Workshop Notes Supervision Bored Piles PDF

WORKSHOP NOTES
ON
Site Supervision of
Bored Pile & Micropile
Installation
By
Ir. Neoh Cheng Aik

E-Geo Consultant Sdn Bhd
caneoh@gmail.com
www.egeo.com.my
25 Nov 15rev
Workshop Notes on Site supervision of Bored Pile & Micropile Installation by Ir. Neoh
Cheng Aik, 25 Nov 15
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction.... Pg. 2
1.1 Objective of this course/workshop
1.2 Detail course/workshop contents
1.3 Method statement
1.4 References
2. Role of supervision for piling works..Pg. 6

2.1 Parties involved
2.2 Basic role & responsibility
2.3 Duties of supervisors
2.4 Some advice & comments for pile supervisors
2.5 Minimum supervision requirements for piling works
3. Site supervision of bored pilesPg. 14

3.1 BS EN 1536:2000
3.2 Design & construction issues & requirements
3.3 Scope of design validation
3.4 Construction controls
3.5 Common defective design
3.6 Common defective construction
3.7 Construction checklist
4. Site supervision of micropiles.....Pg. 48

4.1 BS EN 14199:2005
4.2 Important construction issues & requirements
4.3 Construction checklist
5. Specification for Piling Works....Pg. 64
6. Commonly asked Q & A.Pg. 65
7. Case Histories/case studies.......Pg. 73
8. Attachment: Slide Presentation...Pg. 74
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1. Introduction
Pile foundations are very common nowadays especially for high-rise

buildings & heavy structures. Reliability & performance of pile foundations
depend crucially on how they are designed as well as how they are
constructed.
Construction of piled foundations is a specialist activity, calling for

considerable expertise & reliable workmanship, the more so as the
completed element can rarely be inspected for defects. Remedial work to
piling found to be wanting at a later date can be extremely time
consuming & expensive, if not well-nigh impossible (Ken Fleming et at,
2009).
To ensure pile design is properly & adequately carried out, independent

check engineer (ICE) or BEM accredited check engineer (Geotechnic)
should be appointed to check/audit the design. Similarly, to ensure piling
works are properly carried out at site, a suitably qualified and
experienced person shall be in charge of the supervision/execution of the
piling works (Cl 9.1 of BS EN 1536).
Proper site supervision to ensure pile foundations are properly constructed

according to good engineering practice, design drawings & specification
is a mandatory requirement by code of practice (BS 8004/EC7). In fact, BS
8004:1986 clearly stipulates that A competent person, properly qualified
and experienced, should be appointed to supervise the piling operations.
This person should be capable of recognizing and assessing any potential
dangers as they arise, e.g. unexpected ground conditions that may
require a change in construction technique, or unusual smells which may
indicate the presence of noxious or dangerous gases.
Eurocode EC7-1 also stipulates that To ensure the safety & quality of a
structure the construction processes and workmanship SHALL be
supervised. Supervision of the construction process including
workmanship should include the following, as appropriate:
Checking the validity of the design assumptions.
Identifying the differences between the actual ground conditions &
those assumed in the design.
Checking that the construction is carried out according to the
design (drawings & specification).
This workshop/course is designed to provide supervising personnel

(RE/CRE) or inspector of works (IOW) or site technicians/clerk of works with
necessary practical knowledge and information related to how to carry
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out proper site supervision of piling works with particular reference to

bored piles and micropiles.
To carry out proper supervision of piling works means to carry out the
supervision at site to ensure the piling works are carried out by the
Contractor using proper resources, procedures and according to the
approved design & specifications with due care, skill and diligence.
Presentation of the workshop/course through slides & notes will be in an

interactive format so that the participants are actively involved in the
learning experience. This course follows typical JKR standard
specifications and good engineering practices for construction of
common bored piles and micropiles.
1.1 Objectives of this Course/workshop
The main objective of this course is to discuss various construction practices

and construction requirements of piling works (bored piles & micropiles) that
should be met to ensure compliance with good engineering practice, design
drawings and specification of piling works. To impart the necessary
information and knowledge to ENABLE site supervisors to carry out proper
supervision of common piling works is the main purpose of this
course/workshop.
1.2 Detail workshop/course Contents
Important workshop/course details/contents covered in this Workshop are as

follows:
Workshop: Site supervision of piling works (bored piles & micropiles)
Objective: To prepare the site supervisor of piling works to inspect, to monitor and document/record
the piling operations (bored piles & micropiles) ensuring safety, serviceability and
durability pile foundation as per requirements of Code of Practice and the Specifications.
Workshop/ 1. Will familiarize the pile supervisor with the relevant bored pile & micropile
Course terminology, materials, equipment (bore rig & tools) and process details pertaining to
bored pile installation;
Content: 2. Will provide the pile supervisor with the necessary knowledge, information and
understanding of bored pile construction drawings/plans, Standard JKR Specifications
(Section 10: Piling), etc.;
3. Will explain & describe the pile supervisors role and responsibility for site
supervision of piling works from step one of the pile installation plan to the final step
of pile installation testing & acceptance.
4. The course includes a review of the boring rig & drill tools used for bored pile
installation and the construction requirements;
5. Will explain all the important pile installation processes/sequences & methods of
installation; all necessary scope of inspection & QC tests on materials, workmanship
and acceptance tests/measurements for structural integrity and performance of bored
piles & micropiles, etc.
Duration of One day

Workshop:
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1.3 Method Statement
A so-called comprehensive method statement for piling work should include

but not limited to the following scopes/contents:
a) Specific, appropriate and adequate 3M (Materials, Manpower &

Machine) should be proposed and deployed to execute & complete
the piling works as specified to suit the specific pile design, specific
project/site conditions and within the time schedule planned/allowed.
For bored pile installation, specific boring rigs & tools (model, type,
capacity/torque & numbers/sets of machines & drill tools to be
deployed), specific drilled shaft stabilization material/method, specific
base cleaning equipment, specific concrete mix design, concreting
method, specific names of operator with CV, etc., shall be clearly
stated), General statement such as suitable machine and tools will be
mobilized/deployed is totally not acceptable.
b) Proper and practical sequence of works and construction
processes/methods with details of proper temporary works for each
activity and sub-activity should be proposed and illustrated with
figures/diagrams. Specific working details including piling layout,
working platform preparation, piling process, etc., should be
elaborated. Design details/drawings with supporting calculations for
temporary works such as staging, bearing capacity of soft ground for
piling platform to support piling frame, etc., should be included with
endorsement by a qualified P Eng. For bored piles, specific
construction method & details for boring (rig & tools), drilled shaft
stabilization, base cleansing, reinforcement cage placement &
concreting should be included. For micropiles, specific construction
method & details for drilling (rig & tools), borehole stabilization &
cleansing, reinforcement placement & grouting should be included.
c) Criteria of piling termination plus details/forms of recording shall be
included. For bored piles, boing termination criteria usually are based
on depth & soil/rock strata description or confirmatory tests, etc. Shall
discuss with the designer if termination criteria are not specified on
drawings or specifications.
d) Rate of production or output of piling works per day/week plus the
completion time required for piling works should be included. For
bored piles, time required to complete boring in soil & rock for a bored
pile should be indicated.
e) Types, frequency and acceptance criteria of the necessary QC
tests/measurements/observations /inspections to check material
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quality and workmanship plus performance or load tests should be

stated/proposed with specific details. These scopes of inspection,
testing and recording should be in line with the requirements
specified/required/instructed subsequently. Proposed remediation if
any quality or workmanship is below par should also be proposed. For
bored piles, procedures/test standards, frequency & acceptance
criteria for QC tests on drilling fluids, sonic logging tests, shock tests,
static load/bidirectional load tests/PDA tests, etc., should be included.
1.4 References
The main references used/referred to prepare this course/workshop note &

slides are as follows:
a) Pile Design & Construction Practice, 4th Edition, by M.J. Tomlinson (1994),
b) Foundation Design & Construction, GEO (HK) Publication 1/2006,
c) Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures & LRFD Design Methods,
Publication No. FHWA-IF-99-025.
d) Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures & Design Methods, Publication
No. FHWA-NHI-10-016.
e) Micropile Design & Construction Guidelines implementation Manual.
Publication No. FHWA-SA-97-070 (Jun 2000)
f) BS 8004:1986. CP for Foundations
g) BS EN 1997:2004. Part 1:General Rules (EC 7)
h) BS EN 1536:2000. Execution of special geotechnical work-bored piles.
i) BS EN 14199:2005. Execution of special geotechnical works-micropiles.
j) Code of Practice for Foundations, Hong Kong, 2004.
k) Code of Practice for Foundations,CP4;2003, Singapore Standard
l) Piling Engineering, 3rd Edition, by Ken Fleming, et al (2009).
This brief note intends to provide important information and details on how to
carry out site supervision aimed to ensure sound non-displacement piles
(bored piles and micropiles) are formed and installed according to the
design drawings and specifications and also in accordance with the
requirements about safety, serviceability and durability stipulated by code of
practice (BS EN 1536, BS EN14199, BS 8004/EC 7).
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2. Role of Supervision for Piling Works
2.1 Parties involved
Generally and typically, five direct parties involved in a conventional

construction of civil engineering and building project contract
implementation are:
a) The Client/Project owner (specifies the needs of the project,

provides project site & fund).
b) The Project Manager (appointed by the Client to manage and
administer the project on behalf of the project owner & coordinates
all parties involved in the project construction works. Has the
authority to enforce the provisions of the Contract. For small
project, the role of project manager may be played by the
Consultant).
c) The Consultants (appointed by the Client/Project manager to
prepare the design drawings & works specifications (std &
addendum Specs) to meet the requirements of Codes of practice,
BQ & other info for the contract document for the project &
supervise the construction).
d) The Contractor (engaged/entrusted by the Client to carry out the
construction works with necessary resources as designed and
specified by the design Consultants through a contract with the
Client). For design & build contract, the lead contractor engages a
consultant and works together to carry out the works for the project
owner..
e) The Supervisors (IOW, ARE, RE/CRE), appointed/entrusted by the
Client/Project manager to supervise the works. Has the authority to
inspect (to look closely & critically), accept/reject or suspend the
works according to the provisions in the Contract documents..
The construction supervision team including RE & technicians/clerk of

works or inspector of works (IOW) appointed by the Client/project
manager usually is from the design Consultant (as recommended by
BEM) though the Client has the right to appoint any other qualified
person/consultant to supervise the construction works by the
Contractor.
Piling work is usually part of the civil engineering or building project

given to a Contractor, who normally engages a piling specialist to
carry out the piling work.
It is a typical construction contract practice that the Contractor shall

notify the site supervisor of his intention to proceed with each and
every item of works and obtain the supervisors approval of his long
term and day to day work program before any works are executed.
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2.2 Basic role & responsibility of pile supervisors
The basic role of pile supervisors (appointed by the project

owner/project manager) is to serve as representative of the
Client/Project manager to take care of the interest of the project
owner and to perform site supervision aimed to ensure piling works are
properly carried out by the Contractor according to the
agreed/signed Contract documents including Conditions of Contract,
BQ, design drawings and works specification.
The supervisor (RE/IOW) should also serve as the eyes and ears of the
designer/Client, and as the recorder (to make accurate & unbiased
observations; document events comprehensively & consistently;
perform duty promptly) and as the reporter (to keep diary up-to-date
& keep the designer/Project manager informed promptly) for the job
entrusted.
The basic role and responsibility of supervision team for the piling work
is primarily to ensure the piling work is carried out by the Contractor
properly according to the approved design drawings & works
specifications and record adequately to establish the as-built
conditions for future analysis and reference. To carry out the piling
work properly means to carry out the piling work using proper
materials, proper procedures and equipment and also with due care,
skill and diligence. Care and diligence are humane attitude factors
while skill means knowledge and experience that requires training
through attending courses/workshops, self-reading, practical/physical
site experience, etc.
Care and diligence are very important human factors or human

attitudes of mind that need to be exercised to fullest when there is
lacking in skill. What is the standard for care? What is the standard for
diligence? What is the standard for skill? What to constitute professional
negligence (lack of care or diligence or skill) in supervision of piling
works? Case histories to illustrate these important issues will be
deliberated during the lecture.
Two (2) basic requirements for properly installed sound piles to be

formed at site are as follows:
Well-perceived pile design, based on adequate info (loads, site
& subsoil conditions/SI) and in compliance with the
requirements about safety, serviceability & durability stipulated
by CP (BS 8004/EC 7) is designed properly by qualified designer.
Properly means with due care, skill & diligence. Performance of

displacement piles is generally more sensitive to design issues
and the site supervisors have to check and discuss with the
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designer to ensure all the issues discussed in Para 3 are

adequately addressed.
Piles are properly installed according to the approved pile

design & specification by qualified Contractor using proper
material, equipment and construction procedure and under
supervision by qualified supervisors (RE/technicians/clerk of
works), whose primary responsibility is to check and ensure
piles are properly installed according to the good engineering
practice, approved design drawings & specification (an audit
function to double check proper construction as required by
CP). Performance of non-displacement piles (bored piles &
micropiles) is more sensitive to construction and the site
supervisors have to check the method statement and discuss
with the Contractor and designer to ensure all the construction
requirements/issues discussed in Para 3 & 4 are adequately
addressed.
As the subsoil conditions are usually highly variable and sometimes

treacherous, the response and effects of piling on the ground are very
complex and difficult to predict mainly due to lack of information and
data available.
Basic knowledge that needs to be learnt and be aware by RE and

supervisors for supervision of various types of piling works will be
discussed in details during the lecture.
In order to discharge the responsibility of supervisor, he/she SHALL be a

suitably qualified and experienced person, who shall be responsible
for:
a) The conformity of piling works with CP, design drawings &

specifications.
This means in compliance with good engineering practice and all

the requirements stipulated by CP (relevant BS EN 1536/BS
8004/EC7), specific design drawings & specifications. To discharge
this responsibility, the supervisor has to be well-versed with the
relevant terminology of piling works, all important
processes/sequence of piling works and their relevant scope of
inspection/QC tests on material, workmanship & performance tests
plus their acceptance criteria. An experienced pile supervisor is
always aware of the common defective piling constructions and
how to mitigate them properly.
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b) Checking the validity of design parameters/assumptions.
c) The inspection & monitoring of all important piling

processes/sequences and keeping of all necessary records to
establish as-built conditions; and to
d) Keep the Clients/representative and/or designer informed of any

variations or deviations from the expected situations or conditions
of the site or any cases of non-conformity.
Properly qualified means adequate basic academic qualification and

training to equip with the necessary skill for the piling supervision. An
understanding of the interaction of piling with the ground is essential for
piling supervisors to understand the principles involved with various
piling behaviours and piling phenomenon such as base boiling,
excessive outflow of drilling fluid, excessive inflow of soil &
groundwater, etc., for installation of bored piles, etc.
As a site supervisor for a piling works, he/she is responsible and

obliged to ensure the above requirements are met. In order to meet
the above requirements, the supervisor has to carry out the supervision
with due care, skill and diligence; otherwise he/she is deemed to have
professional negligence. What is meant by with due care, skill and
diligence in piling supervision?
2.3 Duties of supervisors
Generally important duties for piling supervisors (RE) or IOWs are as follows;
a) To check and approve the method statements prepared & submitted

by the Contractor.
b) To check that all the piling works processes at site are carried out
according to specifications and drawings.
c) To inspect and identify any faulty materials, defective workmanship,
non-conformity work process, etc.
d) To check that the Piling Contractor provides adequate safety
precautionary measures during the course of all the piling works
processes;
e) To check that the Contractor follows the approved works program
and approved method statements;
f) To keep vigilance on any visual signs of pile distress on Site and in
the surrounding buildings/structures and any apparent signs of
abnormal or unforeseen ground conditions.
g) To report to designer/Client or professional staff on faulty materials,
defective workmanship, non-conformity works process, site
problems, site safety, visual signs of distress, possible abnormal or
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unforeseen ground conditions, progress, quality of workmanship and

adequacy of Contractors resources for the Works;
h) To make site measurements, sampling and testing of materials for the
piling works;
i) To monitor the piling works of all his subordinates, if any;
j) To record and ensure that all site measurements, site diaries on site
field works, record drawings, in-situ QC testing and other records are
properly maintained and kept up-to-date;
k) To ensure consistent supervision, site safety and measurement
standard across sites under his supervision.
l) To prepare and submit weekly/monthly progress reports and any
other returns as required by his superior;
m) To check and verify bills submitted by the Contractor;
n) To check that the Quality Procedures are followed by all concerned
subordinates;
o) To check & verify the as-built drawings/records prepared by the
Contractor; and
p) To check the overtime duties of all his subordinates, if any.
q) Other specific supervision duty as required or instructed.
2.4 Some advice & comments for pile supervisors
a) Pile supervisors (CRE/RE/IOWs) have to remember that their main job

is to represent the project owner to supervise & to inspect to ensure
that the piling works are properly executed according to the
drawings & specifications. This means the supervisors have to know
the specific requirements of the particular piling work process & be
able to identify defective pile construction & unacceptable materials
that are not in compliance with the specifications and drawings or
not a good engineering practice. Well-versed in BS EN 1536 (bored
piles) & BS EN 14199 (micropiles) is mandatory.
b) Nowadays, in order to achieve more cost & time saving or to be
more competitive, the pile designers and/or pile Contractors are
more inclined to adopt marginal pile design & fast/cheap
construction process (usually are likely to be low quality 3M & poor
workmanship). This means less piles or smaller piles or cheaper piles
or lower FOS or not much contingencies are allowed for unforeseen
eventualities & unexpected/treacherous subsoil conditions. This will
put the responsibility of pile supervisors to be more alert, demanding
and challenging.
c) Inspection is as good as the knowledge, experience & qualification
of the supervisors.
d) For bored piles, the supervisors must learn the importance &
principles of boring operation, drilled shaft stabilization, base
cleaning, reinforcement cage placement, concreting, etc., that will
affect bored pile structural integrity and capacity. For driven RC/spun
piles, the supervisors must learn & understand the operation of
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hammer (plus accessories), pile behaviour, the soil response and

how these 3 components interact. The soil mechanic principles
involved can be quite complex.
e) Most of the piling problems can be mitigated/averted, if a
competent pile supervisor uses systematic inspection procedures
coupled with due cooperation from the pile Contractor.
f) The pile supervisor must be more than just look see look see at site
or just a site recorder or blow counter. The supervisor should be
the eyes & ears of the designer/project director/owner. Timely
observations, suggestions & correction advice can ultimately assure
the success of the piling works. The earlier a problem or abnormality
is detected & reported by site supervisor, the earlier a solution or
correction in procedures can be made & hence, a potentially
negative situation can be limited to manageable one. If the same
problem is left unattended, the numbers of piles affected will
increase, as do the cost of remediation & the potential for
claims/disputes or project delays. Thus, prompt detection & reporting
of any problem by site supervisor is very critical to keep the project
on schedule & within budget.
g) Pile supervisors must learn to have the knowledge to identify the
various types/designs of piling/boring rigs & drill tools being used by
the Contractor. Their applications & limitations, etc.
h) Pile supervisor should always REMEMBER that it is NOT his/her
responsibility to direct the Contractors works or techniques.
However, pile supervisor must make reliable & accurate records &
notes as to the actual boring rigs & drill tools on site and being used.
If the Contractor only has soil augers on site and rock needs to be
bored & penetrated, it is important to have this info noted, as the
Contractor may say the material cannot be penetrated and was
misrepresented or harder than indicated. May not really be so if the
Contractor had the proper rock auger or rock boring tools.
i) The pile supervisors accurate, unbiased observations and
documentation can serve to alleviate a lot of problems or disputes or
claims that might arise.
j) If the Contractor only has soil augers on site and rock needs to be
bored & penetrated, it is important to have this info noted, as the
Contractor may say the material cannot be penetrated and was
misrepresented or harder than indicated. May not really be so if they
had the proper rock auger or rock boring tools.
k) The bored pile designer knows the project by heart as he/she have
lived it for probably a few years or at least several months. The
Contractor knows each detail of construction as he/she has gone
through the Specs & Drgs with fingertip details during the tender
process & site visit. The CRE & RE is most probably sent to site at the
last moment, so it is imperative that CRE/RE should be familiar with
the project (drgs, specs & site conditions) soonest possible so that the
Method Statement can be checked & approved fast.
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l) CRE/REs whole purpose of being sent to site is to verify that the bored
piles are constructed in accordance with the specs & drags. Hence,
the specs, in reality, outline the responsibility of CRE/RE.
2.5 Minimum supervision requirements for piling works
The classes of supervision appropriate to a type of building

construction works or civil works are defined by means of the number
and grades of technically competent person (TCPs) and their
frequency level of inspection of the works. The minimum requirements
on the grades of TCPs and frequency level of inspection appropriate to
various types of building works or civil works as practice in Hong Kong
are set out in Table 1 below.
Minimum level of supervision is graded as follows;
Level 1 is inspection as and when required.

Level 2 is inspection monthly
Level 3 is inspection fortnightly
Level 4 is inspection weekly
Level 5 is full-time inspection during site working hours
Technically competent person/TCP or supervisor grade is as follows;
T1 is a certificate or diploma holder with minimum relevant working

experience of 2 years.
T2 is a higher certificate or higher diploma holder with minimum
relevant working experience of 3 years.
T3 is a higher certificate or higher diploma holder with minimum
relevant working experience of 5 years or a degree holder with
minimum 2 years of working experience.
T4 is a degree holder with minimum 4 years of relevant working
experience or a registered professional engineer
T5 is a registered professional engineer with minimum 5years of
relevant working experience.
According to Hong Kong practice, full-time supervision from registered

Contractor/RC and registered geotechnical engineer/RGEs
representative (at least grade T3) is required for foundation/piling
works.
ABBREVIATIONS in Table 1; RC=registered contractor; AP=authorized

person/SO; RSE=registered structural engineer; RGE=registered
geotechnical engineer.
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Notes to Table 1
1. Level 1 = Inspection as and when required; Level 2 = Monthly inspection; Level 3 = Fortnightly inspection; Level 4 =
Weekly inspection; Level 5 = Full-time inspection during site working hours
2. Higher grade TCP and/or more frequent site inspection up to full time may be required at critical stages. Further
guidance is given in the Code of Practice.
3. For the qualification and experience required for each grade of TCP, refer to para 2.4.
4. The type of building works that are regarded as building works with significant geotechnical content are set out in the
Code of Practice.
5. The type of foundation works, including those in the designated area, that are regarded as building works with
significant geotechnical content are set out in the Code of Practice.
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3. Site Supervision of Bored Pile Installation
Bored piles are the common type of non-displacement/replacement piles,

which are generally more environment-friendly and can be constructed
through any hard obstructions; have much larger range in size (0.5m to 3m
diameter) and capacity (150T to 6500T).
Bored piles up to about 6m diameter & 80m deep have been reported to be
constructed to replace big groups of many driven big steel pipe piles for
bridge over a big river in USA. Non-displacement or replacement piles
generally refer to bored piles, micropiles, augered piles, hand-dug caissons
and barrete piles. Bored piles are also called drilled shafts, drilled piers,
caissons, bored & cast insitu piles.
Bored piles are deep, cylindrical (typically 0.5m to 3m), cast-insitu concrete
piles constructed by boring machine using various types of augers and
buckets, etc., to bore and to take out the cuttings with subsequent filling the
hole with concrete plus necessary reinforcement (typically 0.5% to 1%).
Bored piles are commonly and mainly used to resist lateral loads of deep
excavation and to support large structures with large vertical
compressive/tension loads and/or large lateral loads. It is very important that
bored pile designers should fully understand the design
principles/concept/model/behaviour and scope of design of bored piles in
various site and subsoil conditions with particular reference to estimation of
safe structural & geotechnical capacity (fsu & fbu), in addition to their
limitations & applications.
How drilling and concreting can affect bored pile behavior and performance
is EQUALLY IMPORTANT to how to estimate ultimate unit friction (fsu) and
ultimate end bearing capacity (fbu) of subsoil practically and realistically.
Certainly, bored pile designers should also know/learn what are the site
specific information and substrata properties that will affect bored pile
construction and performance and all these should be learnt & understood
adequately.
3.1 BS EN 1536:2000 Execution of special geotechnical work-Bored Piles has

spelt out the details of requirements for good construction practice to
ensure good performance of bored piles covering materials/products
requirements and works execution requirements (boring, shaft
stabilization, base cleaning, placement of reinforcement cage,
concreting & testing). Requirements for quality supervision & records, etc.,
are also included.
The requirements stipulated by BS EN 1536 for bored pile installation are

briefly summarized as follows:
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Technical requirements & QC tests for Materials & Products for

bored Piles (materials for concrete & grout, concrete insitu, grout,
stabilizing fluid & reinforcement bars, couplers, spacers, etc.).
GI report: critical ground information required for proper planning
of bored pile installation works.
Design related considerations (construction tolerance,
excavation/boring, reinforcement, etc.).
Works Execution & construction requirements/controls for
excavation/boring, fixing & placement of reinforcement cage,
concreting, etc.
Requirements for supervisions (pile construction & testing)
Requirements for records
Some of the details about design & construction practice (BS EN 1536) for
bored piles are as follows:
Bored pile is formed by excavation using boring machine and then

fill it up with plain concrete or with some reinforcement (minimum
0.25% to 0.5% if insignificant bending & tension are likely to be
induced by superstructural loading and ground movement) to
provide structural element to support and transfer loads from the
superstructure into the ground through friction and end bearing.
Typical sizes: 0.5m to 3m diameter with maximum structural axial

load of 2000kN to 65000 kN (Qstruct = or < 0.25fcuAc). Can be raked
up to 1:4 (if stiff clay) or 1:3 if cased. Bored piles can be properly
sized to take high range of loads.
Bored piles in groups shall have pile spacing of at least 2 times

diameter or minimum 760mm net clearance. Secant piles have
spacing slightly less than pile diameter while CBP wall have bored
pile spacing slightly larger than pile diameter.
Scope of GI/SI: spacing of investigation points/BH for bored pile

foundation design & construction shall be 10m to 50m grid spacing
and depth shall be until hard layer (at least 5 consecutive SPT>50 or
minimum 3m rock coring) without underlain by weak/soft layer.
SI/GI should be aimed to be sufficient to identify all ground
formations and layers affecting the construction and performance
of bored piles plus the deformation properties of the ground as
specified by Clause 5 of BS EN 1536. For high-rise buildings & heavy
structures, boreholes should only be terminated after at least 12m
into hard material and/or at least one borehole should be bored
until at least 6m into the weathered rock. A comprehensive GI/SI
should contain the following information:
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General site geological description; GL of investigation points;

Presence & characteristics of weak subsoil (loose & soft) or
become unstable during boring; Presence of soil or rock prone to
swelling; Presence of coarse soil of high permeability or cavities
that can cause sudden loss of stabilizing fluid or concrete during
placement; Presence of hard obstruction such as cobles,
boulders/hard metals that are troublesome and time consuming to
break through, etc. (Cl 5, BS EN 1536).
Important scope of monitoring/inspection by site supervisors related to

construction requirements for bored piles are summarized in the Table
below:
Construction Scope of Monitoring/ Acceptance criteria
activity Inspection/Testing.
1 Pre-construction Site inspection & desk study of Understand the site, scope &
GI/SI report & GDR, etc. Setting nature of piling works. Check
up. Dilapidation survey? permissible limits of ground
movement for nearby structures/
services/utilities that may be
affected by bored pile installation
2 Boring operation Check method statement & Suitability of boring machine
types & details of boring rig & (capacity & power) & tools that
tools. Monitor boring operation can complete boring as
& effects of boring/ground specified/designed or within 6 hrs?
movements plus any Consult the designer for criteria of
abnormalities. Scope & details boring termination & potential
of records as required by BS EN abnormalities, if any.
1536 (Cl 10)
3 Drilled shaft Check & monitor Casing for squeezing very soft
stabilization types/methods of borehole strata & collapsible strata or
stabilization, their applications subsoil with artesian pressure.
& limitations to the specific site Bentonite for sand strata with
& subsoil conditions. Perform boiling problem &/or artesian
QC tests on drill fluid & records. pressures. Polymer for most of the
residual soils especially silty soil.
4 Base cleansing Monitor effectiveness of Base cleansing should be
cleanout bucket and/or air repeated if concreting is not
lifting/pumping method just carried out within 1 hrs after
before concreting. Beware of cleaning. Cleansing until all loose
problems of loose subsoils & & soft materials are removed. Can
excessive air-lifting. be confirmed by CSLogging tests.
5 Placement of Check conditions of Spacing of rebars should be more
reinforcement reinforcement cage (joint/ than 100x200mm. Reinf cage
cage couplers/spacers) during should be rigid, should be stiffened
pitching & placement into the by temporary steel pipe if
hole. excessive deflection is noted.
Ensure concentric position of the
cage in the hole & within
tolerance limits.
6 Concreting Check & verify concrete mix Fresh concrete should be cohesive
design & desired quality/QC & no segregation. High slump
requirements. (BS EN 1536, Cl 6.3) (>150mm) till end of concreting,
Check tremie concreting Add retarder if concreting time
requirements. QC tests & >1.5hrs. Concreting should be
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recoding. Check overbreak by continuous & uninterrupted.

measuring volume of concrete Requirement & precautions of
consumed per m for each pile. tremie concreting should be
BS EN 1536 (Cl 10). observed.
7 Post installation Evaluate installation records to Pile selection criteria for tests
Testing identify defective construction. should be based on detail records.
(CSL, Shock tests, Select suitable test methods & Tests shall be planned, conducted,
MLT, Bi-directional test standards for structural recorded & interpreted by
test, PDA, integrity & capacity. Check & qualified Engineer. Acceptance
Statnamic test, make sure all the requirements criteria for structural integrity &
etc.) of test standards are complied capacity tests? Make sure all
with. requirements of test standards are
complied with.
Design & construction of large diameter bored piles in Malaysia are only
commonly adopted for high-rise buildings and heavy structures after 70. One
of the early projects where about 1.2m diameter bored piles were used was
Wisma Persekutuan (2 blocks of 10-storey Office Building) in Johor Bahru in
1974.
3.2 Design & construction issues & requirements for bored piles
Some of the common design & construction requirements & practice for bored
piles in Malaysia are summarized as follows:
a) Bored pile sizes & capacity

Typically, bored piles can be sized from 500mm to 2.5m or up to 3m diameter
to take large ranges of design working loads up to about 65,000kN or higher
for heavy structures and high-rise buildings with deep basements and top-
down constructions. Usually uniform cross section piles are adopted without
base enlargements/under-reams/bells. Depth of bored piles exceeding 80m
is not uncommon. Bored piles can be raked up to 1:4 (in hard/stiff clay) or 1:3
if cased in cases where large load is anticipated.
b) Ultimate limit state

Pile shall be designed to have adequate capacity (structural & geotechnical)
to resist ultimate load combination. Important ultimate limit states that shall
be checked and analyzed (EC7-1) are: EQU (loss equilibrium of the pile or the
ground such as piles near slope, ground subsidence, excessive erosion, etc.).
STRU (internal failure or excessive deformation of the pile due to inadequate
strength to resist loads). GEO (failure or excessive deformation of the ground
in which the strength of soil/rock is insufficient to resist the loads). UPL & HYD.
Design methods by ASD (allowable stress design) are more common though
LRFD or limit state design methods are increasing common nowadays.
c) Serviceability limit state

Settlement and deflection of piles at working load shall be within tolerable
limit in consideration to aesthetic appearance, comfort of users &
functionality. Usually pile settlement at working load should be less than
12.5mm and free from creep for most buildings (JKR/SPJ/2010-S10).
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d) Durability
Design life for normal buildings & structures (EC 7-1) should be 50 yrs.,
monumental buildings/bridges/special structures 100 yrs, replaceable
structure parts 25 yrs, agricultural structures 30 yrs & temporary structures 10
yrs. For aggressive ground (pH value<5, resistivity<2000 ohm-cm,
Sulphate>0.2%, chloride>0.1%), higher cement content (>380 kg/m3), etc.,
have to be provided. Refer Clause 10 of BS 8004 for durability requirements for
concrete, steel & timber.
e) Nowadays, bored piles for high-rise buildings and heavy structures often
adopt grade 45 concrete with normal 0.5% to 1% reinforcement or more
depending on the lateral load/bending loads on piles. Maximum permissible
average compressive stress (fca) can be as high as fca=0.25fcu, (BS 8004) but
fca is normally discounted by about 20% to account for uncertainties in
submerged tremie concreting as recommended by CP for Foundations (Hong
Kong, 2004). CP 4:2003 of Singapore Standard limits 0.25fcu to 7.5 MPa only,
but for rock socketed reinforced bored piles with full length reinforcement,
the allowable structural capacity is Qstruct =(0.4fcuAc + 0.75fyAs)/FOS, where
fcu=grade of concrete, Ac=concrete area, As=steel area, fy=yield stress &
FOS= or >2.
Typical ranges of working bored pile capacity for the common

sizes based on grade 45 concrete are as follows:
Pile Size (mm) Max Design Working Capacity (kN)

500 (Ac=196,350mm2) 1,750 (2,200)
600 (Ac=384,846mm2) 2,550 (3,200)
700 3,400 (4,300)
800 4, 450 (5,600)
900 5, 750 (7,200)
1000 7,000 (8,800)
1200 10,000 (12,500)
1500 15,500 (19,500)
2000 28,200 (36,000)
2500 44,000 (55,000)
3000 55,500 (65,500)
Maximum structural capacity, Qstruct=0.2fcux As. For grade 45 concrete,
cement content shall be at least 425 kg/m3 with superplasticizer,
W/C<0.5, slump =150mm to collapse. The bracketed values are for
Qstruct=0.25fcuxAc.
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f) Important scope of design verification/analysis/calculations that shall be

carried out to show compliance with the requirements stipulated by CP are
discussed in subsequent Paras.
g) Before discussing the required scope/methods of design/calculations for

bored piles, it is important firstly to know what are the important basic
requirements stipulated by relevant Codes of practice or established design
guides plus what are the important/critical and mandatory requirements that
need to be met.
h) Relevant Codes of practice: EC 7 Part 1 for General Rules for geotechnical

design & design approaches, EC 7 Part 2 & 3 for planning scope of SI &
interpretation. BS 8004 (1986) for scope/details of design for foundations, BS
5930 (1999) & BS 1377 (1990) for planning scope/test methods of GI/I to get
the necessary subsoil parameters for foundation design, BEM 4/2005 for
requirements of adequate & reliable SI. Standard Specification for Bored pile
construction for good construction practice with respect to minimum
acceptable requirements for quality and workmanship for boring,
reinforcement, concreting & testing, etc.
i) Scope of Design Verification/analysis for Bored Pile Design
Bored pile design should be based on site/subsoil conditions derived from SI

plus loads derived from loading analysis. Scope of design verification should
basically include all necessary analysis/calculations to show all the design
requirements about safety, serviceability and durability stipulated by CP (BS
8004/EC7) can be complied with. Common scope of design verification for
bored pile design has been briefly explained in Para 3 above.
Some detail scope of design verification is given in the subsequent Para:
Without SI, geotechnical design has no basis. Without adequate design

verification/calculations, geotechnical design is uncertain and risky.
Adequate & reliable SI (as per BEM 4/2005 requirements) plus proper
selection of parameters & comprehensive analysis to show compliance with
the requirements of Code of practice are fundamental requirements for
design verifications. Adequate QC tests & design validation/ performance
tests are fundamental requirements to validate the design.
In order to plan scope of SI properly geotechnical category (GC) of

investigation, analysis and design shall be determined first. Geotechnical
Category is mainly based on nature and complexities plus the risks of the
project. The following Table provides some guides to determine GC.
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Table 1 : Geotechnical Category (GC) of Design/Investigation

(Clause 2.1, EC 7 Part 1)
Geotechnical GC I GC 2 GC 3
Category (Low Risk) (Routine) (Abnormal Risk)
Small, simple & Large or unusual

Common structures, no
1. Type & nature of conventional structures or structures
abnormal loadings or
Construction/structure structures with with exceptional
exceptional risks involved.
normal loadings. loadings
Large ground
No nearby structures
Some risk of damages to movement or high risks
2. Surrounding conditions / utilities or no risk of
nearby structures. to nearby structures,
damages. No slopes.
utilities, etc.
Relative flat ground. Soft or unstable
No soft or Can be cut or fill ground ground prone to
3.Site & ground conditions compressible of various types of deformation,
subsoils. Stable formations. movement, sinkholes,
ground. subsidence, etc.
Excavation in subsoil
No deep excavation
4. Groundwater Excavation below water consists of permeable
below water table
conditions table. & collapsible strata.
required.
WT may be lowered
5. Cost of construction
< RM1 to 3Million RM 1 to RM30 Million > RM 3 Million
works
6. SI Costs as % of
0.2% - 0.5% 0.2% - 1% 0.3% 2%
construction cost
SI to Code of Practice
Simple SI such as JKR
SI to meet Design Code of and planned by
probe & hand auger
Practice requirements. experienced geo
7. SI Scope required @ 15m to 45m
Spacing of BH/tests should engineer. Spacing of
spacing may be
be 15m to 45m BH/tests should be
adequate.
15m to 45m.
Experienced
geotechnical
Civil engineer under
Experienced geotechnical engineers with
supervision by an
8. Level of engineer under supervision independent design
experienced
Expertise required by very experienced check by BEM
geotechnical
geotechnical experts. accredited
engineer is required.
geotechnical
checker/ experts.
Dam, tunnel, port,
special /large bridge
projects or special
Low-rise buildings of Commercial/industrial
heavy structures.
about 500 kN /high rise buildings, etc.
Deep excavations
column loads or low Roads in rolling terrains
(>8m). Hill roads with
9. Examples retaining wall (<3m) with cuts/fills < 24m or
high cuts/ fills (>24m).
or roads with cut / fill retaining wall <10m.
Design of ground
<12m over stable Normal bridges with
anchors, slope
ground, etc. precast beams.
stabilization for
unstable
ground/slopes, etc.
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j) Bored pile construction requirements: Boring operation
Borehole can be advanced or excavated by using many types of

tools/methods depending mainly on subsoil conditions (soil type:
rock/gravel/sand/silt/clay, WT and hardness/density) and design size/depth/
capacity of bored pile. There are many types of boring rigs/capacity (bHP,
torque & weight) & boring tools/equipment plus drilled shaft stabilization
methods to suit various site & subsoil conditions for a particular bored pile
size/depth. Important requirements are boring process shall be as fast as
possible (typically less than 3 hrs. for small piles & <6 hrs. for rock coring or
large size >1.5m diameter). Normally boring machine with high torque
capacity (>300 kN.m) can drill faster, deeper & bigger. Boring machine with
low torque capacity (<200 kN.m) may have difficulty or slow for rock coring
to construct rock socket, especially large diameter (>1.2m) rock socket in
fresh hard rock.
Common borehole advance methods are hydraulic boring using drilling

bucket/auger/chisel, direct circulation boring system, reverse circulation
boring system, etc., up to capacity of 600 kN.m torque or more.
Soil/rock augers and buckets are commonly used. Some bored pile
designers just simply specify that suitable/appropriate boring machine and
tools shall be used to construct the bored piles as shown in drawings (not very
proper or specific). Sometimes, the bored pile designers specify on drawing
that unless otherwise approved in writing, the Contractor should deploy
suitable boring machine & drilling tools to ensure boring is completed for
each pile as shown in drawing using boring machine with minimum torque of
>250 kNm or equivalent to BG 25 and/or within 6 hours. If there is rock
coring/chiseling/rock socket construction, longer time (>3hours) to complete
the boring may be required especially when very hard fresh rock is
encountered. Designers also should specify the acceptable method of
construction for rock socket. Common and acceptable methods are by
annular coring with subsequent chiseling & cleaning out by proper cleansing
bucket, by coring with gradual increase in diameter from small diameter to
the required diameter in stages, or total open hole drilling by special rock
augers and/or bucket with a lot of tricone drill bits, etc. Details and specific
types/models of boring machine and drilling tools usually are left to
Contractor to propose through method statement showing how to meet the
requirements specified by the designer. Usually hydraulic boring machine or
reverse circulation machine is used. For small bored piles (<1.2m) without
rock socket or rock coring, boring machine with BHP of 50 to 100 or torque of
50 to 100 kN.m is quite adequate. For rock coring or large bored piles (1.2m
to 2m) boring machine with torque of 200 to 400 kN.m or more is normally
required to complete each bored pile within about 6 hours or so.
Typical specification requires that adequate/appropriate boring rig capacity

(sufficient torque & traction power) and experienced operator shall be
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engaged to ensure boring is completed as soon as possible and concreting

be carried out immediately and completed within the same day (BS EN
1536). Where bored piles are constructed in ground which is likely to
deteriorate with time and it is not possible to finish the pile by the end of the
working day, a depth equivalent to at least twice the shaft diameter but not
less than 1.5m shall be bored the following working day immediately before
concrete placement (BS EN 1536 Clause 8.1.1.8).
During boring, if the ground differs significantly from the design such as
unforeseen impenetrable obstruction prior to reach its designed founding
level, the designer shall be informed of further action required to continue the
work.
The use of explosives for removing obstructions or for socketing piles into
bedrock shall not be allowed as it may result in damage to adjacent piles or
structures.
The construction sequence of piles shall be chosen so as to avoid damage to
neighboring piles.
k) Drilled shaft stabilization
When a bore hole is excavated, there will be some stress relief in subsoil
resulting in some movement of the surrounding ground and drilled shaft
collapse (inflow of water and/or soil into the bore) especially in water bearing
cohesionless subsoil or with artesian pressure. Proper drilled shaft stabilization
is very important:
to reduce zone of stress relief (that will reduce fsu),
to reduce disturbance to or instability of the bearing stratum or the
surrounding ground, especially loose granular and soft cohesive
ground,
to reduce unstable cavities outside the pile
to avoid/reduce overbreak or formation of irregular cavities.
Usual practice is to use temporary casing for the top few meters as guide
length and then use water as drilling fluid if the subsoil is mainly stiff cohesive
soil without very soft layers and absent of collapsible water bearing
sand/gravel layers. Temporary casing shall be cylindrical and without
significant longitudinal or diametrical distortion and also shall be strong
enough to take handling stress and ground pressure. For unstable subsoils
(uniform non-cohesive soils (d60/d10<1.5) below groundwater table or loose
non-cohesive soils with relative density <0.3 or sensitive clays or soft clay with
Cu<15 kPa) especially water bearing sand/gravel with some artesian pressure,
bentonite slurry or casing or both is necessary to suppress boiling and
borehole collapse. In built-up areas or more environment sensitive areas or
designed to have high friction, liquid or solid polymer is used instead of
bentonite. At all time during boring and concrete placement the level of
stabilizing fluid (water/bentonite/polymer slurry) shall be maintained (at least
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1m above the groundwater level). For deep very soft substrata, temporary or
permanent casing has to be used to prevent necking problem. Casing
exceeding 12m deep is difficult and/or problematic to install & extract, unless
double/triple casings are used. Nowadays, most bored pile designers specify
polymer to replace bentonite for drilled shaft stabilization because bentonite
slurry has been reported to have about 15% to 40% reduction in fsu, in addition
to environment problems, especially when poor quality bentonite is used and
proper control and tests on sand content, density and pH value of the
bentonite slurry are not carried out. Important QC tests for bentonite slurry (BS
EN 1536) to ensure performance are as follows:
QC Tests Fresh At Time of Before Test method

ready for re- concreting
use
Density <1.10 g/cc - <1.15 g/cc Mud balance
(API 13b-Sec 1)
Viscosity 32 to 50 sec 32 to 60 sec 32 to 50 sec Marsh Funnel
Marsh value (946cc)
(API 13B-Sec 2)
Fluid loss <30 cm3 <50 cm3 -
pH value 7 to 11 7 to 12 - pH
Paper/meter
Sand - <4% <4% Sand screen
contents set (API 13B-
Sec 4)
The successful use of bentonite slurry as a means of excavation support relies on

the tight control of its properties.
The inherent characteristics of bentonite slurry are its ability to swell when wetted,
its capability in keeping small sediments in suspension, and thixotropy, i.e. it gels
when undisturbed but flows when it is agitated.
The slurry penetrates the walls of the bore and gels to form a filter cake that acts
as a sufficiently impervious diaphragm to allow the transmission of hydrostatic
slurry pressure.
To ensure bore stability, the hydrostatic pressure of the bentonite slurry must be
greater than the sum of the water pressure and the net pressure of the soil.
Nowadays, polymer fluids have been used to maintain bore stability during
excavation as an alternative to bentonite slurry. Unlike bentonite slurry, polymer
fluid forms a barrier by blocking the pores within the soil. The polymers consist of
a number of individual molecules joined together and can penetrate deep into
sandy or silty soils. The advantages of polymer fluids include simpler site logistics,
rapid hydration, less requirement for storage, less disposal problems, inertness to
cement and absence of a filter cake. Polymer fluids are biodegradable and
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therefore do not require special disposal measures. However, polymers can be

difficult to mix. The shearing action must be sufficiently high to disperse
the polymers but not so great as to break down the polymers. In addition,
polymer fluid can be susceptible to becoming wet and forming a slime.
Beresford et al (1987) discussed the testing of polymer fluid and suggested
acceptance criteria for the results.
l) Base cleaning
Collapsed materials or debris accumulated at the base of a bored pile is

undesirable as this may lead to intermixing and inclusions in the concrete or a
layer of soft material at the base of the pile. Debris may comprise soft and loose
sediments that settle to the base after completion of excavation.
Alternatively, foreign materials could be deposited accidentally into the pile. It
will be prudent to ensure that a sufficient projection of the temporary casing is
left above ground level and that empty bores are properly covered.
The final cleaning of the pile base may be done with the use of a cleaning
bucket followed by air-lifting. The use of a skirted airlift in which debris
would be drawn in over a larger area may be more effective (Fleming et al,
1985). On some occasions, the reverse-circulation drill has been used for this
purpose. Opinions differ as to the effectiveness and potential disturbance
between the use of an airlift pipe and the reverse circulation
flush, particularly in weathered rocks which may be susceptible to disturbance or
damage of the bonding inherent in the grain structure. Thorough base
cleanliness may be difficult to achieve in practice, particularly with raking piles.
If base cleaning is not done properly, potential problems including plastering of
the filter cake and presence of large pieces of debris at the pile base may
occur.
Even if the base is free from significant debris, the soil below the base may be
disturbed and loosened as a result of digging, stress relief or airlifting
Special techniques may be adopted to consolidate and compact the loosened

soil. These include pressure grouting with the use of a stone fill pack (Tomlinson,
1994) or Tube a-Manchette (Sherwood & Mitchell, 1989). In addition, shaft-
grouting may be carried out to enhance the shaft stiffness and capacity
(Morrison et al, 1987). However, Mojabi & Duffin
(1991) reported that no significant gain in shaft resistance was achieved by shaft-
grouting in sandstone and mudstone. Experience with such construction
expedients is limited in Hong Kong.
Rock-socketed piles are liable to base-cleanliness problems arising from fine

rock materials. If the debris is not removed properly, a 'soft toe' may form at the
base of the pile.
Fresh concrete may also force the base debris up the socket wall thereby
reducing the shaft resistance in the lower region of the socket. A possible
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remedial measure is to use high pressure water jetting to remove the loose
sediments at the base, if the sediments or segregations are not greater than 50
mm in thickness or 100 mm for piles longer than 30 m.
Pressurised grout is then used to fill up any voids. Several holes may be required
to facilitate the flushing of the debris. Further cores should be taken to verify the
effectiveness of remedial grouting in each pile.
The potential problem of trapping debris at the pile base can be minimised by
lifting the tremie pipe with a hydraulically operated equipment. In this system,
the lifting of concrete skip and tremie pipe is carefully controlled to maintain a
constant distance between the tremie pipe and the pile base. Cementitious
materials with a very high cement content or grout are used in the first charge to
prevent direct contact of concrete with water in the first pour.
Before concreting, the base of borehole should be reliably cleansed by suitable
method to avoid accumulation of debris/soft toe at base, especially those
collapsible water bearing silty/sandy subsoils. Normal bucket cleaning before
the end of boring plus air-lifting base cleaning method just before concreting is
usually the reliable base cleaning method that should be specified. Base and
borehole cleaning/stabilization can be a serious problems when the Specialist
bored pile Subcontractor is only involved with boring and placement of
reinforcement cage and concreting are done by the main Contractor himself.
For collapsible subsoil (sandy or silty strata and water bearing), waiting period of
more than 1 hr. for concreting after cleaning can be serious.
Some designers may specify, after normal bucket base cleansing, filling the base
with rock/crusher run and subsequent base grouting to ensure sound base.
m) Concrete mix design & concreting
Usually grade 35 to 45 concrete is specified. Minimum cement content required

is 325 kg/m3 & 450 kg/m3 for dry holes & submerged/tremie concreting
respectively. Other requirements and characteristics of concrete mix for bored
piles that should be designed and specified or indicated on design drawings are
as follows:
1) Excellent Workability
It is essential that the concrete have the ability to flow readily through the
tremie, to flow laterally through the rebar cage, and to impose a high lateral
stress against the sides of the borehole to induce high friction. From a
geotechnical perspective, the objective of placing concrete is to re-establish
the lateral stresses in the ground around the bored pile that existed before
the borehole was excavated. This objective can best be met by using
concrete that is highly fluid with slump of exceeding 150mm to 250mm until
concreting is completed, but with low water cement ratio of less than 0.5. To
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achieve high slump at low water cement ratio (to avoid bleeding and long
term shrinkage), quality superplasticizer shall be added. In case the
concreting takes more than 2 hours, retarder should also be used to ensure.
2) Self-Weight Compaction
Vibration of concrete in a borehole is impractical, except very near the
surface. In some cases this will lead to defects in the completed shaft by
causing ground water, drilling fluid, or soil to mix with the concrete.
3) Resistance to Segregation
The concrete mix should have a high degree of cohesion and should be free
of large-sized aggregate; otherwise, it may segregate during placement,
particularly if free fall is allowed in dry holes, resulting in inferior concrete.
4) Resistance to Leaching
In some instances flowing ground water could cause a weakening of the
concrete after it is placed. A properly designed mix should be resistant to
such flow. However, if the rate of flow is substantial, a permanent casing or
liner will be necessary. Furthermore, when concrete is placed under a drilling
fluid (slurry or water), there is inevitable contact between the concrete and
the fluid, which is a condition that also requires the mix to be resistant to
leaching.
5) Controlled Setting
Bored pile concrete should retain its fluidity throughout the depth of the
borehole during the full time required for complete placement of the
concrete in the borehole to maximize the lateral pressures that are imposed
by the fresh/fluid concrete. Slow setting is also required to allow for inevitable
delays that may occur during concreting, such as: interrupted concrete
supply from ready-mixed trucks, difficulties in extracting casing, etc. At the
same time, it should attain an appropriate strength within a reasonable time
after placement. Normally some retarder is added for the expected delay
especially when concreting time is likely to exceed 2 hours for large and
long bored piles.
6) Good Durability
If the subsoil conditions is potentially corrosive or can become corrosive
during the life of the foundation, the concrete should be designed to have
high density and low permeability so that the concrete is able to resist the
negative effects of the environment. Only concrete with low water cement
ratio (<0.45), high slump (>150mm) and high cement content (>400kg.m3)
can have high density and low permeability. Also, the clear spacing
between rebars should be exceeding 125mm or preferably 200mm.
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7) Appropriate Strength and Stiffness

The size of most bored piles will be controlled by the peripheral area and
base area that are needed to develop the required axial load
resistance/capacity. Therefore, high-performance concrete is usually not
needed. The mechanical properties of the hardened concrete can be
satisfied in such instances without difficulty. However, provision of appropriate
compressive strength where high levels of combined bending and axial
stress occur must be dealt with in some cases, especially soft ground and
sloping sites.
8) Low Heat of Hydration for Large Volumes of Concrete
Careful attention must be given to the design of concrete for large-diameter
bored piles so that excessive heat does not generate excessive heat to
cause thermal tensile cracking.
Detail information requirements for concrete placement techniques and what to be
looking for during inspection of the concreting procedure? Refer elaborations below.
Allowable compressive stress fca=0.25fcu, but fca usually discounted about 20% for
uncertainty in tremie concreting in collapsible subsoil and especially when
bentonite slurry is used. Other concrete properties specified: W/C=0.4 to 0.55
with minimum slump 130mm to 220mm or higher & with superplasticizer.
Concrete shall appear:

To be homogeneous & have a high resistance against segregation;
To be of high plasticity and good cohesiveness;
To have good flowability;
To have the ability to self-compact; and
To be sufficiently workable for the duration of the placement procedure,
including the removal of any temporary casings.
Consistency ranges for fresh concrete in different conditions (BS EN 1536) are as
follows:
Flow diameter range, Slump range,

Typical conditions of use
mm mm
(example)
460<D<510 130<H<180
Concrete placed in dry hole
conditions
530<D<600 H>160 Placed by pumping or placed in
submerged conditions under water by
tremie pipe
570<D<630 H>180 Concrete placed by tremie pipe in
submerged conditions under a
stabilizing fluid
Note: The measured slump (H) or flow diameter (D) is to be rounded off to the
nearest 10mm.
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For large & long bored piles or concreting taking more than 2 hours to complete,
retarder admixture should be used to ensure slump of the concrete near the
base remains more than 100mm at the end of concreting. Why? How to check
the concrete is suitable with high quality for tremie concreting?
Concreting should be carried out immediately after the base is cleansed.

Concreting should be continuous and uninterrupted. Records/measurements of
consumption of concrete per unit depth (in 1m to 3m intervals) should be taken
and plotted with depth/location of temporary casing & toe of tremie pipe plus
the theoretical concrete volume to check localized cavities or overbreak.
When the final casting level is well below the working platform, the fresh
concrete should be protected against contamination from above by concreting
above the cut-off level (at least 0.5m), by backfilling the empty bore with
suitable material or by maintaining a stabilizing fluid inside the empty bore until
the concrete has set.
The tremie pipe shall be water tight at all its joints and smooth to allow free flow
of concrete. The internal diameter of tremie pipe should at least 150mm or 6
times the max aggregate size (whichever is the bigger), but not to exceed 0.6
times the inner width of reinforcement cage. The tremie pipe shall extend to the
bottom of the pile at the commencement of the concreting. A bung or plug of
suitable material, to prevent mixing of concrete with any fluid in the tremie pipe,
shall be inserted into the pipe before commencement of concrete placement.
As the first batch, a cement enriched mix or a charge of cement mortar may be
used to lubricate the tremie pipe. To allow the first concrete to leave the tremie
pipe, the pipe shall be lifted slightly, not exceeding a value equal to the inner
diameter of the tremie pipe. Placement shall then proceed quickly to fill the
entire base of the pile so that no concrete which may have segregated at the
beginning of the discharge is trapped. During subsequent placement the tremie
pipe shall be withdrawn progressively as the concrete rises in the bore. The
tremie pipe shall at all times remain immersed in unset and workable concrete
(min 1.5m or >2.5m for pile diameter D>1.2m) which has previously been placed
and shall not be withdrawn from the concrete until the completion of the
concreting process. Tremie pipe shall not be extracted too quickly as the
resulting suction can lead to pile imperfections.
The extraction of temporary casing shall not be started unless the concrete
column has reached a sufficient height inside the casing to generate adequate
excess pressure to protect against inflow of water or soil at the tip of the casing
and to prevent the reinforcement cage from being lifted. The extraction shall be
carried out while concrete is still of the required workability. The supply of
concrete and the rate of extraction of the casing shall be such that no inflow of
soil or water occurs into the freshly placed concrete, even if a sudden drop of
concrete level should occur when a cavity outside the casing is uncovered. This
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is particularly important in loose or soft ground or close to the pile top (BS EN
1536). The depths of casing and of the tremie pipe shall be recorded.
What should be done if the immersion of the tremie pipe is accidently lost during
concreting?
Sampling of concrete on site for compressive strength testing shall be as follows
(BS EN 1536 Clause 6.3.3.4):
One sample (=4 cube specimens) for each of the first 3 piles on a site;
One sample for every subsequent 5 piles (15 piles if the individual
concrete volume is <4 m3);
Two additional samples after interruptions of the works longer than 7 days;
One sample for every 75 m3 of concrete cast on the same day; and
At least one sample for every pile cast where concrete stresses require
concrete classes C35/45 and above.
n) Reinforcement cage placement
Generally, main longitudinal reinforcement, As= 0.5% to 1% or more if designed

as tension pile or large lateral is anticipated. The minimum main reinforcement
shall be 4 bars (ribbed bars) of at least 12mm and the spacing between bars or
bundles shall be 100mm to maximum 400mm and evenly spaced. Actual As
required depends on tension or lateral loads or moment on pile due to ground
movement, etc.
Unless otherwise specified by design to cater for ground movement/tension/

bending, etc., the minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement as
recommended by BS EN 1536 shall be as follows:
Nominal pile cross section, Ac Minimum area of longitudinal

reinforcement, As
Ac<0.5m2 (or pile diameter, D>0.8m) As>0.5%Ac
0.5m2 <Ac<1.0 m2 As>0.0025 m2
Ac>1.0 m2 (or pile diameter, D>1.2m) As>0.25%Ac
Lateral helical or transverse reinforcement should be at least 6mm or one quarter

of the maximum diameter of the main longitudinal bars at 100mm to maximum
300mm spacing. The transverse reinforcement shall fit closely around the main
reinforcement bars and be bound/fixed by using wire, clips or spot welding.
Additional supports such as stiffening rings/lacing/oblique bars can be
necessary. Net holes to enable tremie concrete to flow out the reinforcement
cage without jams/clogs should be at least 100mm x100mm. Cover to
reinforcement usually is about 75mm in dry holes, non-aggressive subsoil &
grade of concrete >35 is used. For wet holes cover should be 75mm to 125mm or
moderate aggressive subsoil in dry holes. For aggressive subsoil in wet holes,
special treatment by specialist is required. (AASHTO (2007) recommends that
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normally As should be 1% to 2% (mainly for bridges, retaining walls and for slope
stabilization), but may be 3% in high seismic zones or high lateral load sites (soft
ground/unstable slope). BS EN 1536 also recommends that minimum concrete
cover to reinforcement should be minimum 75mm when the bored piles are
constructed without a (full) casing, etc. The concrete cover may be reduced to
40mm to the external face of a permanent casing or lining where used.
Practical minimum As is normally 0.5% for bored piles in stable ground with
negligible bending and tension. Only deformed rebar with fy>410 MPa should be
used if bentonite/clay/polymer slurry is used to stabilize drilled shafts. Rebars
should be bundled if necessary to ensure clear net holes of more than
100mmx200mm to enable concrete to flow out the reinforcement cage or
spacing of rebars (main & transvers) should be10 to 20 times the maximum
aggregate size. Cover for reinforcement recommended by AASHTO for W/C=0.4
to 0.5 concrete for bored piles of 1m, 1m to 1.5m & >1.5m should be respectively
75mm, 100mm and 150mm. If W/C>0.5, the cover should be increased by 20%.
This is because higher W/C will result in higher concrete permeability & more
shrinkage.
Joints /couplers in reinforcement bars shall be such that the full strength of each
bar is effective across the joint. Reinforcing bars shall not be welded at or near
bends, but spot welding is permissible (BS EN 1536).
The reinforcement cages shall be such that the cages can be lifted and installed
without permanent distortion and that all bars remain in the correct position.
To ensure the concentric position of the reinforcement cage and the necessary
concrete cover, proper spacers/centralizers shall be arranged symmetrically
around the cage with at least 3 spacers at each level and level intervals of not
more than 3m. Spacers shall be designed and manufactured using durable
material (plastic or at least grade 35 concrete).
The reinforcement shall be installed and placed in the borehole as soon as

possible after the cleaning of the pile bore. The installation of the reinforcement
has to provide for its alignment with the pile axis and maintain the correct
concrete cover over its full length. During concrete placement, the
reinforcement level shall be maintained to provide the specified projection
above the final cut-off level with 0.15m accuracy.
o) Records
As performance of bored piles is very sensitive to construction, proper and
comprehensive construction records are essential to serve as QC and criteria
for selection of piles for tests. Two types of records as specified & shown in
Annex B1 to B4 of BS EN 1536 shall be made:
The site & general information: Project name, Type of structure, Client,
Name of main Contractor & Piling Specialist Contractor, Pile diameter
or size/depth/design working load, Boring rig type/make, Method of
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shaft stabilization, Casing details, Base cleaning method reinforcement

details (drg) & concrete spec, etc.
Specific site construction procedure: Records for each bored pile
should include Pile reference number; GL & toe level; Boring date &
duration time for boring & rock socketing (if any); Depth of
temporary/permanent casing; Strata description/bore log & details of
encountered obstructions, abnormalities, site constraints, ground
movements & interruptions plus any deviation from the design
drawings/spec (if any); WT; Base cleansing method & duration time;
Material QC test results for stabilizing fluid (fresh, re-use & before
concreting); Time of inserting of reinforcement cage, date & time of
concreting & concrete quality (slump before & after concreting; cube
strength) plus measurements of concrete consumed per m intervals
(or per 2m or 3m intervals for small piles); Base grouting details (if any),
etc. Refer to end of Para 4.7 for the typical to log bored pile
installation.
Supporting/drill fluid general & particular data (Annex B3 & B4 of BS EN
1536)
If site observations or inspection of records reveal uncertainties about the

quality of installed piles, investigations shall be carried out to determine their
condition and if remedial measures are necessary. Records shall be kept for
at least 5 years after completion of works.
p) Pile Testing
Refer Para 3.3 (d) for preliminary pile tests and Para 4.2 (l) below.
Load tests are the most important design validation and are conducted to
determine the load carrying capacity of the piles.
Types of load test:
SLT: CRP, MLT (ASTM D1143 for compression, D3689 for tension,
D3966 for lateral).
PDA/HSDPT (ASTM D4945-12).
Bidirectional load tests (SS CP4:2003 recognizes it as SLT). Refer
www.YJACKpiletest.com
Statnamic load test
Applications & limitations of these tests?

Test standards?
CP requirements: frequency of tests?
Interpretation of test results?
How to select piles for tests? Basis?
Results of testing are not everything unless the results can be

representative for the untested ones on safe side. How? Comprehensive
inspection & recording for drilling (pressure, rate/timing & observation of
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water return/cuttings, etc.) & grouting (pressure, volume consumed, etc.)

are useful guides to select representative piles for tests.
PDA shall be conducted & interpreted by Dfi/FQA accredited tester
(Advanced or expert Level). Compliance with proper standards is
important.
Reporting format/presentation & interpretation for pile tests?

WCGW in pile tests? Case Histories?
Maximum test load (MTL) for preliminary & working pile tests?
Problems of MTL>4000T? Serious foundation problems for supports of

kentledge. Why? Case history of failure?
Can Bidirectional load tests be considered SLT? Advantages of

Bidirectional load tests (T-cells, O-cells & C-cells) for load tests of bored
piles?
The maximum test load of preliminary load test (MLT or bidirectional load
tests) should be until ultimate load or 2.5 to 3 times the design working
load as recommended by Singapore Standard CP 4:2003 (Clause 7.5.4).
Usually 1% to 2% of the working piles should be selected (based on

installation records) for load tests to 2 times the pile design working load
although in certain conditions maximum test load of 1.5 times may be
used. PDA (ASTM D4945-12) can only substitute some of the static load
tests if the numbers of SLT is large (SS CP4:2003).
Other important issues that will be discussed in detail during the lecture
are:
When instrumented test pile should be carried out? Purposes? How?
How to identify/select bored piles that are likely have structural
integrity problems (with particular reference to subsoil conditions,
boring operation, bored shaft stabilization method, placement of
reinforcement cage & concreting)? What are the good construction
practices to mitigate these problems?
What are the applicable/suitable pile load test methods for bored
piles of small capacity (<300 T), medium capacity (300 to 1000T),
large capacity (1000 T to 2000 T) & very large capacity (>2000 T)?
What are the applications & limitations for SLT/MLT (ASTM D1143),
Bidirectional load tests (CP 4, SS), Statnamic load Tests, LSIT/PIT
(ASTM D5882-00) & HSDPT (ASTM D4945-12)? Test standards?
What are the common defects & errors for pile load test methods
such as SLT/MLT, Bidirectional load tests, Statnamic load Tests &
HSDPT? The requirements of test standards commonly ignored or
not fully complied with?
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What are the common tricks & malpractice in pile tests for
conventional contract with quantities remeasureable, direct nego
design & build contract with fixed sum or quantities
remeasureable? Mitigations?
How to determine the ultimate load from load test results?
What is the main uncertainty of load test results?
Refer Para 4.2 (l) for answers.
q) Pile spacing: Usually 2 to 2.5 times the pile size if subsoil mainly cohesive and
pile derive resistance mainly from end bearing or near the base.
3.3 Scope of Design Validation
Basically design validation is aimed to ensure the design requirements about

safety, serviceability and durability stipulated by CP (BS 8004/EC 7) are actually
achieved at site through inspection and tests for quality, workmanship and
performance. In another words, design validation can mean good construction
practice to fulfill the design as shown in drawings and as specified.
BS EN 1536:2000 Execution of special geotechnical work-Bored Piles has spelt

out the details of design validation to ensure bored pile performance:
Technical requirements & QC tests for Materials & Products for bored Piles
(materials for concrete & grout, concrete insitu, grout, stabilizing fluid,
reinforcement bars, couplers, spacers, etc.).
Design related considerations (construction tolerance, excavation/boring,
reinforcement, etc.).
Works Execution & construction requirements/controls for excavation/boring,
fixing & placement of reinforcement cage, concreting, etc.
Requirements for supervisions (pile construction & testing)
Requirements for records
Other issues about design validation are discussed as follows:
a) The most important design validation for bored pile construction is to validate
fsu & fbu & overall performance with respect to capacity, settlement &
structural integrity conditions. Types/methods of tests, their frequency (1%-2%)
& acceptance criteria? Basis of selection of piles for tests shall be based on
subsoil conditions, drilling & concreting records? What standards shall be
adopted? How to carry out the design validation in practical ways and in
compliance with CP/established design guides? It is extremely important that
the basis & criteria for selection of method & location of tests shall be based
on sensible/adequate inspection details & records. Results of testing are not
everything until and unless the results can be representative for the untested
ones. How to achieve these? Examples? Case histories?
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QC for boring with respect to proper boring rig equipment/tools, criteria to

terminate boring, time limit of boring (3hrs/6hrs, basis?), alignment control &
acceptance criteria? How to assess & control bored hole collapse? When
bored hole is prone to collapse? What method shall be used to mitigate
against bored hole collapse?
b) What types/methods of QC for installation of reinforcement (typically

As=0.5%-1%)? Basis? What are the problems & how to select suitable type
joint/coupler/spacer for reinforcement? Technical requirements & QC for joint
& spacer? Technical requirements & QC/inspection for reinforcement cage?
Reinforcement cage shall be rigid & without undue deformation during
pitching & handling. How?
c) What types/methods & frequency of QC tests for concreting? Common

methods & problems of concreting? QC test on bentonite or polymer slurry?
Why concreting shall be fast, continuous & uninterrupted? Why slump of
concrete shall be at least 150mm to 220mm? Why high slump of shall be
maintained (>150mm) from the beginning of concreting until concreting is
completed for the first batch of discharge? Maximum fsu that can be
mobilized depends on shear strength of the surrounding soils, later pressure
exerted by the fresh concrete before hardening, conditions of drilled shaft,
etc. Lateral pressure exerted by fresh concrete depends on slump and depth
of fresh concrete column, etc. How slump loss of concrete can happen by
time & its effect on maximum side friction that can be mobilized? When
retarder admixture shall be used? Criteria of terminating concreting? What
are the QC requirements for concrete mix quality (cohesiveness,
homogeneous, high cube strength, high workability/slump, W/C ratio,
admixture, cement content, acceptable bleeding limit)? Acceptance
criteria? Frequency of tests?
d) Methods/types, frequency and acceptance criteria of load tests for bored

pile? Types of static load tests and dynamic high strain tests? Bi-directional
load tests and statnamic load tests? Types/methods of tests to check
structural integrity of bored piles? Criteria of selection of bored piles for tests?
Acceptable test standards & specifications?
Normally 1% to 2% or more of the piles installed should be selected for pile

tests (static and/or high strain dynamic pile test/PDA) to check and verify the
capacity performance & structural integrity & also to assess the suitability of
the construction method for the specific site conditions. For collapsible
subsoil, sonic logging tests and other Pile Integrity Tests should also be
included (3% to 5%). Criteria of selection of piles for tests shall be based on
installation records to ensure the test results are representative for the
untested ones on the safe side. EC7-1 requires that the test locations shall be
representative of the site of the pile foundation and one of the test piles shall
be located where the most adverse ground conditions are believed to occur
(based on installation records).
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The pile load test procedure (ASTM D1143), particularly with respect to
number of loading steps (at least 6 steps) & duration of these steps (until
settlement rate < 0.1mm/20 minutes) and the application of load cycles (2/3
cycles), shall be such that conclusions can be drawn about the deformation
behavior, creep and rebound of a piled foundation from the measurements
on the pile. For trial piles (preliminary test piles or instrumented test piles), the
loading shall be such that conclusions can also be drawn about the ultimate
failure load. The number of trial piles required to verify the design SHALL
depend on the following:
The ground conditions & their variability across the site;
The Geotechnical Category of the structure, if appropriate;
Previous documented evidence of the performance of the same type
of pile in similar ground conditions;
The total number & types of pile in the foundation design
As pile testing to check structural integrity and performance

(capacity/resistance, deformation & creep characteristics) are expensive
and essential design validation, it shall be properly planned, conducted,
recorded and interpreted by qualified engineer and trained personnel to
ensure the results are credible and in compliance with the requirements of
the adopted test standards.
A factual report shall be prepared for all load tests. The report shall include:
A brief description of site conditions with photos;
A brief description of generalized subsoil conditions based on SI
reports;
Pile type/size/length/design working load
Description of pile installation records & any problem encountered
during the works;
A description of the loading & measuring apparatus & the reaction
system;
Test standard adopted & drawing showing layout of load test
arrangement, spacing of Kentledge supports to test pile position &
supports of reference beams, etc.;
Calibration documents/certs for the load cells, the jacks & the gauges;
The installation records of the test pile;
Photographic records of the pile, load test layout & the test site;
Test results including date/time, load applied, displacement of each
gauges/load cells;
Time-displacement plots for each applied load when a step loading
procedure is used;
The measured load-displacement behavior; and
Reasons for any departures from the above requirements.
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e) Durability assessment requirements? Chemical properties (pH value, chloride

& sulphate contents) of the subsoils? Refer Section 10 of BS 8004 for design
guides. How?
3.4 Construction Controls/QA for Bored Piles
QC & requirements for site supervision as per CP/EC 7 requirements shall be

included & provided.
It shall be specified that the installation of all bored piles is closely supervised &
monitored (by qualified personnel) & records are made as the piles are installed
including pile reference number, about the quality of installed piles.
Investigations shall be carried out to determine the conditions and if remediation
are necessary. Equipment used, date & time of installation (plus interruptions, if
any), peculiar observations during drilling/grouting, obstruction encountered,
pile deviations & as-built elevation shall be recorded to facilitate selection of pile
for testing. If observations & inspection of records reveal uncertainties, designer
shall be consulted for necessary design decision.
Important workmanship and quality requirements for materials & their QC tests
plus acceptance criteria shall be indicated on drawing. Design capacity & the
required performance tests & acceptance criteria shall also be indicated.
Piles that shall be selected for static load test shall be at least 1 to 2% or minimum
2 numbers per site. If some of the static load tests are to be replaced by high
strain dynamic pile tests or PDA test, at least 5% to 10% of piles shall be tested.
PDA tests shall be strictly according to ASTM D4945 and shall be planned,
conducted and interpreted by DFI or FQA accredited test engineer with
advanced level certification. Structural integrity assessment by PDA, static load
test (Prof Chin method) and or low strain integrity tests (ASTM D5882) shall be
carried out after detail examination of construction records. Normally about 5%
to 10% piles shall be selected for structural integrity tests.
Important to understand and differentiate what are the defective design and
the defective construction for displacement piles and how they can lead to
problems related to durability, structural integrity, distress and failure.
3.5 Common defective designs are as follows:

a) Defective design generally means design not in compliance with the
requirements stipulated by local bylaws, codes of practice (BS8004/EC 7) or
not in line with normally locally accepted/established design
standard/practice with particular reference to improper/inadequate SI/GI,
incomplete/inadequate geotechnical & inadequate structural design
verification/calculations, selection of design parameters not
properly/adequately justified, improper method/model of analysis, improper
selection & quality of materials and workmanship, improper method of
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construction, improper/ inadequate scope of design validation,

unclear/ambiguous specification and construction details, etc.
b) Scope of SI/GI shall be adequate to meet the minimum requirements
specified in CP or established local practice/guidelines such as REAM
GL6/2004 or BS 5390 (1999) or EC 7 Part 2 & 3. Inadequate scope of SI to
procure the reasonably accurate subsoil profile with particular reference to
the critical information such as location of suitable/reliable bonding/bearing
strata, site history, WT conditions, localized hard materials/obstructions that
are prone to pile installation problems, bedrock conditions & soil type &
strength properties for each distinct layers, collapsible strata, etc. SI shall be
reliable and adequate as per BEM 4/2005 requirements.
c) Unawareness of site conditions and site history that are prone to have serious
lateral and vertical forces due to ground movements such as creeping
slopes, settling ground, ground prone to subsidence, soft ground,
uncontrolled fill ground, fill ground with underground water flow along the
previous water paths/streams, etc. How these can happen? How to identify
these problems through detail site survey before and after earthworks?
Mitigations? These information and problems can be addressed by proper SI
and site inspection by qualified Engineer/designer. Case histories?
d) Inadequate evaluation of subsoil properties & selection of appropriate fsu &
fbu. If bonding zone/stratum not clearly defined due to inadequate SI, design
variation may be excessive or drastic.
e) Inadequate evaluation of subsoil properties and pile installation process/
drilled shaft stabilization methods that can cause problems during installation
such as drilled shaft collapse, pile deviations/deflection, uncertainty in
bonding zone, etc.
f) Inadequate evaluation of subsoil profile, method of installation requirements
& criteria of termination of boring and method of rock socket construction not
properly specified.
g) Inadequate or unclear specific technical works specification & requirements
for pile installation method (boring/concreting/ reinforcement), pile joint, pile
anchorage and spacer quality. Concrete mix & reinforcement quality
requirements? Lack of provision of adequate QC tests with respect to
frequency, acceptance criteria & need of remediation, etc.
h) Inadequate or unclear/ambiguous works specification & technical
requirements about inspection and recording required, etc.
i) Inadequate or unclear design related to the scope of design validation with
respect to adequacy and relevancy for material quality, workmanship and
pile performance (capacity/bond strength, settlement and structural
integrity).
j) Inadequate evaluation of site construction problems and inadequate
mitigations against WCGW at site.
k) Inadequate provision for requirements for quality supervision as required by
BS 8004/EC 7.
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3.6 Common defective constructions are as follows:
a) Defective construction generally means construction not in compliance

with the works specifications with particular reference to improper
construction method/improper equipment/improper construction
controls/procedure, improper/substandard materials/workmanship,
untrained & inexperienced workers & works operators/supervisors,
incomplete inspection & recording, inadequate/improper QC & design
validation tests, improper/ inadequate supervision by qualified personnel,
etc.
b) Poor construction practice related to improper sequence of works,
improper or inadequate inspection and recording by qualified supervisors.
c) Inadequate or improper construction controls related to piling
workmanship and alignment (verticality, deviation, rotation deflection,
pile heave, pile termination criteria, etc.).
d) Non-compliance with the instruction from the supervisors.
e) Refer to slides presentation for more defective construction for bored pile
construction related to boring, handling reinforcement cage, drilled shaft
stabilization/slurry handling, concreting, etc.
3.7 Construction Checklist for Bored Pile Installation
Construction Checklist and relevant problems and issues related to

supervision of bored pile installation that RE should be aware:
a) Desk study: to collect & study all relevant documents and understand
the scope & nature of piling works involved. Important documents are:
contract document, SI factual report, SI Interpretation report, pile
design report with design drawings, specifications & BQ. In case of
doubt, consult the designer for clarification if necessary.
b) Check and inspect the site conditions and understand how the bored
pile installation works will affect the nearby buildings/structures,
services, etc., (if any). Dilapidation survey & mitigative measures
should be carried out if there are buildings/structures/services likely to
be affected.
c) Check and understand the Method Statement prepared by the
Contractor. Seek explanations & clarifications where necessary.
Method statement should be adequate & comprehensive as explained
in Para 1.5 (page 6). As performance of bored piles is very sensitive to
construction, all the construction requirements as stipulated by BS EN
1536 especially the issues discussed in Para 3.2 items (j) to (n) should
be adhered.
d) Are the proposed drilling rigs, equipment and tools appropriate with
the necessary output to complete within the scheduled time frame
with some contingencies? Consult others if not well-versed in the
subject. Are the Contractors operator & site manager well-versed in
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bored pile installation problems and issues plus construction

requirements as discussed in Para 3.2?
e) Are the proposed methods & materials of drilled shaft stabilization
satisfactory and in compliance with the requirements specified by the
designer and BS EN 1536? Refer Para 3.2 item (k) for construction
requirements that should be observed at site.
f) Check and enquire methodology & system for validation of material
quality (stabilizing fluid, tremie concrete mix, reinforcement cage,
spacers/centralizers, couplers, etc.,) product/workmanship tolerance,
QC assurance, etc.
g) Are the proposed method/sequence of reinforcement cage
placement & concreting satisfactory? What are the checks and
inspections plus records for quality and/measurements or dimensional
tolerances before and after placement of reinforcement cage and
concreting? Refer Para 3.2 items (m) & (n) for construction
requirements that should be observed at site.
h) Check bored pile termination criteria & construction controls? If such
criteria are not clearly specified in design drawing or specification,
seek clarification from the designer.
i) Is the noise level and ground movement/deformation or change of
water table acceptable? Potential damages to nearby buildings &
services?
j) What are the typical bored piling problems in limestone formation &
soft ground (if applicable)? Construction controls and mitigations
against the problems?
k) Scope & types of recording and format?
Proper records as discussed in Para 3.2 (o) shall be observed to serve
as QC & criteria for pile selection for tests.
l) Pile tests to check structural integrity & capacity? Types of tests and
test standards? Frequency? Interpretation?
Refer Para 3.2 (p) for requirements that should be observed at site.
Detail checklist for bored pile installation is given as follows:
The following is a detail checklist to follow when constructing a bored pile or drilled shaft.
The answer to each of these questions should be "YES" or "NO" or "NA" unless drawings,
specifications or specific approval has been given otherwise.
CONSULT WITH CRE/RE or RESPONSIBLE ENGINEER FOR YOUR SPECIFIC
PROJECT RESPONSIBILITIES/DUTIES. This checklist is modified from FHWA
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Contractor & Equipment Arrive on Site YES NO NA

1. Has the contractor submitted bored pile Installation Method Statement
including specific 3M, sequence of works & QC, etc., to show compliance
with the specification and design drawings?
1A. Can the proposed drill rig & tools in the method statement complete the
boring operation for each bored pile as designed within 6 hrs or as
specified?
2. Has the Bored Pile Installation Method Statement been checked &
approved?
3. Does the Contractor have an approved concrete mix design that can meet
the requirements specified?
4. Has the contractor run the required Trial Mix and slump loss test for the
concrete mix design up to 4 hrs or up to maximum estimated concreting
time for each bored pile?
5. If concreting is estimated to take more than 1.5 hours, has the Contractor
performed a satisfactory slump loss test for the extended time period till
completion of concreting?
6. If the Contractor proposed a blended bentonite or polymer slurry, do they
have an approved Slurry Management Plan/method statement to meet all
the QC requirements (pH value=7 to 11, density <1.1 g/cc, sand content <4%
& viscosity/Marsh value=30 to 50) specified?
7. Is the Contractors technician qualified to log, to describe subsoil strata &
to take soil/rock samples of the bored hole (shaft excavation) in accordance
with BS 5930:2015?
8. Has the Contractor carried out dilapidation survey to meet the safety &
protection requirements for the nearby structures/utilities as specified?
9. Has the site clearing & platform preparation been completed and ready
for Bored pile installation?
10. Does the Contractor has all the equipment and tools proposed in the
method statement and mobilized to the site for inspection?
11. If casing is to be used, is it the right size & stiffness in accordance with
the specification or method statement?
12. Does the Contractor have the proper equipment & facilities to mix & test
the quality for the proposed & approved slurry?
13. Is a desander required for the recycled slurry?
14. If a desander is required, does the Contractor have it on site and
operational?
15. Does the Contractor's tremie pipe meet the requirements specified with
respect to size, surface conditions, water-tightness, etc.?
16. Do you have all the required bored pile/drilled shaft forms (for logging
the subsoil strata, rock socket construction, base cleanliness, concreting
log & volume consumption/depth, etc.) that need to be filled out during the
bored pile installation?
16A. Are all the forms include all the important details to be filled as per
requirements of BS EN 1536:2000?
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17. Do you understand & familiarize with all of the necessary forms to
record bored pile installation (if not contact the CRE/designer for
assistance)?
Trial/test Shaft
18. Is the trial/test shaft positioned away from the production shafts or as
suggested by CRE/RE or as specified in the contract documents?
19. Has the Contractor performed a successful test hole/trial shaft in
accordance with the approved method statement?
20. Can the Contractor complete a bored pile including boring, base
cleaning, placement of reinforcement cage & concreting within the same
working day?
21. Is the proposed construction method of rock socket suitable (using
proper rock auger/bucket/special tools)?
22. Has the Contractor revised the technique and equipment to (and the
revision approved) to successfully construct a bored pile within the same
day unless otherwise approved?
Shaft Excavation & Cleaning
23. Is the shaft being constructed in the correct location and within the
tolerances specified?
24. Does the Contractor have a benchmark so the shaft can be constructed
and inspected to the proper elevations?
25. If core holes are required, has the Contractor taken them in accordance
with the specification?
26. If a core hole was performed, was the Rock Core form completed and
did the Contractor maintain a log as specified?
27. If the Contractor is using slurry, can they perform tests and report
results in accordance with the practice/specification?
28. Is the slurry level being properly maintained in accordance with the
practice /specification?
29. Are the proper number and types of tests being performed on the slurry
in accordance with the practice/specification?
30. Are you logging the Soil and Rock Excavation forms?
31. If permanent casing is being used, does it meet the specification?
32. If temporary casing is being used, does it meet the specification?
33. Is the Contractor maintaining an excavation log in accordance with the
specification?
34. Is the shaft within the allowable vertical alignment tolerances as
specified?
35 Is the shaft of proper depth after checking?
36. Does the shaft excavation time meet the specified time limit (< 6hrs)?
37. Does the shaft bottom (cleanliness conditions) meet the requirements in
accordance with the practice/specification?
39. Did you complete the Shaft Inspection form?
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Reinforcement Cage Placement

40. Is the rebar the correct sizes and configured in accordance with the
project design drawings?
41. Is the rebar properly tied to ensure rigidity and stiffness as required
without excessive deformation during handling?
42 Does the Contractor have fixed the proper and adequate spacers for the
reinforcement cage to ensure the reinforcement cage is centralized in the
hole?
42A. Does the Contractor have an approved method for centering &
supporting the reinforcement cage configuration?
43. If the reinforcement cage was spliced/coupled, was it done in
accordance with the specification?
44. Is the reinforcement cage secured from settling and from floating
(during concrete placement the cage sometimes rises with the placement of
the concrete)?
45. Is the top of the steel cage at the proper elevation in accordance with
the specification?
Concreting Operations
46. Prior to concrete placement, has the slurry been tested in accordance
with the specification to check quality?
47. If required, was the temporary casing removed in accordance with the
specification?
48. Was the discharge end of the tremie pipe maintained in the concrete
mass with proper concrete head above it?
49. If free-fall placement (dry shaft construction only), was concrete place in
accordance with the specification?
50. Did concrete placement complete within the specified time limit as
approved in the method statement/specification?
51. Are you filling out the Concrete Placement and Depth/Volume forms?
52. When placing concrete, did the Contractor overflow the shaft until good
concrete flowed out?
53. Were concrete acceptance tests performed as required?
Post Installation
54. If shaft is constructed in open water, is the shaft protected for seven
days or until the concrete reaches a minimum compressive strength of 20
MPa in accordance with the specification/method statement?
55. Is all casing removed to the proper elevation in accordance with the
specification/method statement?
56. If required, has the Contractor complied with the specification related to
Non-destructive Evaluation?
57. Is the shaft constructed within the acceptable construction tolerances?
58. Has the bored pile installation recorded with details as specified in
Annex B1 to B4 of BS EN 1536?
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Notes/Comments
Construction details that shall be recorded are explained and detailed in Cl.10 of BS EN 1536
Forms to record bored pile installation are suggested as follows:
a) Form 1: Bored pile installation log (usually logged by Contractors

technician & checked & verified by Consultants site
supervisor/RE).
b) Form 2: Bored pile inspection record (usually checked & logged

by Consultants site supervisor/RE).
c) Form 3: Bored pile Concrete placement log (usually logged by

Contractors technician & checked & verified by Consultants site
supervisor/RE).
d) Form 4: Bored pile Concrete Volume record (usually logged by

Contractors technician & checked & verified by Consultants site
supervisor/RE)
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Form 1: BORED PILE INSTALLATION LOG
1. Project: :. Pageof..
2. Contractor:.. Pile Ref No:
3. Logged by:. Date:. Pile Diam: ..
4. Inspected by... Date:.
5. Construction Drg No.:
Casing information Elevation/RL Dimensions Drill Fluid Concrete & Reinf

ID:Top Elev: GL: .. Soil auger dia: . Type: Theoretical vol: m3
OD:..Bot:.. WL: . Rock Auger dia: .......... .. Actual vol: m3
Elev:... Cut off L: Drill bucket dia: . Test results: . Overbreak: %
Length: Cleanout bucket dia: . .. Reinf Cage:
Type: . Meet spec:
Depth Date/time Elevation/ Drill Soil/rock strata description (BS 5930:2015) & observations/abnormalities
(m) In out RL (m) Tool
Rock socket construction details: Tools used & time start & end
Base cleaning method:
Signatures & date from Contractor & Client/consultant representative
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Form 2: BORED PILE INSPECTION RECORDS
2. Contractor:.. Pile Ref No: ..
3. Logged by:. Date:. Pile Diam: ..
Type of drill fluid: .. .. Reinforcement cage information
Drill QC test results: .. Proper # main bars & size:
Base cleanout method: .. Size of lateral bar & spacing: .
Date/time of final cleanout: Side standoffs: .
Base elevation: . External diam of cage: ..
Estimated base diam: .. Type of coupler: .
Shaft plumbness: . Ties & connections: ..
Pile position deviation:. Type of spacer:
Results: Satisfactory/unsatisfactory Signatures& date from Contractor & Client/consultant representative

Measured by:
Date & time:
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Form 3: BORED PILE CONCRETE PLACEMENT LOG
2. Contractor:.. Pile Ref No:
3. Logged by:. Date:. Pile Diam:.
5. Method of concreting:.. Concrete mix supplier:..
Placement method: Freefall/tremie/pumped Tremie pipe size:
Deairing method: Relief valve/tremie plug/tremie cap Depth to water inside: . m. OD casing at start: .
Shaft top Elev: Rebar Cage top Elev at start: . At finish: ..
Shaft bottom Elev: ..
Top of rock Elev: ..
Cut-off level: .
Truck Concrete Arrival Start Finish Tremie Depth to Notes/observations
No. Volume time time time depth concrete (depth of casing & tremie pipe,
etc).
Concrete Volume delivered: Placement time: start: . Finish:

(Casing removal)
OD Top Elev. Bot Elev. Start Finish Reinf cage
Casing centred: .
Casing Concrete finished:
removal ..
Notes
Signatures& date from Contractor & Client/consultant representatives.
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Form 4: BORED PILE CONCRETE VOLUME
1. Project: ... Pageof..

2. Contractor:.. Pile Ref No: ..
3. Logged by:. Date:. Pile Diam: .
Concrete Volume-depth Graph (indicate Elev of toe of tremie pipe & toe of casing)
Concrete Volume (m3)
Total Vol delivered: VD= .. Cross-sect area of rebars & access pipe, AR= . m2
Vol in lines: VL= .. Rock socket length, RSL= ...m2
Wastage: VW= . Est. rock socket vol from graph, VRS= .. m2
Vol placed: VP=VD-VL-VW= Actual rock socket vol, VRS
Theoretical Vol: VT=
Over pour: OP=VP-VT= ..
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4. Site Supervision of Micropile Installation
4.1 Execution standard & Installation processes
BS EN 14199:2005. Execution of special geotechnical works-

Micropiles elaborates the scope of installation and the important
micropile construction requirements that site supervisors shall know to
ensure compliance at site.
Important scope of inspection/monitoring by the site supervisors for

various construction stages and requirements of micropile installation
are summarized in the following Table and elaborated in Para 5.2
below:
Construction activity Scope of Inspection/ monitoring/testing. Acceptance criteria
1 Pre-construction Site inspection & desk study of SI report Understand the site, scope & nature of
& GDR, etc. Setting up. Dilapidation works. Check nearby structures/
survey? services/utilities that may be affected by
micropile installation.
Understand the subsoil conditions. Any
collapsible starta?
2 Drilling operation Check & study method statement & Suitability of drilling method & machine
types/methods & details of drilling (capacity & power) & tools that can
(machine & drill tools). Monitor drilled complete the drilling as specified/designed
hole conditions & logging. Scope & or within 3 hrs. & without hole collapse.
details of records. Monitor boring Criteria of termination of boring. Record &
operation & observe any abnormalities. report for any abnormalities.
Effects of boring & ground movements. Pneumatic rotary percussion/duplex method
or wash boring method with proper
stabilizing fluid is suitable for collapsible
holes.
3 Drilled hole Check types/methods of drilled hole Casing is commonly used for squeezing soft
stabilization stabilization plus their applications & & collapsible strata or subsoil with artesian
limitations to the specific site & subsoil pressure. Bentonite for sand strata with
conditions. Required QC tests & records. boiling problems. Water or Polymer for
most residual soil, etc.
4 Drilled hole Monitor suitability & procedure of Base & borehole cleansing should be
cleansing flushing fluid until clean before grouting. repeated if grouting is not carried out
Refer spec. within hrs.
4 Placement of Check conditions of joints, couplers, Ensure the requirements of joint, couplers
reinforcement pipe or centralizers & conditions of & centralizers are observed & concentric
rebar bundle/cage reinforcement (tolerances) during position of reinforcement in the hole.
placement into the hole. Strength of
joint/coupler should be tested especially
for tension pile.
5 Grouting operation Check grout mix and the QC Ensure the grout requirements for W/C
requirements. Monitor grouting ratio, bleeding, flow & cube strength have
operation & records. Observe any met what are specified. Grouting should be
abnormalities, ground movements, etc. continuous & uninterrupted.
Grout should be mixed by high speed mixer
(>1000 rpm).
6 Pile testing Evaluate installation records & identify Derive criteria of selection of piles for tests.
piles that may have defective Types of pile defects & the most adverse
construction. Select suitable pile test conditions shall be tested to ensure
methods & test standards representative. Make sure all requirements
of test standards are complied with.
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4.2 Important Construction Issues & Requirements for Micropiles are as follows:
a) Classification of Micropiles
Micropiles, also called minipiles, pinpiles or root piles, are small diameter
(100mm to 300mm) piles, drilled, flushed by compressed air or water with
or without bentonite/polymer, reinforced by rebars (single or bundle) or
steel pipe & grouted cast insitu replacement piles.
It is very important that micropile site supervisors shall understand the

design principle/concept of micropiles with particular reference to the
characteristics & behavior in various soil/rock conditions under various
applied loading conditions, applications & limitations, etc. How drilling,
drilled hole stabilization, placement of reinforcement and grouting can
affect micropile performance IS EQUALLY IMPORTANT to how to estimate
unit bond/friction and end bearing capacity accurately. Certainly
micropile designers and supervisors shall also know what are the
information and substrata properties that will affect micropile construction
and performance and what the construction requirements that will ensure
long term performance of micropiles. Driven small piles (<150mm) can
also be called micropiles (Cl 3.1 BS EN 14199).
Classification of micropiles is mainly and usually based on:
Applications: underpinning, foundation piles in special situations &

slope stabilization, etc.
Drilling methods: pneumatic rotary percussion, wash boring,

augering, etc.
Grouting techniques: gravity grouting, pressure grouting, multiple

post grouting, etc. Usually pure cement grout (grade fcu=30 MPa,
W/C=0.4 to 0.5, bleeding <3% (after 2hrs), efflux flow time <15 sec)
is used. Sand (up to max 25% by weight) can only be used if
micropile is more than 200mm diameter.
Reinforcement types: Single steel bar, bundle (3 to 6 bars in cage),

steel pipe, etc.
One of the common classifications cited by FHWA (based on grouting

techniques) is given below.
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b) Important differences between bored piles and micropiles are discussed

as follows :-
Basically and usually micropiles refer to small diameter piles (100mm to

300mm diameter) constructed by drilling & cement grouting with
reinforcement while bored piles refer to large diameter piles (typically
500mm to 3m) formed with or without pile casing by boring a hole in the
ground and filling with plain or reinforced concrete.
Cuttings of small holes of micropiles can be flushed out from the ground
by compressed air or pressured drilling fluid. Cuttings of bored piles are
usually & efficiently removed from the holes by soil/rock augers or
buckets though sometimes the cuttings/rocks of bored piles can be grind
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to small particles and flushed out by drilling fluid in reverse circulation

boring.
Micropiles Bored Piles

Common sizes & 100mm to 300mm diameters 500mm to 3m diameters with
with slenderness ratio up to 220. slenderness ratio < 80. Usual
capacity Axial capacity = 200 to 3500 kN. axial capacity = 2000 kN to
(Qstru = 0.4fcu Ac + 0.47 f y As ) 65500 kN. (Qstru = fcu Ac )
Reinforcement Steel pipe or rebar (single or Rebar cage. Usually 0.5 1%
bundle), y = 250 to 550 MPa. steel
About 2-8% steel.
Drilling/boring Small drilling machine to flush Large boring machine (torque =
out cuttings or debris by 50 600 kN.m) using soil/rock
compressed air or water with auger or bucket to take out the
polymer or bentonite. Casing cuttings/debris. Casing may be
may be required in collapsible required in collapsible strata or
strata. Classification of drilling: use bentonite or polymer slurry
Single tube advancement by to stabilize drilled shaft. Boring
wash boring or rotary machine capacity is classified
percussion, rotary duplex, according to BHP/ torque &
rotary percussion concentric weight/crowd, etc.
/eccentric duplex & double head
duplex.
Grout/concrete Cement grouting method: Fresh cohesive & homogeneous
normal tremie gravity, injection concrete with w/c < 0.5 with
with grouting pressure of about 1 superplasticizer & slump = 150
to 10MPa with packers or tube-a- 250 mm, cement content > 400
Manchette/ secondary/post kg/m3 for submerged tremie
grouting. Grout mixture: w/c < concreting. Concreting shall be
0.45 with admixture to ensure uninterrupted & high slump
efflux flow (< 15 sec) & bleeding property shall be maintained
< 3% after 2hrs) & fcu > 30Mpa. (>100mm) before concreting is
Sand may be added if pile completed. Retarder shall be used
size>200mm. if concreting time
.>1.5 hrs.
Applications For underpinning works to As structural foundation for
increase foundation capacity & large, heavily loaded structures
to arrest settlement of existing or structures with large lateral
structures. As structural loads. As foundations for site
support for new structures in where vibration and/or high
difficult site constraint sites & noise level are not allowed.
erratic/adverse subsoil Bored piles can be sized in large
conditions. As dowels for range to take large range of
creeping slopes/grounds), etc. loads.
Small machine, very mobile & Large machine with a lot of

portable machine for very accessories & required large
difficult sites also possible. space for installation.
Limitations Low lateral load resistance
unless the ground is treated. Required large machine & big
Expensive generally, but can be space to operate. Difficult at site
cost-effective & competitive in constraints & soft ground.
certain peculiar situations.
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c) Method statement
Method statement (MS) for micropiling shall be prepared by the

Contractor & checked & approved by the CRE/RE before commencement
of works. MS shall include 3M (materials, machine & manpower with
specific details), sequence of works, output of works & QC including
types, frequency & acceptance criteria of tests/ measurements or
observations, etc. Specific details about drilling, drill hole stabilization,
placement of reinforcement and grouting shall be included. Refer Para 1.3
for guide and detail requirements. Refer Para 1.3 for guides.
Criteria of terminating the micropile shall be clearly specified on

construction drawings. Critical Installation requirements shall also be
stated on drgs. The site supervisors shall seek the designers clarification in
case of doubts.
Duplex drilling system or equivalent shall be specified & used through

collapsible strata such as water bearing granular strata, soft & loose soils
to prevent collapse of drilled hole. Collapsible drilled hole can also be
partly stabilized by casing or duplex method in case of pneumatic rotary
percussion drilling method or by mud water, polymer/bentonite slurry in
case of wash boring drilling method.
Strict control on the density & quality of drilling fluid shall be observed, if
used. Requirements for bentonite slurry: density=1.03 to 1.15; pH value=7 to
11; Marsh Funnel flow time=32 to 60 seconds. Frequency of QC tests: at
least once daily or one set of tests per 5 piles.
Construction methods of rock socket or bond length shall be clearly

specified. Risk or uncertainty in irregular & erratic bedrock and karstic
limestone formation shall be adequately considered with necessary
mitigations. Refer to specification/drawings/designer.
Adequate scope of design validation & QC/QA scheme shall be specified

to check & verify the important critical design assumptions & performance
criteria (capacity, settlement & structural integrity).
d) Performance of micropiles is very sensitive to construction. The installation

of all micropiles shall be closely supervised & monitored (by qualified
personnel) & records are made as the piles are installed including pile
reference number, about the quality of installed piles. Investigations shall
be carried out to determine the conditions and if remediations are
necessary when there is uncertainty or deviation of installation of
micropiles from the design. Equipment used, date & time of installation
(plus interruptions, if any), peculiar observations during drilling/grouting,
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obstruction encountered, pile deviations & as-built elevation shall be

recorded to facilitate selection of pile for testing. If observations &
inspection of records reveal uncertainties, designer shall be consulted for
necessary design decision.
Important workmanship and quality requirements for materials & their QC

tests plus acceptance criteria shall be indicated on drawing. Design
capacity & the required performance tests & acceptance criteria shall
also be indicated.
Piles that shall be selected for static load test shall be at least 1 to 2% or
minimum 2 numbers per site. If some of the static load tests are to be
replaced by high strain dynamic pile tests or PDA test, at least 5% of piles
shall be tested. PDA tests shall be strictly according to ASTM D4945-12 and
shall be planned, conducted, recorded and interpreted by DFI or FQA
accredited test engineer with expert or advanced level certification.
Structural integrity assessment by PDA, static load test (Prof Chin method)
and or low strain integrity tests (ASTM D5882) shall be carried out after
detail examination of construction records. Normally about 5% to 10%
piles shall be selected for structural integrity tests.
e) Geometrical construction tolerances required by Bs EN 14199:2005 are as

follows:
Plan position at working level < 50mm
Deviation from theoretical axis: For vertical pile maximum 2% of the
length.
f) Minimum reinforcement cover with cement gout shall 20mm for

compression piles & 30mm for tension piles. Proper & durable centralizers
at about 2m intervals along the reinforcement should be properly fixed to
ensure concentric position in the drilled hole. For aggressive ground (see
Table below) larger cover and sulphate resisting cement may be needed
subject to structural design evaluation by the designer.
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Table: Criteria for Assessing Ground Corrosion Potential
Strong Mild to no
AASHTO
Corrosion Corrosion ASTM BS 1377.3
Test Units Test
Potential / Potential / Non- Standard (1990)
Method
Aggressive Aggressive
PH - < 4.5, >10 5.5 < pH < 10 G51 T 289 - 91 Clause 9
ohm - Greater than
Resistivity < 2,000 G57 T 290 91 Clause 10
cm 5,000
Sulfates ppm(1) > 200 Less than 200 D516 T 290 91 Clause 5
Chlorides ppm > 100 Less than 100 D512 T 291 91 Clause 3
Stray
- Present - - - -
current
g) QC for cement grout.
Unless otherwise specified by the designer, typical cement grout shall

have water cement ratio, W/C=0.4 to 0.5, characteristic strength, fcu=25 to
30 MPa; bleeding <3% after 2hrs, viscosity flow time through efflux flow
funnel should be less than 15 seconds. Cement grout mix shall be mixed
by high speed colloid mixer (>1000 rpm). The quality control test should
be carried out at least daily or one set of test per 5 piles.
h) There are many drilling techniques and methods for micropiles. Each
method has its applications and limitations or its suitability depending
mainly on subsoil conditions and size/depth of the micropiles.
Table: Drilling Methods and Procedures

Modified from Elias and Juran, (1991)
Cased or Drillhole
Drill Rig Open Cuttings
Drilling Method Auger- Diameters Drill Bit Types Comments
Type Hole? Removal
Cast? (mm)
Lead Flight Kelly-Best

Yes No
Driven
Mechanical
Sectional Solid-Stem Yes No Hydraulic rotary auger

Rock, Soil, methods for drilling
Auger 100 300
Drag, etc. competent soils or
Mechanical weathered rock
Sectional Hollow-Stem Yes Yes
(air support)
Continuous Flight
Yes No Mechanical
Solid-Stem
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Continuous Flight Mechanical

Yes Yes
Hollow-Stem (air support)
Single-Stem Air Rotary Yes No

Button, Roller, Compressed Hydraulic rotary
100 200 methods for drilling
Drag, etc. Air
competent soils, rock,
Duplex Air Rotary Yes Yes
or mixed ground
conditions (pneumatic
Roller, Drag, hammers available)
Rotary Wash Boring Yes Yes 100 300 Water / mud
etc.
Sectional Solid-Stem
Yes No Mechanical Hydraulic rotary auger
Augers
Rock, Soil, methods for drilling
100 300
Drag, etc. competent soils or
Sectional Hollow-Stem Mechanical weathered rock
Yes Yes
Augers (air support)
Pneumatic rotary
Button, Roller, Compressed methods for drilling
Air Track Single-Stem Air Rotary Yes No 100 300
Drag, etc. Air non-caving competent
soils or rock
i) Methods of drilling (<300mm diameter):
Contractor shall propose specific and appropriate drilling method and

specific type of machine & tools for the project in the method statement
after taking into account of the subsoil conditions, design and
specification requirements. Unless otherwise specified and approved,
duplex drilling technique or equivalent shall be deployed.
Drilling can be cased or uncased wash rotary drilling with water (with or
without bentonite/polymer), rotary pneumatic percussive drilling with or
without casing, augering, percussion, etc., depending on subsoil
conditions and drilling tools, etc. Rotary action can be by power-driven
rotary table turning Kelly bar or tophead drive pneumatic/hydraulic motor
turning drill rod/casing or chuck drive rig or special rig /machine.
Requirements for rotary (rpm) /torque & pull-down capacity for hard rock,
soft rock, soils? Drilled hole stabilization methods? Flushing medium
(water, air, mud, foam & combinations with additives to meet specific
ground & flow rates, etc.) & circulation methods? Applications & limitation
of each method to the specific site and design conditions for the project
shall be assessed.
Factors governing the selection of drilling methods /equipment/tools &

detail procedure? Subsoil conditions (soil/rock/hardness, obstruction,
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collapsible strata, groundwater, etc.), site constraints and pile size/length

/capacity, etc.
Subsoil & geological conditions: WT, collapsible strata (cased or uncased,

risk of being jammed by gravels/boulders/loose fractured rocks), very
hard strata/obstructions, saturated or unsaturated strata & permeability,
prone to ground subsidence, problems of drilling in very soft/loose strata?
Limestone formation problems?
Site conditions: Access, headroom & space constraints, suitable size of

machine, portable machine. Machine for rotary percussive methods are
usually smaller.
Environmental factors (noise, dust, ground subsidence, etc.): Pneumatic

rotary percussive methods have more noise & some ground vibration.
Lowering of WT in permeable strata may lead to ground subsidence, etc.
Wash boring is messy & has problem of siltation of drains & waterways, etc.
Economy, pile size & capacity: Machine & tool cost are high for drillholes
exceeding 250mm for rotary percussive methods, especially for deep
holes that have localized collapsible strata
Drilling tools/bits: proper selection is the key to successful drilling.
Special tools for difficult site & subsoil conditions such as water bearing
sandy strata, collapsible strata, subsoil with excess pore water pressure, fill
ground with hard construction debris/boulders, etc. What are the
problems and how to address the problems?
j) Reinforcement
Purposes of reinforcement: to transfer load to deeper strata & then through

grout to bonded soil/rock.
Reinforcement Types: API standard, BS, EC. Reinforcement can be single

high yield steel bar, bundle of 3 or more bars or MS or API pipe. Usual yield
stress, fy=250 MPa (MS steel), fy=500/550 MPa for GEWI bars or fy=550 MPa
for API N80 pipes, etc.
Functions & Technical Requirements: material strength. Coupler/joint shall

have the same compression/tension strength. Centralizers & Spacers at
about 3m intervals along the reinforcement to ensure concentric position
in the drilled hole with cover of minimum 20mm (non-aggressive ground &
compression) or minimum 30mm (non-aggressive ground & tension) shall
be of durable material (plastic or galvanised bars, etc.). Pile head
anchorage construction as designed. Straightness/alignment tolerance (<
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3mm per 3m). Joint for compression/tension, strength fy. Protection vs

corrosion of aggressive ground? Refer design drawings and BS 8004
(Clause 10).
Common QC tests for reinforcement: Reinforcement bars or pipe

laboratory test certificates by accredited lab shall be checked to ensure
compliance with specification. Test certificates for joint, coupler & spacer
to ensure performance shall also be checked and documented. Coaxial
requirements single and bundle of bars check shall also be carried out.
Functions & significance of centralizer/spacer, coupler & anchorage?

Design verification? Design model & load transfer? Types & technical
requirements? Corrosion protection?
k) Grouting
Specific functions/purposes & technical requirements of grout mixture &

grouting operation shall be observed as specified.
Grout Properties: Desired/required properties? Why? Unless otherwise

specified, pure cement gout with W/C<0.4 to 0.5 shall be adopted. Sand
(<25% by weight) may be added if the drilled hole is >200mm and
specified/approved by designer. Addition of sand in cement grout is not
recommended as it will significantly reduce the flowability of the grout.
Admixtures/superplasticisers/retarder should/may be used to achieve the
required QC/workability properties specified below. Grout mix shall be
mixed by high speed (>1000 rpm) colloid mixer.
QC tests: strength (unless otherwise specified, fcu>30 MPa),

workability/flow>250mm, bleeding<3% (after 2hrs), efflux cone flow
time<15 seconds. Test frequency: at least once daily or one test per 5
piles. These properties are critical to performance or load transfer of
micropiles.
Grouting operation: Refer spec for requirements of machine/mixer (>1000

rpm), paddle mixer, time limit for mixing, transfer & grouting, grouting
method (Type A/B/C/D or single step or multiple steps grouting with
packers or Tubes-a-Manchettes) & pressure level, etc. Site supervisor shall
refer specification/design and to ensure the grouting requirements are
complied with at site.
Common shortfalls or WCGW at site for grouting? Mitigations?

Inadequate/unclear works spec for scope of inspection, recording & QC
to check bleeding, strength & flow properties, etc. Lack of quality and
competent supervision.
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Performance and capacity of micropiles for a given pile geometry &

ground conditions are substantially dictated by grouting pressure, less
influence by drilling & flushing. Type A (normal tremie gravity
displacement grouting, suitable for hard soil or rock. Type B
grouting/injection pressure is about 1MPa, grout permeates through pores
& fractures & increases effective grouted diameter, also can increase end
bearing. Type C, pressure>2MPa, by insitu packers or tube-a-Manchette,
hydrofracturing, secondary grouting. Type D includes post grouting. (BS
8081).
For weathered & fractured rocks, it is important to know locations & size of
fractures & permeability plus its reaction to grouting. This can be
determined by Packer/Lugeon tests using double packer. Lu>3L/m/MPa
implies that pregrouting is necessary & useful. What are the factors &
information required in proper design of rock socket strength (fub) for
micropiles?
Pressure and post grouting are expensive & difficult to do at site though it
can get very high bond stress fub in fractured rock socket with low RQD
(only if properly done). What should be the design approach to address
these issues? Understand how the bond fub that can be mobilized?
Factors? How to ensure rock socket is clean or not filled with debris or
disturbed by drilling? How the grout properties & pressure can fill the rock
discontinuities/fractures? Rock properties & grout shrinkage problems?
l) Pile Testing
Pile testing is the main part of QC/QA for piling works (bored piles &
micropiles). The performance of piles with respect to structural integrity
and capacity (ultimate friction fsu & end bearing fbu) is very sensitive to
how they are constructed, especially bored piles & micropiles.
There are two types of post installation pile tests namely INTEGRITY tests or
non-destructive tests to evaluate the soundness or integrity of the
constructed bored piles & LOAD tests to determine the load capacity of
the bored piles.
What are the important issues about pile testing?
How many piles should be selected for integrity tests? Types of

integrity tests & test standards? Selection criteria?
How many piles should be selected for load tests? Types of load
tests & test standards? Purpose of instrumented, preliminary &
working load tests? Selection criteria? Test result interpretation &
acceptance?
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Types of pile tests can be classified as shown in the figure as follows:
Structural Integrity Tests
Usually about 3% to 5% of piles installed should be selected for integrity tests

to check and evaluate the pile soundness conditions. Selection of piles for
integrity tests should be based on installation records/concrete volume-depth
graphs especially those have been suspected of structural integrity problems
such as major faults, necking, discontinuity, etc. All integrity tests shall be
planned, conducted and interpreted by approved DFI accredited tester of
specialist agency with advance level certification.
Common integrity tests are cross-hole sonic logging test (ASTM D6760) and
sonic echo/hammer test (ASTM D5822). Some pile load test methods such as
PDA and MLT also can be used to check pile integrity conditions. Excavation
(for shallow depths <3m) and coring are also can be used to check structural
conditions of bored piles.
Cross-hole sonic logging (CSL) Test (ASTM D6760)
Cross-hole Sonic Logging Method to check their integrity should be

carried out strictly in accordance to ASTM D 6760.
The Sonic Logging Method is a method of investigation using the lateral
transmission of waves consisting of emission of an ultrasonic vibration
in an access tube filled with water and capturing this vibration at the
same level in another tube within the pile shaft. This operation is repeated
at a high frequency and at a level sufficiently close to each other in order
to get a continuous recording over the entire length of the pile shaft.
The tubes for integrity tests by sonic logging shall have an internal
diameter of not less than 50 mm with no internal projections or
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couplings. They can be of mild steel pipe or galvanised iron (G.I.) pipe.
Four (4) nos. of tubes are required for each selected pile of diameter less
than 1.3 m while six (6) nos. are required for each selected pile of
diameter greater than 1.3 m.
The tubes shall be cleaned with a nongreasy product before use in order
to prevent oil films from causing adherence problems between the tube
and the concrete. This could cause a variation that might be incorrectly
interpreted as a significant defect in the pile.
The tubes shall be fixed to the vertical bars with equal spacing on the
inside perimeter of the links. The tubes shall be watertight with the
bottom of the tube sealed and suitably weighed to prevent floating. The
upper ends of the tubes must be closed and extended to at least
500 mm above the concrete surface to prevent debris or concrete from
falling into the tube. The tubes shall be secured to the internal face of
the reinforcement cage at equal distance from each other on the
circumference.
In all cases, the steel tubes shall rest on the founding level of the pile so
that the full length of the pile can be tested. The type of tube and
condition of sealing shall be checked and approved by the RE before
installation.
The tube shall be filled with water to provide the necessary acoustic
coupling, and then plugged or capped before concreting. After
conducting the tests, all tubes shall be grouted and the water in the tubes
displaced. The grout shall be dense cement grout with an approved
expanding agent.
The acceptance criteria according to FHWA-NHI-10-016 are as follows:
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Shock Test/Hammer test
The shock/hammer test should be carried out strictly in accordance to

ASTM D5882. In this test, the shock which is to be imparted on to the
properly prepared pile head shall be carried out using a suitable size
hand held hammer or any approved method which is capable of
transmitting vibration to the base of the pile shaft. The electronic pickups
located on the pile head shall be approved velocity transducers or
accelerometers. Preliminary tests shall be carried out to establish the
appropriate scales and to check the electronic circuit.
Load Tests
Usually about 1% to 2% of piles installed should be selected for load tests.

Selection of piles for load tests should be based on installation records
where weak piles should be chosen. Result of testing is not everything until
and unless the result can be representative of the untested ones.
Preliminary test piles or instrumented test piles aimed to confirm and verify
the pile design should be tested to ultimate load, usually 2.5 or 3 times the
pile design working load whenever possible (SS CP 4:2003). Working piles
should be tested to proof loads, usually to 2 times the design working load
although in certain conditions proof load of 1.5 times may be used.
For large projects, some of the load tests (MLT/SLT) may be substituted by
PDA tests.
Common types load tests are as follows:
o Static Load Tests: CRP, MLT (ASTM D1143 for compression, D3689 for
tension, D3966 for lateral). Static maintained load test (MLT) should
be carried out according to JKR/SPJ/2010-S10 and acceptance
criteria:
Pile load test is deemed to have failed if
Settlement >12.5mm @ design working load; or

Settlement > 10% pile size or 38mm @ 2 x design load: or
Residual settlement after removal of test load > (4 + D/120)
or 12.5mm, whichever is the lower value (JKR Standard Spec:
JKR/SPJ/2010-S10).
Ultimate loads & structural integrity conditions can be evaluated by

Prof. Chin FKs method or Davison's Method, etc.
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High-strain Dynamic Testing of Piles-PD

DA/HSDTP (ASTM D4945-12).
PDA shall be planned, conducted, recorded & interpreted by

Dfi/FQA accredited test engineer (expert or advanced Level).
Compliance with the requirements of the test standards and
specifications is important.
For piles to be selected for PDA tests, full length reinforcement is

required. Force measured on pile head by hammer >2Qd by
hammer impact with hammer weight as heavy as possible (1% to
2% of 2Qd) & drop height as low as possible (<2m). The induced
dynamic compressive stress (fc) & tensile stress (ft) should be
checked by WEAP or Broms method to ensure they are within the
permissible limits. How?
Bidirectional load tests (SS CP4:2003 recognizes it as SLT). Refer

www.YJACKpiletest.com
Statnamic load test; no ASTM standard available.
Can Bidirectional load tests be considered SLT? Advantages of

Bidirectional load tests (T-cells, O-cells & C-cells) for load tests of
bored piles?
Refer Para 4.2 (o) for record requirements for micropile installation.
MLT or SLT is the most reliable test. A must to verify the estimated capacity
& settlement
Ultimate objective of load tests: to ensure all untested piles are

represented statistically by the results of test piles on the safe side. How?
Criteria of selection of piles for tests shall be based on installation records.
Purpose of preliminary or trial pile tests & working pile tests
Interpretation of load test results
Common errors/problems
o Non-compliance with test stds, inadequacies in method statement

o Interaction of test pile & supports for kentledge/ reaction piles/
anchors
o Soft ground problems & piling in limestone formation (group
analysis)
o Selected case histories of load tests
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4.3 Construction Checklist and relevant problems and issues related to

supervision of micropile installation that site supervisor (RE/IOWS) should be
well-versed:
a) Desk study: to collect all relevant documents and be aware and

understand the scope of piling works involved. Important relevant
documents are: contract document, GI/SI factual report, GI/SI
Interpretation report, GDR/pile design report with design drawings,
specification & BQ. Consult the designer for clarification if necessary.
b) Check and inspect the site conditions and understand how the
micropile installation works will affect the nearby buildings/structures,
services, etc. (if any). Carry out dilapidation survey & monitoring
instruments (surface markers/piezometers, etc.), if necessary.
c) Check and understand the Method Statement prepared and submitted
by the Contractor. Seek explanations & clarifications where necessary.
Method statement should be adequate & comprehensive as explained
in Para 1.3 above. Make sure all the construction requirements
stipulated by BS EN 14199:2005 are complied with.
d) Are the proposed drilling rigs, equipment and tools appropriate to the
site/subsoil conditions with necessary output to complete within the
scheduled time frame with some contingencies? Consult others if not
well-versed in the subject. Are the Contractors operator & site
manager well-versed in micropile installation problems?
e) Are the proposed methods & materials of drilled shaft stabilization
satisfactory with anticipated subsoil conditions and in compliance with
the requirements specified by the designer?
f) Check and enquire methodology & system for validation of material
quality (tremie grout mixture, reinforcement elements, centralizers,
couplers, etc.,) product/workmanship tolerance, QC assurance, etc.
g) Are the proposed method/sequence of reinforcement elements
placement & grouting satisfactory? What are the checks and
inspections/measurements plus records for quality and/
measurements or dimensional tolerances before and after placement
of reinforcement cage and grouting?
h) Check micropile termination criteria & construction controls?
i) Check & mitigations vs. drilled shaft structural integrity?
j) Are the noise level and ground vibration/deformation or subsidence
level acceptable? How to estimate and control the noise and ground
vibration/deformation or subsidence level for the proposed pile
installation method? Potential damages to nearby buildings &
services?
k) What are the typical micropile installation problems in limestone
formation & soft ground? Construction controls and mitigations against
the problems?
l) Scope & types of recording and format?
m) Pile tests to check structural integrity & capacity? Types of tests and
test standards? Frequency? Interpretation?
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5. Specification for Piling Works
Specification for piling woks as given by Section 10 of JKR Standard

Specification for Road Works (JKR/SPJ/2010-S10) deals with piling works
with particular reference to requirements for materials/products,
installation, workmanship and testing/performance for precast RC piles,
prestressed spun piles, bored cast-in-place piles, steel H piles, steel pipe
piles and micropiles. All site supervisors of piling works should be well-
versed with all the requirements specified.
For bored pile installation, all site supervisors of piling works should be
familiar and well-versed with all the construction requirements specified.
The bored pile supervisors should be well-versed and understand the

following terminology, information and requirements in particular:
o General requirements & Construction Tolerances

The specification contains general requirements of materials,
records and all the allowable pile tolerances, such as location,
verticality (plumbness), cut-off elevation, rebar stick up, and
diameter. Failing to meet these tolerances will result in a
rejected pile.
o Boring and Excavation Methods
The specification contains the allowable procedures for the
different shaft drilling methods. They also provide the
requirements of each procedure. The requirements for base
cleansing & drilled shaft stabilization. The contractor must
adhere to these requirements or once again the shaft could be
rejected.
o Reinforcement cage placement
Requirements for proper fabrication & handling of reinforcement
cage.
o Concrete Placement, and Temporary Casing Removal
The specification contains the requirements of concrete mix and
the allowable procedures and requirements for the above
operations. Again, the contractor must adhere to these
requirements or risk rejection of the shaft.
The specification also contains additional miscellaneous information

on drilled shaft requirements that the supervisor should become
familiar with. A good working knowledge of the specification is
essential in proper bored pile or drilled shaft construction monitoring.
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For micropile installation, JKR Specification does not specified much

construction requirements for drilling, drilled hole stabilization & grouting.
Maximum permissible bleed up to 5% in JKR specification is too
excessive. Normally the permissible limit for bleed after 2 hrs is 1 to 3%.
Refer slide presentation. Some of the lackings and shortfalls in JKR

Specifications will be discussed during the lecture.
6. Commonly asked Q & A
We have compiled these Q & A from the problems we were asked about
most frequently, so that you can find the answers you are looking for.
Answers to the questions will be discussed during the end of the
presentation.
a) What is meant by supervision of pile foundation installation? Purpose

of site supervision? Role and responsibility of supervisors? Basic
required qualification/training & knowledge/experience of qualified
supervisors for piling works?
Ans:
Site supervisors including RE & technician/IOWS/COW are appointed by the
Client/project owner or project manager to take care of their interest. The role pile
supervisors is to take care the Clients interest to ensure the piling works are properly
carried out according to the CP, design drawings and specifications. The required
fundamental responsibility of site supervisor is to inspect and to make sure the piling
work is properly carried out with due care, diligence & skill, i.e. the piling works are
completed smoothly without much problems (within the time frame & budget or not
much costs/time overruns through proper project management & Contract administration)
and according to the approved pile design & specification (to ensure quality &
performance & also meet the requirements stipulated by CP through proper technical
supervision).
In order to discharge the required fundamental responsibility of supervision of piling
works to ensure quality & performance, the site supervisor must have the basic academic
training plus some site training and experience to acquire the practical aspects of piling
works process and the required QC to ensure workmanship & performance.
Basically, if you cannot read & understand the technical basis of pile design drawings,
specifications & SI report, you are basically and actually not qualified to supervise the
piling works concerned. A competent qualified piling supervisor not only can read and
understand the basis of important aspects of pile design drawings and specifications, but
also has the capability to distinguish and to recognize the proper construction
method/procedure plus mitigations against various risks and uncertainties of subsoil
conditions encountered. This means the site supervisors should be capable of distinguish,
identify and recognize what are the defective constructions/piling works, which are
defined as piling works that are not carried out according to good engineering practice or
not according to specifications and design drawings.
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How to learn to read and understand the pile design drawings?

To learn to read pile design drawings certainly is much easy and faster than to learn how
to design pile foundation & express the design on drawings and specification.
Basic design details shown in pile design drawings: Piling layout, pile cap details,
structural details of pile body, pile joint. pile shoe, etc. (illustrations) and construction
controls, method/sequence/procedure, QC requirements, etc. (usually expressed in notes).
To understand these details and their engineering purposes and basis requires structural &
geotechnical engineering knowledge and training. What are the relevant subjects of
structural & geotechnical engineering involved? Availability of resources (experienced
contractors, materials and machine) and practical aspects of cost-effectiveness
(economics) are equally vital to be learned.
How to read and understand pile specification?
What is meant by good engineering practice? What is meant by defective construction for
piling works? To be discussed more detail during the Q & A session.
b) What is meant by defective design for piling works? What are the
common causes and typical cost-effective mitigations vs. defective
design?
Ans:
Basically, defective design means the design has not met the requirements stipulated by CP or
local authority. Common causes for defective design are:
Inadequate and/or unreliable GI/SI. Inadequate GI/SI means the scope of GI/SI does
not meet the minimum requirements stipulated by CP or local authority. Unreliable
GI/SI means the GI/SI works are not properly carried by accredited SI Contractor or
using improper equipment or improper test procedure or not supervised by qualified
personnel.
Inadequacy in scope of design verification, where safety, serviceability and
durability aspects are not adequately carried out in accordance with the requirements
stipulated by CP and local authority, etc.
Inadequacy in scope of design validation to ensure the requirements with respect to
performance, serviceability and durability stipulated by CP and local authority, etc.
Cost-effective mitigations vs. defective design are:

The designer should adequately and properly qualified
Properly qualified independent check engineer or auditor preferably BEM accredited
Check Engineer is engaged to audit the design
c) What is meant by defective construction for piling works? What are the
common causes and typical cost-effective mitigations vs. defective
construction?
d) How to conduct redriving test & false set in granular & cohesive
subsoil? How to check & conduct pile heave/uplift for big pile group in
saturated subsoil? How to measure ground vibration & movement for
large displacement pile in saturated cohesive subsoils? How to check
pile position/deviation, pile verticality & rake to ensure compliance
with specifications?
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e) What are the usual permissible limits/tolerances for pile position,

verticality and rake? How to inspect and check/verify/test these limits
at site? In case some of the piles are found to be out of alignment or
position exceeding the tolerable limits, what are the acceptable
methods of remediation or rectification? Who should bear the
additional costs involved according to JKR Specification for Piling
Works (JKR/SPJ/2010-S10)?
f) What are the general construction requirements and scope of

inspection checks for following aspects of piling works and the
underlying principles involved?
Permissible/tolerable pile deviations: positions, rake & verticality
Pile shoe: dimensional tolerance, basic structural requirements,
purpose & functions of various types of pile shoe for precast
concrete piles
Pile joint: dimensional tolerance, basic structural requirements,
purpose & functions of various types of pile joint (welded or
mechanical joints) for precast concrete piles.
g) What are the important scopes of inspection and QC for precast

concrete piles before installation (MS 1314 Part 1)?
h) What are the common defective constructions and problems in (a) soft
ground, (b) boulder abundant residual subsoils, (c) ex-mining areas of
limestone formation with floaters/boulders, cavities & erratic rock
profile, (d) uncontrolled fill ground, (e) off-shore of marine environment
such as jetty project and (f) residual subsoil with inclined/laminated
weathered shale for:
driven RC piles
driven spun piles
jacked RC piles
jacked spun piles
bored piles
micropiles?
What are the common causes/mechanism of the problems? Effective
mitigations?
i) What are the purposes and basic scope of contents of a

comprehensive method statement for installation of:
bored piles
micropiles
driven RC piles
driven spun piles
jacked RC piles
jacked spun piles?
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What are the important information & data that shall be checked and
verified with the Contractor before acceptance/approval to method
statement can be given by the RE?
j) What are the important pre-installation inspection/measurements/ tests

that should be carried out to ensure the required quality of
materials/products delivered to site have complied with the
specification for:
driven RC piles
driven spun piles
jacked RC piles
jacked spun piles
bored piles
micropiles (Reinforcement cage or API pipes).
k) What are the important inspection/measurements/tests that should be

carried out during installation stage to check and ensure the required
construction workmanship/tolerances have complied with the
specification for:
driven RC piles
driven spun piles
jacked RC piles
jacked spun piles
bored piles
micropiles
l) Pile designers may specify various types of pile testing methods to

check structural integrity and performance (capacity & settlement). As
a site supervisor, what are the important information and data or
process that should be checked and verified/clarified with the
Contractor to ensure the tests are properly carried out as specified?
m) For static load test or maintained load test for piles, what are the
important inspection/measurements/document/clarifications that
should be checked and verified with the Contractor before approval
to proceed is given?
n) For high strain dynamic pile test/PDA test for driven RC piles or spun
piles, what are the important inspection/measurements/document
/clarifications that should be checked and verified with the Contractor
before approval to proceed is given?
o) For statnamic pile test for driven RC piles or spun piles or bored piles,
what are the important inspection/measurements/document
/clarifications that should be checked and verified with the Contractor
before approval to proceed is given?
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p) For bidirectional or O-cell pile test for spun piles or bored piles, what
are the important inspection/measurements/document /clarifications
that should be checked and verified with the Contractor before
approval to proceed is given?
q) For driven RC or spun piles, what are the basic criteria of selection of
piles for load tests?
r) For jacked RC or spun piles, what are the basic criteria of selection of
piles for load tests?
s) For bored piles, what are the basic criteria of selection of piles for load
tests?
t) For micropiles, what are the basic criteria of selection of piles for load
tests?
u) For driven RC piles that are suspected of structural integrity problems

through driving records or PDA tests with low BTA ratio, what are the
relevant tests that should be carried out to verify the conditions?
Typical remediations?
v) For driven Spun piles that are suspected of structural integrity problems
through driving records or PDA tests with low BTA ratio, what are the
relevant tests that should be carried out to verify the conditions?
Typical remediations?
w) What are the typical subsoil conditions and construction methods that
are prone to have structural integrity problems for bored piles? What
are the reliable test methods to verify the conditions? Effective
mitigations vs. the problems?
x) What are the typical subsoil conditions and construction methods that
are prone to have structural integrity problems for micropiles? What
are the reliable test methods to verify the conditions? Effective
mitigations vs. the problems?
y) What are the common construction disputes and contractual claims

related to inadequate specification for (a) bored piles, (b) driven RC
piles, (c) jacked spun piles & (d) micropiles?
z) What is meant by a bored pile according to BS EN 1536:2000? What are

the main applications, advantages and limitations of bored piles?
aa) What are the relevant Codes of practice or established design

guides commonly used by pile designers in Malaysia? What is meant
by good engineering practice? Acceptable established design &
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construction guides & guidelines? What are the main differences in

design methods by ASD, LFRD and limit state design for pile designs?
bb) What are the most important prerequisites and information to

enable engineers to design bored pile properly?
cc) What should be the scope of GI/SI methods to obtain the necessary
subsoil properties & information required to address the problems of
bored pile design & construction for normal high-rise building projects?
What are the important CP requirements need to be met?
dd) What are the important/critical or mandatory requirements

specified in the Codes of practice (BS 8004 & EC 7) for bored pile
design?
ee) What are the fundamental scopes of design verification/analysis/

calculations for bored piles to show compliance with the design
criteria /requirements specified in CP/BS 8004?
ff) What are the important scope/methods of design validation to ensure

the design requirements specified in the CP are met at site with
particular reference to structural integrity, capacity and settlement?
gg) What are the major factors that will affect ultimate unit friction fsu &
ultimate end bearing fbu for bored piles?
How to estimate unit ultimate skin friction fsu & end bearing fbu for bored
piles in clay, sand, intermediate geomaterial (IMG) & rock? What
factors that can influence fsu & fbu significantly? Why fbu is commonly
ignored in the estimation of end bearing in practice? When end
bearing can be considered substantially and partly? Basis?
hh) What are the usual permissible limits/tolerances for bored pile
position, verticality and rake for displacement piles? How to inspect
and check/verify/test these limits at site? In case some of the piles are
found out of alignment or position exceeding the tolerable limits, what
are the acceptable methods of remediation or rectification? Who
should bear the additional costs involved according to JKR
Specification for Piling Works (JKR/SPJ/2010-S10)?
ii) What are the main & critical information sought from GI/SI aimed for
bored pile design & construction?
jj) What are the basic 3 types of bored pile construction? Applications &
limitations plus advantages of each method of construction? What are
the common types of unstable strata in bored pile construction & how
to address the problems involved?
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kk) What are the basic requirements for boring operation related to boring
machine & drilling tools for bored pile construction in soft to
hard/dense soil & rock (soft to hard rocks)? When can boiling
phenomenon happen & how to address boiling problem? When can
the problem of excessive outflow of drilling fluid happen and how to
address the problem? When can the excessive inflow of groundwater
and/or soil to the bores happen & how to address such problem?
ll) What are the common construction methods for rock socket for bored
piles? How to estimate ultimate friction for rock socket? What are the
factors that shall be considered when adopting the ultimate rock bond
strength?
mm) What is meant by drilled shaft stabilization in bored pile

construction & the engineering principles involved? What are the
common methods for drilled shaft stabilization & the engineering
principles involved? Their applications, advantages and limitations?
What are the important QC tests & their acceptance criteria that should
be carried out to ensure performance
nn) What is meant by base cleaning in bored pile construction? What are
the common methods for base cleaning & the principles involved?
Their applications, advantages and limitations? What are the common
tests that should be carried out to ensure the base is clean?
oo) What are the important construction requirements for fabrication

and placement of reinforcement cage in bored pile construction to
ensure performance? What are the common defective construction in
handling & placement of the reinforcement cage and the
consequence to the bored pile performance? What factors influence
the amount of reinforcement (As) required? In case soft ground or high
lateral load and 2% of reinforcement are required, what are the typical
problems that may arise? How to address these problems to ensure
performance of bored piles?
pp) What are the desired properties of concrete mix for tremie
concreting in bored pile construction? What are the important QC tests
on tremie concrete that should be checked and carried out at least
once daily?
qq) What are the common construction defects in tremie concreting for
bored piles and what are the possible consequences to bored pile
performance?
rr) How slump of insitu concrete for bored pile can affect the performance
(integrity & capacity) of bored piles critically? How slump should be
monitored during the whole process of concreting especially for the
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concreting for big & long bored piles that takes more than 1.5 hours to
complete?
ss) BS EN 1536 recommends that the concrete-depth for all bored piles
should be recorded. What are main purposes for this record?
tt) What are the requirements, extent & scope of site supervision,
inspection & recording for bored pile installation as required by BS 8004
and BS EN 1536:2000?
uu) What are the common structural integrity problems in bored pile
construction? Methods of mitigations against these problems? Methods
to identify and assess/determine the extent/existence of these
problems?
vv) What are the common methods used to estimate/check lateral load
capacity & deflection of bored piles? When & how external lateral
loads (ground movement) can be imposed on piles? How to improve
lateral load capacity of bored piles in loose or weak/soft soils near the
ground level?
ww) What is meant by bidirectional load test? What are the main
differences between the conventional maintained load tests and
bidirectional load tests? Can the bidirectional load tests be considered
static load tests? What are the advantages & disadvantages of
bidirectional load tests when compared with the conventional
maintained load tests?
xx) What are meant by high-strain dynamic load test/PDA and statnamic
load test? What are the main differences between these 2 tests? What
are the advantages & disadvantages of PDA & statnamic load tests
when compared with the conventional maintained load tests?
yy) What are the important acceptance criteria for load tests on bored
piles? What are the load test acceptance criteria according to
JKR/SPJ/2010/S-10? Basis of the acceptance criteria?
zz) What are the typical conditions/situations that bored piles are practical
and cost-effective? When bored can be very competitive when
compared with other piling systems?
aaa) What are the main purposes of pile testing for bored piles? How to
ensure the results of pile testing are representative and meaningful?
What are the common test methods/types & their applications,
advantages & limitations for tests to check structural integrity and
capacity?
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bbb) SI Report given in the Tender document usually attached with

statements such as The SI Report is intended solely as a preliminary
guide and the completeness nor accuracy of the information
provided is not guaranteed. No responsibility is assumed by the SO for
any opinion or conclusion given in the SI Report. The Contractor shall
study the SI Report in detail and oblige to place his own interpretation
on the information provided and to make due allowance for the
effect of the site and subsoil conditions on his construction operation. If
necessary, the Contractor shall carry out his own SI.
If the actual subsoil conditions differ significantly from the SI Report

given and this has resulted in:
a) The actual driven RC pile penetration/set depth is significantly
shorter resulting in loss due to large wastage
b) The drilled shaft stabilization methods of bored piles have to be
changed from normally by water to bentonite/polymer slurry
resulting in additional cost & delay.
Can the piling Contractor be entitled to claim for the above

additional loss and costs?
ccc) Generally, can the piling Contractor be entitled to claim for the
additional cost of repair/rectification of the adjacent
buildings/structures/utilities due to piling works according to JKR
Specification for Piling Works (JKR/SPJ/2010-S10)?
ddd) What are the common bored pile construction disputes and
contractual claims related to:
Boring operation
Subsoil conditions
Rock socket construction methods & depth
Drilled shaft stabilization methods
Base cleansing methods
Concreting
Placement of reinforcement cage
7. Case Histories/case studies
Refer slide presentation: introduction & background/site history subsoil

conditions, problems encountered, scope of investigation & findings, proposed
remediations & engineering principles involved.
a) Installation of 125mm micropiles for distressed RC anchored wall, Teluk

Kumbar, Pg.
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b) Installation of 100mm micropiles as underpinning works for settled

school building in Mersing.
c) Installation of 300mm micropiles as foundation for 2 tier flyover, Jalan
Ampang, KL.
d) Bored pile Construction for Puchong Utama Interchange. Problems of
excessive soft toe up to about 1m thick for bored piles (1.2m
diameter) in thick sandy silt (20m). Qd=600 ton with 5m rock socket
(RQD<5%, highly weathered sandstone/schist). Investigation &
remediation proposal?
e) Large diameter bored piles for high-rise building (1.5m to 2m), PJ.
45m to 65m long with 3m rock socket in weathered granite installed
by reverse circulation machine & BG 38. Instrumented test pile by MLT
to 2Qd=7000 ton. Statnamic load tests & PDA tests. Results
interpretation, etc.
8. Attachment: slide presentation
74 of 74

Workshop Notes Supervision Bored Piles PDF

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WORKSHOP NOTES

Ir. Neoh Cheng Aik

2. Role of supervision for piling works..Pg. 6

3. Site supervision of bored pilesPg. 14

4. Site supervision of micropiles.....Pg. 48

5. Specification for Piling Works....Pg. 64

6. Commonly asked Q & A.Pg. 65

7. Case Histories/case studies.......Pg. 73

8. Attachment: Slide Presentation...Pg. 74

Pile foundations are very common nowadays especially for high-rise

Construction of piled foundations is a specialist activity, calling for

To ensure pile design is properly & adequately carried out, independent

Proper site supervision to ensure pile foundations are properly constructed

This workshop/course is designed to provide supervising personnel

out proper site supervision of piling works with particular reference to

Presentation of the workshop/course through slides & notes will be in an

1.1 Objectives of this Course/workshop

The main objective of this course is to discuss various construction practices

1.2 Detail workshop/course Contents

Important workshop/course details/contents covered in this Workshop are as

Duration of One day

1.3 Method Statement

A so-called comprehensive method statement for piling work should include

a) Specific, appropriate and adequate 3M (Materials, Manpower &

quality and workmanship plus performance or load tests should be

The main references used/referred to prepare this course/workshop note &

2. Role of Supervision for Piling Works

2.1 Parties involved

Generally and typically, five direct parties involved in a conventional

a) The Client/Project owner (specifies the needs of the project,

The construction supervision team including RE & technicians/clerk of

Piling work is usually part of the civil engineering or building project

It is a typical construction contract practice that the Contractor shall

2.2 Basic role & responsibility of pile supervisors

The basic role of pile supervisors (appointed by the project

Care and diligence are very important human factors or human

Two (2) basic requirements for properly installed sound piles to be

Properly means with due care, skill & diligence. Performance of

designer to ensure all the issues discussed in Para 3 are

Piles are properly installed according to the approved pile

As the subsoil conditions are usually highly variable and sometimes

Basic knowledge that needs to be learnt and be aware by RE and

In order to discharge the responsibility of supervisor, he/she SHALL be a

a) The conformity of piling works with CP, design drawings &

This means in compliance with good engineering practice and all

b) Checking the validity of design parameters/assumptions.

c) The inspection & monitoring of all important piling

d) Keep the Clients/representative and/or designer informed of any

Properly qualified means adequate basic academic qualification and

As a site supervisor for a piling works, he/she is responsible and

2.3 Duties of supervisors

a) To check and approve the method statements prepared & submitted

unforeseen ground conditions, progress, quality of workmanship and

2.4 Some advice & comments for pile supervisors

a) Pile supervisors (CRE/RE/IOWs) have to remember that their main job

hammer (plus accessories), pile behaviour, the soil response and

2.5 Minimum supervision requirements for piling works

The classes of supervision appropriate to a type of building

Minimum level of supervision is graded as follows;

Level 1 is inspection as and when required.

Technically competent person/TCP or supervisor grade is as follows;

T1 is a certificate or diploma holder with minimum relevant working

According to Hong Kong practice, full-time supervision from registered