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Food Control
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Na -lauroyl arginate ethylester, LAE, which was approved as GRAS by the US Food and Drug Adminis-
Received 7 July 2015 tration (FDA) and by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2007, is a surfactant that exhibits
Received in revised form antimicrobial activity. To assess its antimicrobial effect, treated cell suspensions of Yersinia enterocolitica
22 October 2015
and Lactobacillus plantarum were analysed for reduction of cell viability. Membrane dysfunction was
Accepted 31 October 2015
Available online 14 November 2015
determined by staining with bis-oxonol to detect the loss of membrane potential, and with propidium
iodide to detect permeabilized membranes by ow cytometry. LAE treatment for 30 min induced a 4
log10 reduction in cell viability in both bacteria; different subpopulations with variable degrees of cellular
Keywords:
Na -lauroyl arginate ethylester
damage were observed by ow cytometry. Permeabilized membranes suggested the leakage of cellular
LAE material; this was also indicated by the loss of potassium ion(s), which was higher in L. plantarum than in
Antimicrobial activity Y. enterocolitica. Structural changes involving collapse of the cytosol and alterations of the cellular en-
Biocides velopes, mainly in Y. enterocolitica, and the formation of mesosomes in L. plantarum were observed by
Surfactants transmission electron microscopy.
Yersinia enterocolitica 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Lactobacillus plantarum
Flow cytometry
Electron microscopy
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.10.050
0956-7135/ 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2 n et al. / Food Control 63 (2016) 1e10
J. Coronel-Leo
legislation (Regulation 1441/2007), but according to the HACCP Seguer, Rocabayera, & Manresa, 2004; Suksathit & Tangatwacharin,
system every company should assess hazards and specic critical 2013). It is metabolized by humans to natural dietary components
points of control in processes related to the manufactured, and thus has been considered as GRAS by the FDA since 2005.
distributed and/or sold product (EFSA, 2007). Therefore, Another advantage is that it is odour-free and colourless, which
Y. enterocolitica, as an emerging foodborne pathogen with limited favours its application as an additive (EC, 2005; EFSA, 2012) in the
documentation (Nesbakken, Eckner, & Rtterud, 2008; Ye, Wu, Hu, cosmetic and food industries (EFSA, 2012; Otero et al., 2014;
Zhang, & Huang, 2016), deserves attention. Stopforth, Visser, Zumbrink, Dijk & Bontenbal 2010; Theinsathid
Y. enterocolitica is a psychrotrophic bacterium with the ability to et al., 2012).
grow at temperatures below 4 C. As it can survive more easily in Traditionally, cell count has been used to assess the effect of
food stored at room and refrigeration temperatures than at an in- antimicrobial treatment. A complementary technique is ow
termediate temperature, and has a longer persistence in cooked cytometry, which allows the rapid measurement of several pa-
than in raw foods, due to increased nutrient availability (FDA, rameters within the cell. Antimicrobial treatments frequently
2012), the risk of it causing disease increases in ready-to-eat target the membrane, leading to alteration of membrane func-
foods. In fact, yersiniosis is currently the third most predominant tionality and permeability and eventually the loss of cellular ma-
zoonose among foodborne illnesses across Europe, with around terial and structural changes. Flow cytometry is a sensitive
8000 reported cases to date (ACSA, 2011). EFSA-published data technique for assessing membrane functionality and integrity
indicate that, on average, 4.8% of pork meat samples in all EU when combined with specic cell staining to determine different
member states contained Y. enterocolitica (EFSA, 2014). The most types of cellular damage (Kennedy et al., 2011).
common sources of yersiniosis infection are pork and lamb, and In this work we explored the antibacterial effect of LAE as a
strict slaughter hygiene is important to limit carcass contamination food additive against Y. enterocolitica, a model of an emerging
with Y. enterocolitica, as well as other human pathogenic microor- foodborne bacteria, and L. plantarum, active in food spoilage. To
ganisms (Skjerve, Lium, Nielsen, & Nesbakken, 1998). Outbreaks are assess the biocidal activity of LAE against these bacteria, we used
associated with the consumption of meat, especially of non-heat- ow cytometry, ion efux and transmission electron microscopy.
treated fermented sausages (Lindqvist & Lindblad, 2009), and un-
pasteurized milk and dairy products (FDA, 2012). Other risk factors 2. Material and methods
include cross-contamination through surfaces, utensils or hands,
and consumption of untreated well water. 2.1. Materials
The economic losses caused by microbial spoilage of foods are
another serious concern for the industry. Risk factors in food pro- Lauroyl arginate ethyl (LAE), CAS registration number 60372-
cessing include undercooking, cross-contamination from raw meat, 77-2 of 91.7% purity was supplied by VEDEQSA SA (Barcelona,
food handlers or food contact surfaces, as well as poor temperature Spain). A stock solution of powdered LAE was prepared before use
and time control, and storage conditions to maintain the qualitative in bi-distilled water (Millipore, MA, USA). Molecular dyes were
characteristics of the product. supplied by Molecular Probes Europe (BV, Leiden. Netherlands).
Lactic acid bacteria are involved in diverse meat fermentation Microbiological products were supplied by Pronadisa (Barcelone,
processes and are recognized as important starter cultures. Their Spain) and Oxoid (Oxoid Ltd, Basingstoke, UK). All chemicals and
cellular state under different stress conditions has recently been reagents were of analytical grade and supplied by Panreac (Barce-
studied (Bonomo, Milella, Martelli, & Salzano, 2013). Lactobacillus lona, Spain) or SigmaeAldrich (St Louis, USA).
plantarum is a lactic acid bacterium associated with spoilage in a
wide range of products, found in sugar distilleries (Oliva Neto et al., 2.2. Microorganisms
2014), and particularly in ready-to-eat meat (Ca mara-Martos,
Zurera-Cosano, Moreno-Rojas, Garca-Gimeno, & Pe rez-Rodrguez, Y. enterocolitica ATCC 9610 and L. plantarum ATCC 8014 strains
2012; Ferna dez-Ramrez., Smid, Abee, & Nierop Groot, 2015). An were maintained frozen in cryovials (AES Laboratoire, Combourg,
indicator of food quality, but not safety, is the Aerobic Colony Count France) at 80 C and sub-cultured weekly on trypticase soya agar
(ACC). An ACC of less than 106 cfu/g is usually associated with a (TSA; Pronadisa, Barcelona, Spain).
mixed ora. Above this level there is usually one predominant or-
ganism, and the acceptability and organoleptic quality of the food 2.3. Antimicrobial susceptibility test
will depend on which type of organism predominates. Spoilage will
eventually occur due to the production of lactic acid related with The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of LAE was
predominant bacteria (mainly lactobacilli and streptococci) at a determined using a broth microdilution assay (Woods &
level of around 109 cfu/g (Health Protection Agency (HPA, 2009). Washington, 2003). Serial dilutions of LAE, between 64 and
L. plantarum has been associated with biolm formation, which 4 mg ml1 nal concentration, in MullereHinton Broth (Oxoid Ltd,
is a potential source of contamination. Information on environ- Basingstoke, UK) were dispensed (200 mL) in the corresponding
mental conditions that inuence biolm formation by lactobacilli is wells of a 96-well polypropylene microtitre plate (Costar; Corning
of relevance to food-producing industries and could assist with the Incorporated, Corning, NY, USA). For the inoculum, a colony picked
design of new intervention strategies to prevent biolm formation from a TSA agar plate was suspended in Mueller-Hinton Broth and
(Ferna dez-Ramirez, Smid, Abee, & Nierop Groot, 2015). To this end, incubated for 18 h; an aliquot was then inoculated in Mueller-
besides rational equipment designed to minimize microbial risk by Hinton Broth and further incubated for 2 h. The turbidity was
facilitating cleaningeineplace procedures and good manufacture adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland barium sulphate standard. The cor-
practicum, biocides might be added to packaging polymers (Lebert, responding dilutions (200 mL) were inoculated with 10 mL suspen-
Leroy, & Talon, 2007; Muriel-Galet, Lo pez-Carballo, Gavarra, & sion of the test organism in MuellereHinton Broth to a nal
Herna ndez-Mun ~ oz, 2015). concentration of ca 105 CFU ml1. The MIC was dened as the
Na -lauroyl arginate ethylester, LAE, is a surfactant derived lowest concentration of antibacterial agent that inhibited devel-
from lauric acid and arginine that exhibits antimicrobial activity opment of visible growth after 24 h of incubation at 37 C. The MBC,
(Ma, Davidson, & Zhong, 2013; Martin et al., 2009; Muriel-Galet dened as the antimicrobial concentration corresponding to at
et al., 2015; Pattanayaiying, H-Kittikun, & Cutter, 2014; Rodrguez, least 3 log reductions of viable cells, was determined by spreading
n et al. / Food Control 63 (2016) 1e10
J. Coronel-Leo 3
100 ml aliquots from negative wells on trypticase soy agar (TSA, laser at 15 mW power. The instrument was set up with the standard
Pronadisa, Barcelona, Spain), and the plates were incubated for 48 h conguration: green (525 nm) uorescence for bis-oxonol, red
at 37 C (Branen & Davidson, 2004; Swenson, Hindler, & Jorgensen, (675 nm) for PI. The results were collected on logarithmic scales.
2003). Experiments were conducted in triplicate. Optical alignment was checked using 10-nm uorescent beads
(Flow-Check uorospheres, Beckman Coulter). The cell population
2.4. Exposure to LAE was selected by gating in a FS vs SS dot plot, excluding aggregates
and cell debris. Fluorescence histograms were represented in
Suspensions of microorganisms were obtained from an over- single-parameter histograms (1024 channels). The windows used
night culture of each strain of L. plantarum and Y. enterocolitica on to calculate percentages were set using living and dead cell pop-
TSA at 30 C. Four colonies were suspended in 10 ml of peptone ulations for each strain. Data were analysed using Summit ver. 3.1
buffered solution, pH 7.0. Each bacterial suspension was pelleted by software (Cytomation, Fort Collins, CO, USA).
centrifugation at 8000 g for 20 min, washed in the sterile ltered
peptone buffered solution, pH 7.0, centrifuged again, and nally 2.7. Potassium ion leakage
suspended to obtain a concentration of 107e108 CFU/mL. An
appropriate volume (250 mL) of the respective cell suspensions was Potassium ion(s) (K) leakage was determined as follows
used to inoculate asks containing 24 ml of buffered peptone water (Rodriguez et al., 2004). Briey, the bacterial strains were grown
(pH 7) to obtain a cell density of ca 105e106 CFU/mL. To asks overnight in Trypticase soy broth (TSB) medium at 30 C in a
containing 24 ml of the respective bacterial suspensions, LAE stock shaking incubator (120 rev/min). Cells were then washed three
solution (1 mL) was added to reach a nal concentration of LAE times in 0.9% NaCl by centrifugation at 8000 g for 15 min and re-
corresponding to the MIC and 2/3 of the MIC for Y. enterocolitica and suspended in 30 mL of 1 mmol/L glycyl-glycine (Sigma, USA) buffer
L. plantarum. The inoculated asks were kept in darkness at room solution, pH 6.8, to obtain a cell density of 7.4 107 CFU/mL for
temperature. The contact time established for FC was 30 min. For Y. enterocolitica and 8.8 107 CFU/mL for L. plantarum. The bacteria
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, contact time were treated with LAE at the MIC and at 2/3 MIC and incubated at
was 3 h, then suspensions were centrifuged at 8000 g for 30 min. 30 C in a shaking incubator. Samples (5 mL) of cell suspension
The sediment was resuspended in 2 ml of ltered peptone buffered were removed at 0, 10, 15, 30, 60 and 120 min, diluted and ltered
water, pH 7.0. through a 0.22-mm pore-size membrane (Merck-Millipore, Darm-
In parallel control experiments, cells were incubated in LAE- stadt, Germany) to remove bacteria. LAE-free controls were pre-
free buffer solution and treated under the same conditions. At the pared in the same conditions to determine normal K ux over the
end of the contact time, the bacterial suspensions were diluted time course of the experiment. Heat treatment was also conducted
with the same buffer, centrifuged at 8000 g for 30 min and by incubating the cell suspension in a water bath at 70 C. The K
washed to eliminate the LAE. concentration in the supernatant was measured using an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (UNICAM 939959, Cambridge, UK).
2.5. Bacterial counts The instrumental parameters were as follows: K hollow cathode
lamp, wavelength of 766.5 nm, band pass of 0.5 nm, air-acetylene
After contact with LAE, reduction in bacterial viability was ame and fuel ow rate of 1 L/min. Absorbance values were con-
calculated by viable cell counts, calculated from the colony forming verted to K concentration (ppm) by reference to a curve previously
units (CFU ml1) obtained on TSA. Rapid separation of bacteria from established using standard K solutions of 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 and
LAE was achieved by centrifugation at 8000 g for 10 min in a 1 ppm. Experiments were conducted in triplicate, and means and
bench centrifuge, after an appropriate dilution in Ringer's solution, standard deviations were calculated.
0.1 mL was inoculated on plates and incubated at 30 C for 24e48 h.
Cell counting was performed per triplicate and the mean was 2.8. Transmission electron microscopy
calculated. Based on these data, growth inhibition was calculated
according to the viability reduction as follows (Bouhdid, Abrini, After treatment of cell suspensions with LAE for 3 h at the MIC
Zhiri, Espuny, & Manresa, 2009): and 2/3 MIC for each microorganism, the bacterial pellets were
(1NT/NC) 100
Fig. 2. Dual parameter of Y. enterocolitica stained cells (bis-oxonol and PI) at different LAE concentration a) positive control, untreated population; b) negative thermal treated
population; c) population treated with LAE at 2/3 MIC concentration (5.33 mg ml1); d) population treated with LAE at MIC concentration (8 mg ml1).
n et al. / Food Control 63 (2016) 1e10
J. Coronel-Leo 5
Fig. 3. Dual parameter of L. plantarum stained cells (bis-oxonol and PI) at different LAE concentration a) positive control, untreated population; b) negative thermal treated
population; c) population treated with LAE at 2/3 MIC concentration (21.33 mg ml1); d) population treated with LAE at MIC concentration (32 mg ml1).
Table 2
Percentage of stained cells measured by ow cytometry analysis and viability reduction in Yersinia enterocolitica treated with LAE.
Treatment Cell number Unstained cells (%) % Of stained cells % Reduction viability by cell counts
Bis-oxonol PI
L. plantarum, after treatment at MIC (32 mg/mL), the reduction in respectively, in cell viability was observed after 5 min of contact,
viability was 3 log10 units after 5 min, increasing to 4 log10 units and a decrease of 99.9% after 30 min was observed in both micro-
after 30 min. In both cases, there was a 100% reduction in viability organisms assayed (Table 1).
after 60 min of contact (Fig. 1).
The minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of LAE was 3.2. Flow cytometry
identical to that of the corresponding MIC: Y. enterocolitica (8 mg/
mL) and L. plantarum (32 mg/mL). A decrease of 99.7% and 99.8%, In order to study the effect of LAE on bacterial suspensions, the
6 n et al. / Food Control 63 (2016) 1e10
J. Coronel-Leo
Table 3
Percentage of stained cells measured by ow cytometry analysis and viability reduction in Lactobacillus plantarum treated with LAE.
Treatment Cell number Unstained cells (%) % Of stained cells % Reduction viability by cell counts
Bis-oxonol PI
4. Discussion
Pattanayaiying et al., 2014; Rodrguez et al., 2004). In EFSA Journal, 511, 1e27.
European Food Safety Authority. (2012). Revised exposure assesment for ethyl
Y. enterocolitica, the integrity of the cellular body was maintained
lauroyl arginate for the proposed uses as food additive. EFSA Journal, 10(4),
even under a higher LAE concentration (Fig 5c,d), and no general 2452.
disruption of the outer membrane was observed, similar to that European Food Safety Authority. (2014). Scientic Opinion on the risk posed by
reported in E. coli O157:H7 (Pattanayaining, H-Kittikun, & Cutter, pathogens in food of non-animal origin. Part 2 (Salmonella, Yersinia, Shigella
and Norovirus in bulb and stem vegetables, and carrots). EFSA Journal, 12,
2014). Instead, a severe collapse of the cytoplasm was evident, in 91e115.
contrast with Salmonella Rissen, in which disruption of the cellular European Union. Comission Regulation (EC) 1441/2007. Ammending Regulation
membranes as well as collapse of the cellular material was reported (EC) on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. Ofcial Journal of the European
Union L- 322/12.
(Suksathit & Tangwatcharin, 2013). Detailed observation of the Fernadez-Ramirez, M. D., Smid, E. J., Abee, T., & Nierop Groot, M. N. (2015). Char-
effect of LAE on L. plantarum revealed that the thick peptidoglycan acterisation of biolms formed by Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1 and food
envelope protected the cell. Two relevant effects were observed spoliage isolates. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 207, 23e29.
Food and Drug Administration. (2012). Hadbook of food bad bug book, foodborne
(Fig. 6): a thickening of the envelope and coagulation of the cytosol, pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins. In K. Lampel, S. Al-Khaldi, &
which was consistent with the reduction in viability. Similarly, S. A. Assimon (Eds.), Pathogenic bacteria (2nd ed., pp. 8e81). US: FDA.
when L. monocytogenes was treated with LAE, no disruption of the Health Protection Agency (HPA). (2009). Guidelines for assessing the microbiological
safety of ready-to-eat foods placed on the market. London: Health Protection
cellular envelope was observed (Pattanayaiying et al. 2014). Agency (November), 33.
Membrane mesosome formation, as reported in S. aureus Kennedy, D., Cronin, U. P., & Wilkinson, M. G. (2011). Responses of Escherichia coli,
(Rodriguez et al., 2004), was also evident (Fig. 6b,c) at low con- Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus to simulated food pro-
cessing treatments, determined using uorescence-activated cell sorting and
centrations of LAE. However, despite the loss of K, no massive
plate counting. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77(13), 4657e4668.
leakage of cellular material was observed. Lebert, I., Leroy, S., & Talon, R. (2007). Effects of industrial and natural biocides on
sopiage, pathogenic and technological strains grown in biolm. Food Microbi-
ology, 24, 281e287.
5. Conclusions Lindqvist, R., & Lindblad, M. (2009). Inactivation of Escherichia coli, Listeria mon-
ocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica in fermented sausages during matura-
In this study we report the effect of LAE on cell functionality, tion/storage. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 129(1), 59e67.
Ma, Q., Davidson, M., & Zhong, Q. (2013). Antimicrobial properties of lauric arginate
such as loss of membrane potential and K leakage, cell viability alone or in combimation with essential oils in tryptic soy broth and 2% reduced
and cellular ultrastructure. Our results demonstrate that LAE milk. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 166, 77e84.
produces lethal effects in food-related bacteria such as Maillard, J.-Y., Bloomeld, S., Coelho, J. R., Collier, P., Cookson, B.,
Fanning, S. Threlfall, J. (2013). Does microbicide use in consumer products
Y. enterocolitica and L. plantarum. Uptake of PI and bis-oxonol and promote antimicrobial resistance? A critical review and recommendations for a
TEM observations showed that concentrations lower than the cohesive approach to risk assessment. Microbial Drug Resistance (Larchmont,
corresponding MIC of LAE greatly reduce viability but do not cause N.Y.), 19(5), 344e354.
Martin, E. M., Grifs, K. J. S., O'Bryan, C. A., Friedly, E. C., Marcy, J. A., Ricke, S. C., et al.
cell lysis.
(2009). Control of Listeria monocytogenes by lauric arginate on franckfurtes
formulated with or without lactate/Diacetate. Journal of Food Science, 74(6),
M237eM241.
Acknowledgements
Matos, C. T., & Lopes Da Silva, T. (2013). Using multi-parameter ow cytometry as a
novel approach for physiological characterization of bacteria in microbial fuel
We would like to acknowledge Carmen Lopez-Iglesias and J. cells. Process Biochemistry, 48(1), 49e57.
cnics, Universitat de Bar- Muriel-Galet, V., Lo pez-Carballo, G., Gavarra, R., & Herna ndez-Mun ~ oz, P. (2015).
Comas-Riu from the Serveis Cientc-Te
Antimicrobial effectiveness of Lauroyl arginate incorporated into ethylene vinyl
celona, for advice and excellent technical assistance in electron alcohol copolymers to extend the self-life of chicken stock and surimi sticks.
microscopy and ow cytometry analysis. Food Bioprocess Technol, 8, 208e217.
Nesbakken, T., Eckner, K., & Rtterud, O. J. (2008). The effect of blast chilling on
occurrence of human pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica compared to
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