROCEDURE
To find the unknown resistance(X) and specific resistance ().
The primary and the secondary circuits are connected as shown in the figure. The
equal resistances P and Q are included in the two inner gaps (1 & 2). Resistance box R is
included in the left gap 3 and unknown resistance X is included in the right gap 4.Known
value of resistances R are included (say 0.2, 0.3 ohms etc.,) and the balancing length (AJ
= l1) is measured in each case and tabulated.
The position of R and X is interchanged. The experiment is repeated for the same
values of R (say 0.2, 0.3 ohms etc.,) and the balancing length (AJ = l2) is measured and
tabulated.
In order to determine the resistance (rb) per metre length of the bridge wire, a
thick copper strip of zero resistance is placed in the left gap (3) and standard resistance of
0.1 ohms is placed at right gap (4) and balancing length (AJ = la) is noted and tabulated.
Now by placing the copper strip at the right gap (4) and 0.1 ohms at the left gap (3), the
balancing length (AJ= lb) is noted and tabulated.
Specific resistance
The radius of the given coil of wire(r) is found using screw gauge and the length
of the wire (l) is measured. By substituting the value for X, r and l in the given formula ,
the specific resistance of the given coil of wire can be determined.
CALCULATION
X r2
Specific resistance of the given coil of wire ohm-metre
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RESULT
The unknown resistance of the given coil of wire(X) =--------ohms
Specific resistance of the given coil of wire = ------------ohm-metre
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is Carey-Foster Bridge?
2. What is meant by specific resistance?
3. What is meant by balancing length?
4. What is meant by Wheatstone network?
5. What is the use of interchanging the values of R and X in the circuit?
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AIM
To determine the hysteresis loss in the transformer core using B-H curve unit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
FORMULA
N R C
Hysteresis loss 1 2 Sv SH Area of the loop joule
N2 R1 V
cycle-1 m-3
PROCEDURE
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This voltage is applied to passive integration circuit. The output of the integrator is
proportional to B and fed to the vertical input of the C.R.O
SPECIMEN
The top view of the unit is shown in the figure. There are 12 terminals on the panel,
six patch cords are supplied with the kit.
The value of R1 can be selected by connecting terminal D to A,B or C(A-D=50
ohm); B-D=150 ohm; C-D=50 ohm)
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A is connected to D. The primary terminals of the specimen is connected to p,p
secondary to s,s terminals. The CRO is calibrated as per the instructions given in the
Instruction manual of the CRO. CRO is adjusted to work on the external mode (the time
base is switched off). The horizontal and vertical position controls are adjusted such that
the spot is at the centre of the CRO screen.
The terminal marked GND is connected to the ground of the CRO. The H is
connected to the Horizontal input of the CRO. The terminals V are connected to the
vertical input of the CRO. The power supply of the unit is switched on. The hysteresis loop
is formed. The horizontal and vertical gains are adjusted such that the loop occupies
maximum area on the screen of the CRO. Once this adjustment is made, the gain controls
should not be disturbed. The loop is traced on a translucent graph paper. The area of the
loop is estimated.
The connections from CRO are removed without disturbing the horizontal and
vertical gain controls. The vertical sensitivity of the CRO is determined by applying a
known A.C. voltage say 1 volt (peak to peak).
If the spot deflects by x cms for 1 volt, the vertical sensitivity is 1/(x10-2) (volt/m).
Let it be SV. The horizontal sensitivity of CRO is determined by applying a known A.C
voltage say 1 volt (peak to peak). Let the horizontal sensitivity be SH (volt/m).
The hysteresis loss is calculated by using the given formula.
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Observations
CALCULATION
N R C
Hysteresis loss 1 2 Sv SH Area of the loop
N2 R1 V
RESULT
Energy loss=.. joules cycle-1m-3
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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the significance of the hysteresis loop.
2. What is meant by cycle of magnetization?
3. What is meant by retentivity and coercivity?
4. What is the use of finding the area of the loop?
5. Give any two ferro-magnetic materials used in finding the energy losses?
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