This question paper

consists of 5 printed pages,

each of which is identified
by the Code Number
CAPE370001

UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

School of Chemical and Process Engineering

May/June 2017 Examinations

CAPE370001
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Time allowed: 2 hours

Answer three questions, one question from each Section

PLEASE SHOW ALL WORKINGS IN ANSWERS TO NUMERICAL QUESTIONS.

Use figures, sketches and equations, where appropriate, to illustrate your answers

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SECTION A - Answer ONE question

1 (a) Sketch typical cyclic stress-strain curves for (i) a metal, (ii) an elastomer and
(iii) an amorphous polymer around the glass transition temperature. In each
case, name the type of behaviour being exhibited. [3 marks]

(b) Explain the physical basis of linear and rubber elasticity and, thereby, account
for the relative modulus values of ceramics, metals, polymers and elastomers.
[7 marks]

(c) Explain the physical basis of plastic deformation by (i) slip and (ii) twinning.
[5 marks]

(d) The strain hardening of many metals can be described by the Holloman
equation:
=

where is the true stress, is the true strain, is the strength constant and
is the strain hardening exponent.

Describe and explain the mechanism of strain hardening in metals and explain
the significance of . [5 marks]

2 Answer two of the following.

(a) (i) Sketch and label graphs of creep strain, , versus time, t, for:
viscoelastic creep, e.g. of a polymeric material, and
diffusional creep, e.g. of a metal. [4 marks]
(ii) Describe and briefly explain the mechanisms of viscoelastic creep and
diffusional creep (Nabarro-Herring and Coble creep) and thus the form
of these curves. [6 marks]

(b) (i) Distinguish between fatigue failure of an uncracked component under

high-cycle and low-cycle fatigue, giving an example in each case of a
component which might be expected to fail in that manner. [4 marks]
(ii) Describe how fatigue crack initiation is likely to occur in each of these
cases and how subsequent propagation of these cracks leads to the
production of characteristic striations on the fracture surface.[4 marks]
(iii) Discuss approaches which may be adopted to increase the high cycle
fatigue lifetime of a component. [2 marks]

(c) (i) Distinguish between ductile and cleavage fracture and explain briefly
the factors which determine which of these processes would be
observed in the fracture of a defect-free material. [3 marks]
(ii) Explain what is meant by stress concentration in the vicinity of a hole or
notch in a component and sketch the variation in local stress ahead of
a crack in:
a brittle and
a ductile material. [3 marks]

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(iii) By considering the stress field ahead of the crack tip, use a sketch to
describe the process of crack advance by ductile tearing and, thereby,
explain how microstructural features affect the toughness of alloys.
[4 marks]

SECTION B - Answer ONE question

3 (a) Sketch schematic TTT (ITD) diagrams for (i) an Fe-0.4wt%C alloy and (ii) an
Fe-0.4wt%C alloy to which 1wt% of a strong carbide-forming element such as
Cr had been added. [2 marks]

(b) Explain the reasons why the addition of such a small amount of an alloying
element produces such a significant change in the form of the curves.
[4 marks]

(c) Describe and explain the microstructural changes which would occur as each
of these steels was cooled from the single phase austenite field to room
temperature at a range of different cooling rates. [8 marks]

(d) Describe the basic microstructural changes that occur in each of these steels
during the tempering of martensite formed by quenching from the single phase
austenite field to room temperature. [6 marks]

4 Answer two of the following.

(a) Explain the effect of austenite stabilizing elements and ferrite stabilizing
elements on the form of the equilibrium phase diagram and hence the principles
underlying the constitution of austenitic, duplex, ferritic and martensitic
stainless.

(b) Compare the properties of -Ti (hcp) and -Ti (bcc). What is meant by -
stabilisers, -stabilisers and neutral elements in respect to titanium alloys?
Explain how control of these alloying element additions leads to the
classification scheme for titanium alloys.

(c) Describe the key microstructural features of Ni-based superalloys and explain
the roles which they play in determining the strength, fracture toughness,
fatigue strength and creep resistance of these alloys.

(d) In the context of wrought aluminium alloys, what distinguishes constituent

particles, dispersoids and precipitates? How and when are they formed during
the processing of these materials and what role do each of them play in
determining the mechanical properties of these alloys?
[10 marks each part]

SECTION C - Answer ONE question

5 (a) Why is thermal shock upon cooling generally more detrimental to ceramic
strength than thermal shock upon heating? [2 marks]

(b) How does the mechanism of transformation toughening operate in zirconia-

based ceramics? [8 marks]
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(c) A unidirectional composite comprises aligned, continuous carbon fibres in an

epoxy matrix at a volume fraction, , of 0.75.

DATA:
Fibre/Matrix Young modulus/GPa Tensile strength/MPa
Carbon fibre 300 2100
Epoxy resin 4 120

The Reuss and Voigt equations are, respectively:

: Ec V f E f 1 V f Em
1
Ec
V f 1 V f

E Em
f

where , and are the Youngs moduli of the composite, fibre and matrix,
respectively.

(i) Calculate the longitudinal and transverse elastic moduli of the

composite. [1 mark]
(ii) Calculate the percentage of the stress carried by the fibres when it is
loaded in the fibre direction. [2 marks]
(iii) Estimate the longitudinal tensile fracture stress of the carbon/epoxy
composite, stating any assumptions which you make. [3 marks]

(d) Explain briefly, with the aid of sketches, what is meant by critical fibre length in
the case of short fibre reinforced composites. [4 marks]

6 (a) Define, with the aid of sketches, the following types of polymer: (i) a
homopolymer; (ii) a random copolymer; (iii) a block copolymer; (iv) a graft
copolymer; (v) a brush copolymer; (vi) a star copolymer. [6 marks]

(b) What are structural transitions in amorphous polymers, how do they relate to
the structure of a polymer and what effect do they have on the mechanical
properties? [6 marks]

(c) Sketch the variation of storage modulus, loss modulus and tan in the vicinity
of the glass transition in an amorphous homopolymer. [2 marks]

(d) Sketch and explain the variation in loss modulus or tan as a function of
temperature which would be expected to be observed for each of the following
pairs of polymers:

(i) A styrene-butadiene copolymer and a styrene-butadiene block co-

polymer: polystyrene and polybutadiene homopolymers are immiscible
and have glass transition temperatures of 95 C and -87 C,
respectively.

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(ii) A polyvinylacetate-polymethylmethacrylate blend and a vinylacetate-

methylmetacrylate graft co-polymer: polyvinylacetate and
polymethylmetacrylate are miscible and have glass transition
temperatures of 85 C and 115 C, respectively.

(iii) Polyvinylchloride homopolymer and polyvinylchloride homopolymer

containing 30% dibutyl phthalate: the glass transition temperature of
polyvinylchloride is 85 C and that of dibutyl phthalate is -96 C.
[2 marks each part]

END