ECE 411

Signals, Spectra, and Discrete-Time Signals

Signal Processing
Discrete Time Signals and Systems Representations of
Discrete-Time Signals or Sequences

Functional Representation Tabular Representation

1, n 1, 3

x(n) 4, n0 n -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
0,
elsewhere x(n) 0 0 4 1 0 1 0

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Sequence Representation

x(n) {... , 0 , 0, 4, 1, 0, 1, 0, ...} Bilateral sequence

Discrete-Time Signals
x (n ) { 4, 1, 0, 1, 0, ...} Unilateral sequence

Elementary Discrete-Time Signals
x (n ) { 0 , 0, 4, 1, 0, 1, 0} Seven-point sequence

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Unit-sample sequence, (n) Unit-step signal, u(n)

1, n0 1, n0
( n) u ( n)
0, n0 0, n0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

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Unit-ramp signal, ur(n) Exponential Signals, x(n) = an
If a is real-valued, then x(n) is a real signal.
0<a<1 a>1

n, n0 n n
u r ( n)
0 0

0, n0 1 < a < 0 a < 1

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 n 0 n

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If a is complex-valued, it can be represented as

a re j

therefore Discrete-Time Signals

x(n) re j n
r n e j n
r n cos n j sin n

Alternatively x(n) can be represented as Classifications of Discrete-Time Signals

x (n) r n Magnitude function

( n) n Phase function

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 Energy and Power Signals Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
The energy of the DT signal x(n) is defined as A discrete-time signal x(n) is periodic if and only if:
x(n + N)= x(n) , for all n.
Ex x ( n)
n
2

The smallest value of N where the equation holds true

where the energy Ex can either be finite or infinite. If Ex is finite is called the fundamental period.
then x(n) is an energy signal. A signal is aperiodic if no value of N satisfies the
Some signals have infinite energy but finite average power. The equation.
average power of the signal x(n) is defined as the energy of the x(n)=Asin(2f0n) is periodic if f0 is a rational number.
signal over the period.
1
Px lim x( n) 2
N 2 N 1
n
Px can also be either finite or infinite. If Px is finite then x(n) is
a power signal.
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Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Signals

A signal is symmetric or even if x(n) = x(n)
A signal is anti-symmetric or odd if x(n) = x(n)
Any DT signal can be decomposed into its symmetric Discrete-Time Signals
and anti-symmetric components: x(n) = xeven(n)+xodd(n)
xeven (n) 1
2 x(n) x(n) xodd (n) 1
2 x ( n ) x ( n )
Discrete-Time Signal Manipulation

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Symmetric or even, x(n) = x(n) Anti-symmetric or odd, x(n) = x(n)

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Time Shifting Folding
Given a discrete-time signal x(n): Flipping the signal along the y-axis.
x(nk) delay of the signal x(n) by k units of time Replacing n with n.
x(n+k) advance of the signal x(n) by k units of time
FD[x(n)] = x(n)
TDk[x(n)] = x(nk), | k | > 0

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 k
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

x(n) x(nk) x(n) x(n)

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Time-scaling or Downsampling Addition of DT Signals

Replacing n by n where is an integer number. The sum of two or more signals x1(n), x2(n),xi(n),
Decreasing the sampling rate by a factor defined by . whose value at any instant is equal to the sum of the
Essentially, it picks out every th sample from the values of these two or more signals at that instant,
original signal. that is,
DS[x(n)] = x(n)
y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) + + xi(n) , - < n <

3 4 5 2
n n
0 1 2 6 7 8 9 10 0 3 4 5

x(n) x(n)

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Multiplication of DT Signals Amplitude-scaling of DT Signals
The product of two or more DT signals is defined on a Amplitude scaling of a signal by a constant A is
sample-to-sample basis as: accomplished by multiplying the value of every signal
sample by A.
y(n) = x1(n) x2(n)xi(n) , - < n <
y(n) = Ax(n) , - < n <

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Adder
Performs the addition of two or more sequences to
form a new sequence.

Discrete-Time Systems
x1(n)
+ y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n)
x2(n)
Block Diagram Representations of
DT Systems

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Signal Multiplier Amplitude Multiplier (Scaler)
Performs the multiplication of two or more sequences Performs amplitude-scaling by applying a scale factor
to form a new sequence. on the input signal x(n).

x1(n) A
x(n) y(n) = Ax(n)
y(n) = x1(n) x2(n)
x2(n)

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Unit-delay Element Unit-advance Element

Delays the signal passing through it by one sample. Advances the signal passing through it by one sample.

x(n) z 1 y(n) = x(n 1) x(n) z +1 y(n) = x(n+1)

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 Static and Dynamic Systems
Static system also called a memoryless system, is a
system whose output at any instant n depends at
most on the input sample at the same time, but not on
Discrete-Time Systems past or future samples of the input.
Dynamic system - the output of a system at time n is
completely determined by the input samples in the
Classifications of DT Systems interval from n N to n (N > 0). (if N = 0, the system
is static).

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Time-invariant and Time-variant Systems

A time-invariant system is a system whose input-

Examples of static systems Examples of dynamic systems output relationship does not change with time.
Otherwise, it is time-variant.
y (n) ax(n) y ( n ) x ( n ) 3 x ( n 1)
M
y (n) nx(n) bx 3 (n) y (n) x(n k ) Given: y ( n) [ x(n)]
y (n) [ x( n), n] k 0

y (n) x(n k ) x ( n)
y ( n)
k 0

x( n k )
y ( n k ) , for all values of k

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Linear and Non-linear Systems Causal and Non-causal Systems
A system is said to be linear when it satisfies the A system is causal if the output depends on present
superposition principle. and past inputs and does not depend on future inputs.

If y ( n) x1 (n) x2 (n) , then y ( n) x2 (n) x1 (n) y(n) = F[x(n), x(n 1), x(n 2), x(n 3), ]
if and only if the system is linear.

Given: y (n) [ x(n)] such that: x( n) x1 (n) x2 ( n)

y ( n) [ x1 (n)] [ x2 ( n)] Then the system is linear.

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Stable and Unstable Systems

An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be bounded
input-bounded output (BIBO) stable if and only if every
bounded input produces a bounded output.
If, for some bounded input sequence x(n), the output is Discrete-Time Systems
unbounded (infinite), the system is classified as
unstable.
|x(n)| Mx < is a bounded input where Mx is any finite
number. Interconnection of DT Systems
|y(n)| My < is a bounded output where My is any finite
number.

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Block Diagram Representation Systems in Cascade

x(n) H y(n) x(n) y1(n) y(n)

H1 H2

y ( n) F [ x ( n k )] Output of H1 Output of H2
k
y1 (n) H1[ x(n)] y (n) H 2 [ y1 (n)]
y (n) H 2 H1[ x(n)]
Example: y (n) x(n) 4 x(n 1)
Let H C H 2 H1 for linear systems, H2H1 = H1H2
x(n) +
-
y(n)
4

z 1 therefore y (n) H C [ x(n)]

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Systems in Parallel

y1(n)
H1 ECE 411
x(n) y(n)
y2(n)
+ Signals, Spectra, and
H2 Signal Processing
y (n) y1 (n) y2 (n) Problem Set (DT Signals and Systems)
H1[ x(n)] H 2 [ x(n)]
( H1 H 2 )[ x(n)]
H P [ x(n)] where H P H1 H 2

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1. A discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as 2. Sketch and label the following signals:
a) x(n) = 2u(n 4)
n
1 3 3 n 1 b) x(n) = u(n + 3) u(n 4)

x ( n) 1 0n3 c) x(n) = 8(n 6)
0 x(n) = 2u(n + 6) 2ur(n + 2)
elsewhere d)

a) Determine its values and sketch the signal x(n).
b) Sketch the signals that results if we:
i. First fold x(n) and then delay the resulting signal by four samples.
ii. First delay x(n) by four samples and then fold the resulting signal.

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3. Sketch and label carefully the following signals 4. A discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as

x (n ) 5 9
2
5 3 2 3 5 0
x(n)
2 Decompose the signal into its even and odd
components.
a) x(n 2)
b) x(3 n)
c) x(n 1) u(n)
d) x(n 1) (n)
e) x(1 n) (n 2)

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 ASSIGNMENT 2: ANNOUNCEMENT:

Answer the problems at the end of Chapter 2

(problems 2.1 up to 2.5) on the textbook (Digital
Signal Processing, Proakis/Manolakis, 3e).
QUIZ #1 next week
Use an A4-sized paper Coverage:
Handwritten (including the problem) Introduction to signals and systems
Submission is on our next meeting Sampling theory
A/D conversion
Signal manipulation

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