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– TITULO :
II . – INTRODUCCIÓN
FUNDAMENTOS TEÓRICOS
De los cuatro procesos cinéticos, es la biotransformación la que más sometida
se encuentra a la acción modificadora de factores muy diversos: a) temporales,
como la edad; b) genéticos, como el sexo y el control genético de la dotación
enzimática; c) fisiológicos, como el embarazo; d) ambientales, en función de la
exposición a contaminantes ambientales; e) dietéticos, en función del tipo de
dieta consumida y de los contaminantes alimentarios; f) estados patológicos,
como la insuficiencia hepática, y g) interacciones con otros fármacos capaces
de modificar el metabolismo
EDAD
Ya a las 8 semanas de la concepción se aprecia la presencia del P-450 y los
procesos de oxidación en el microsoma hepático del embrión humano. La
capacidad biotransformante del feto va aumentando a lo largo de la vida
intrauterina y es susceptible de ser influida por agentes estimulantes o
inhibidores. Este aumento sigue un curso irregular, no sólo en relación con el
tipo de reacción metabólica, sino, dentro de una misma reacción, con el
tipo de sustrato y el órgano estudiado. En el momento del parto, la capacidad
biotransformante es todavía claramente inferior a la del adulto, aunque
las diferencias varían según el tipo de reacción y el tipo de sustrato estudiado.
En el prematuro, la inmadurez metabólica es todavía mayor, pero las enzimas
son ya inducibles. En las primeras semanas de vida extrauterina continúa
aumentando la capacidad biotransformante, pero, de nuevo, el aumento no es
homogéneo para todos los sistemas. A la inmadurez metabólica se debe sumar
la inmadurez renal, por lo que el riesgo de intoxicación es evidente (p. ej.,
kernicterus por insuficiente glucuronidación de la bilirrubina, síndrome del niño
gris por insuficiente glucuronidación del cloranfenicol).
En el anciano hay también una menor capacidad biotransformante debida, en
parte, a la disminución de la dotación enzimática en el hígado y, en parte, a la
reducción del flujo hepático. A ello se debe sumar la clara reducción en la
función renal que existe en la mayoría de los ancianos. Ambos factores
contribuyen a aumentar la vida media
ALTERACIONES PATOLÓGICAS
DIETA
INHIBICIÓN ENZIMÁTICA
La mayor parte de los fármacos administrados vía oral buscan una acción
sistémica, tras un proceso previo de absorción entérica. En la absorción oral
influyen factores fisiológicos (el pH, la cantidad y tipo de alimentos, la
solubilidad del fármaco). Pero también existen otras características del
individuo (p. e. la superficie de absorción, la velocidad de transito intestinal, así
como algunos procesos patológicos), que pueden modificar sustancialmente el
proceso de absorción.
La administración de fármacos por vía oral tiene una serie de limitaciones como
son: el pH ácido y las enzimas proteolíticas, que pueden llegar a destruir el
principio activo antes de que alcance su lugar de acción. Además, algunos
fármacos pueden ser irritantes de las mucosas, originando efectos secundarios
y el consiguiente incumplimiento terapéutico. Por otra parte, muchos fármacos
administrados por vía oral sufren un importante metabolismo hepático (Efecto
de Primer Paso), lo que limita sustancialmente su administración por esta vía
ESTRICNINA
Es un alcaloide de la nuez vómica y de otras especies del género Strychnos.
Es un polvo cristalino blanco, inodoro y amargo que puede ser consumido por
boca, inhalado, mezclado en una solución o dado en forma intravenosa. Las
sales de estricnina son solubles en agua. Su estructura heterocíclica fue
establecida independientemente en los laboratorios de Woodward y de
Robinson.
Acciones
En altas dosis produce una gran estimulación de todo el sistema nervioso
central, agitación, dificultad para respirar, orina oscura y convulsiones,
pudiendo llevar a un fallo respiratorio y la muerte cerebral. En dosis mayores de
25 miligramos puede producir la muerte por asfixia debido a la contractura de
los músculos torácicos. La dosis letal es de 15 a 25 mg. Las manifestaciones
clínicas aparecen de 10 a 30 minutos después de haberlo ingerido.
La aplicación local de estricnina a la superficie de la corteza cerebral causa
primero una disminución del umbral para la estimulación y momentos después
causa estallidos sincronizados de actividad que pueden ser registrados por
medio de un electroencefalograma.
Modo de acción
PROBLEMA :
¿ Cuál es la vía de administración más rápida frente a un fármaco
( PENTOBARBITAL SÓDICO , SOL AL 2 % Y ESTRICINA SOL. AL 0.1 % )
para que produzca el efecto ?
HIPÓTESIS :
La vía tópica específicamente la intraperitoneal es la más rápida en su efecto
que la vía oral
La combinación de un medicamento con otras sustancias determina el tiempo
del principio actúe si es de manera rápida y potente
Procedimiento:
En cada mesa de trabajo se administrará, a un ratón, 30 mg/Kg de peso de
Pentobarbital, en sol. al 2 %, por las siguientes vías:
Fármacos:
Estricnina sol. al 0.1 %
Gelatina Sol. 15 %
Adrenalina Sol. 1 °/oo
Agua destilada
Animales: Ratones
Procedimiento:
• Inyectar a un ratón, por vía subcutánea, una dosis de estricnina (1.8
mg/Kg. de peso, sol al 0.1 %, mas 0.30 ml. de agua destilada).
• A un segundo ratón, inyectarle la misma droga, a la misma dosis y por la
misma vía, pero reemplazando el agua destilada por gelatina en sol al 15
%.
• A un tercer ratón, administrarle la misma droga, por la misma vía y a la
misma dosis, pero esta vez usando como vehículo una solución de
adrenalina al 1 %o.
• Contrólese, en los tres casos: el período de latencia, la intensidad y la
duración del efecto.
• Analizar los resultados.
IV . – RESULTADOS
VÍAS DE ADMINISTRACIÓN
PARÁMETROS
RATON N° DOSIS DE VIAS DE Período de INTENSIDAD DE DURACION
(marca) Pentobarbital ADMINIST. Latencia EFECTO DE EFECTO
sódico
0.35mg ORAL 2min. 6seg ++++ 14 min 18 seg
Intensidad de efectos:
Sin efecto o
Sedante +
Hipnótico (sopor) ++
Hipnosis profunda +++
Anestesia ++++
Peso de ratón X : 30 g
6.5 g ----- 1000 c.c
6500mg ----- 100 c.c
Pentobarbital : Halatal 6.5 %
Cálculo :
30 mg ------ 1000 g
X ------------- 30 g
+/- 0 .9 mg :0.15 cc
X = 0.9 mg
INTERACCIONES FARMACOLÓGICAS
PARÁMETROS
+ ++++
Agua
Destilada
Estricnina 0.35 mg 2 min 54 seg +++ 1 min 25 seg
+ ++++
Gelatina
Estricnina 0.35 mg 1 min 41 seg + 1 min 17 seg
+ ++
Adrenalina
Intensidad de efectos:
Sin efecto o
Hiperreflexia +
Convulsiones ++
Coma +++
Muerte ++++
Peso de ratón X : 30 g
0.1 g ----- 1000 mg
100mg ----- 100 c.c
Ericnina 0.1 %
Cálculo :
1.8 mg ------ 1000 g
X ------------- 30 g
0.054 cc
X = 0.054 mg
V . – DISCUSIÓN
Otro punto a tomar en cuenta es la dosis , si bien la vía oral es la que mayor
cantidad se le administro , no es la vía más rápida por lo que se le administro
vía oral mayor cantidad porque el ratón puede votar el líquido cuando lo
absorva , y no cumplir con el rango que se desea , además el fármaco debe ser
metabolizado por la vía gástrica , absorbido por el duodeno para pasar a la vía
hepática y llegar al lugar donde se encuentren sus receptores
VI . – RESUMEN Y CONCLUSIONES
VI . – REVISIÓN BIBLIOGRÁFICA
LINCOGRAFÍA
• http://www.uam.es/departamentos/medicina/farmacologia/especifica/F_G
eneral/sem1.pdf
• http://books.google.com.pe/books?
id=XpHLCYmOuXcC&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=porque+los+barbituric
os+producen+hipersensibilidad&source=bl&ots=BjrBJSHKxT&sig=brU1j
wEwDfF8YZWK2Pffl1b1Ar8&hl=es&ei=Je2SStP2Hcmptge6-
ejOBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=fa
lse
TEXTOS
ABSTRACT
Cyclosporine (CsA) has improved patient and graft survival rates following solid-organ transplantation and
has shown significant clinical benefits in the management of autoimmune diseases. However, the clinical
use of CsA is often limited by acute or chronic nephropathy, which remains a major problem. Acute
nephropathy depends on the dosage of CsA and appears to be caused by a reduction in renal blood flow
related to afferent arteriolar vasoconstriction. However, the mechanisms underlying chronic CsA
nephropathy are not completely understood. Activation of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system (RAS),
increased release of endothelin-1, dysregulation of nitric oxide (NO) and NO synthase, up-regulation of
transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1), inappropriate apoptosis, stimulation of inflammatory mediators,
enhanced innate immunity, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and autophagy have all been implicated in the
pathogenesis of chronic CsA nephropathy. Reducing the CsA dosage or using other renoprotective drugs
(angiotensin II receptor antagonist, mycophenolate mofetil, and statins, etc.) may ameliorate chronic CsA-
induced renal injury. This review discusses old and new concepts in CsA nephropathy and preventive
strategies for this clinical dilemma.
Keywords: Cyclosporine, Calcineurin inhibitor, Nephrotoxicity, Nephropathy
INTRODUCTION
Cyclosporine (CsA) was first approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in the early 1980s for
prophylactic anti-rejection therapy in patients receiving allogeneic transplants (kidney, liver, and heart). Its
introduction has significantly improved both allograft and patient survival for over two decades .
The immunosuppressive action of CsA involves the intracellular interaction of CsA and calcineurin
phosphatase, which reduces the production of interleukin-2 (IL-2). CsA initially binds to a specific family of
receptors known as cyclophilins . This drug-receptor complex inhibits the activation of calcineurin
phosphatase, a secondary messenger in the dephosphorylation and activation of the nuclear factor of
activation of T-cells (NF-AT). NF-AT is a regulatory protein that promotes the transcription and production
of IL-2 and other cytokines that promote the growth and proliferation of T- and B-cells . Inhibition of IL-2
production by CsA halts the proliferation and activation of helper and cytotoxic T-cells
Despite the therapeutic benefits of CsA, several adverse effects have been reported in both transplant and
non-transplant settings (i.e., autoimmune disorders), including toxicities (nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and
neurotoxicity), hypertension, dyslipidemia, gingival hyperplasia, hypertrichosis, malignancies, and an
increased risk of cardiovascular events . The most clinically important complication is chronic CsA
nephropathy, which is one of the known non-immunological factors causing chronic allograft nephropathy .
Chronic CsA nephropathy is characterized by progressive renal dysfunction, afferent arteriolopathy,
inflammatory cell influx, striped tubulointerstitial fibrosis, and increased intrarenal immunogenicity
.Nankivell et al. showed that almost all recipients presented evidence of chronic CsA nephropathy after 10
years of treatment with calcineurin inhibitors. The exact mechanism of this complication is not fully
understood, although many potential mechanisms have been proposed.
Using a well-established animal model, we and other groups recently demonstrated that the mechanism of
CsA-induced renal injury includes immunological and non-immunological pathways,. This review article
summarizes our current understanding of the pathogenesis of chronic CsA nephropathy and discusses
recent literature on the prevention and delay of this complication.
mepithelium and Bowman's capsule cells in CsA-treated rat kidneys. The most striking change was
observed in the renal cortex, which normally expresses very little constitutive OPN. Of note, the sites of
strong OPN expression were in areas of macrophage influx and severe tubulointerstitial fibrosis
Furthermore, a study in OPN-null mice demonstrated that the lack of OPN expression attenuated chronic
CsA nephropathy . These findings imply that OPN plays a pathogenic role in CsA-induced renal injury.
TGF-β1 as a pro-fibrotic cytokine in CsA-induced renal injury
TGF-β1 is a key cytokine implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide range of kidney diseases characterized
by glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, including chronic CsA nephropathy. Both in vivo and in
vitro studies have shown that CsA administration is associated with dose-dependent increases in TGF-β1
expression. Shihab et al. demonstrated that CsA-induced TGF-β1 up-regulation results in tubulointerstitial
fibrosis, probably via its actions on ECM synthesis and degradation, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
plays a role in this process. Furthermore, administration of a specific TGF-β-neutralizing antibody
ameliorated morphological alterations and preserved renal function in a mouse model of chronic CsA
nephropathy .
TGF-β1 is secreted as a biologically inactive complex requiring in vivo activation. This latent TGF-β1
complex is activated via cleavage of its N-terminal latency-associated peptide to yield mature dimeric TGF-
β1 through enzymatic and non-enzymatic mechanisms, or by the presence of the proteoglycan decorin
and the scavenging protein α2-macroglobulin ]. Therefore, increased amounts of TGF-β1 mRNA or protein
may not actually represent parallel changes in its biologic activity.
Keratoepithelin (βig-h3) is a secreted matrix protein originally identified from a TGF-β1-stimulated human
lung adenocarcinoma cell line (A549) βig-h3 has been proposed as one of the ECM components
although the precise physiologic function of βig-h3 is unclear, it may connect various matrix components
and resident cells, thereby serving as a bifunctional linker protein . Thus, βig-h3 expression has been used
to assess the biological activity of TGF-β1 . Langham et al. reported that βig-h3 production increased
significantly in non-renal transplant recipients with chronic CsA nephropathy. More recently, we found that
βig-h3 mRNA and protein were normally expressed in the cortex and outer medulla, specifically localized
in the terminal portion of afferent arterioles (vascular pole of glomerulus), the S3 segment (parser recta) of
the proximal tubules, and the distal convoluted tubules. However, in the CsA-treated rat kidney, βig-h3
gene expression was significantly up-regulated in the interstitium, but not in afferent arterioles or tubules,
where interstitial expansion and fibrosis developed Thus, βig-h3 may be a useful index of TGF-β1
bioactivity and may reflect the degree of tubulointerstitial injury in chronic CsA nephropathy.
CsA-induced cell death
Tubulointerstitial injury is the prominent feature of chronic CsA nephropathy, and the major form of cell
death is apoptosis . Excessive loss of cellularity via apoptosis has been observed in fibrotic areas in renal
biopsy specimens obtained from patients receiving long-term CsA therapy. Apoptosis is an active
mechanism of cell clearance and plays a key role in the regulation of cell number during development, in
tissue homeostasis, and following insults. In the kidney, apoptosis may be beneficial but is deleterious if
enough resident cells are lost
CsA has been shown to induce apoptotic cell death not only in T-lymphocytes, thus interfering with T-cell
function , but also in some renal cells, resulting in the deterioration of kidney structure Thomas et al. were
the first to characterize the close link between apoptosis and interstitial fibrosis in a rat model of chronic
CsA nephropathy. Subsequently, we and other groups have reported that CsA-induced renal cell
apoptosis is associated with gene families such as the Bcl-2 proteins, Fas and Fas-ligand, p53, and the
caspases and that Ang II, NO, intrarenal growth factors (TGF-β1), epidermal growth factor (EGF), and
macrophages are also involved
CsA-induced activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and activating protein-1
Transcription factors such as nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activating protein-1 (AP-1) regulate the
gene expression of several cytokines, chemotactic proteins, adhesion molecules, and matrix proteins
involved in inflammation, immunologic responses, cell differentiation, and the control of growth The
transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1 are activated by a number of physiological and non-physiological
stimuli such as cytokines, mitogens, viruses, mechanical factors, oxidative stress, and a variety of
chemical agents Recent studies suggest that the activation of NF-κB and AP-1 is involved in the
transcription of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and TGF-β1 in the kidney, which is regulated by Ang II
or proteinuria [n rats, Asai et al. reported that the administration of CsA stimulated NF-κB and AP-1 DNA-
binding activity, and this effect was blocked by the ACE inhibitor benazepril and by magnesium
supplementation. In addition, we reported the involvement of the activation of NF-κB and AP-1 during the
activation of innate immunity in chronic CsA nephropathy (described below)
PHARMACOLOGIC INTERVENTION
Chronic CsA nephropathy is a major problem in transplant recipients and patients with autoimmune
disorders, as it may lead to end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis. Therefore, renal function should
always be carefully monitored, even in patients in whom renal function appears to be stable. In addition,
early recognition and pharmacological intervention may be necessary to minimize the rate of allograft loss
or chronic renal failure.
It is generally accepted that the modulation of vasoactive factors (Ang II and NO) effectively prevents CsA-
induced renal injury. Previous studies clearly demonstrated that the concomitant administration of ACE
inhibitors and Ang II type I receptor antagonists significantly reduced arteriolopathy, interstitial fibrosis, and
tubular atrophy, independently of hemodynamic effects. However, renal dysfunction was not attenuated,
and a potential explanation for this discrepancy has been discussed above. The molecular mechanisms
underlying the renoprotective effects of these drugs in chronic CsA nephropathy may be related to their
actions on inflammatory mediators, pro-fibrotic cytokines, matrix proteins, apoptotic cell death, and innate
immunity. BQ123, an endothelin receptor blocker, partially improved renal function, but did not reduce
structural damage Similarly, exogenous supplementation of L-arginine, a substrate for NO synthase, also
conferred a renoprotective effect . This effect was associated with the reduction of VEGF expression and
the increased availability of NO.
Drugs with anti-fibrotic properties such as the TGF-β antibody statins pirfenidone, and hepatocyte growth
factor have been shown to have renoprotective effects in chronic CsA nephropathy. Statins are
competitive inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, the key enzyme
that regulates the synthesis of cholesterol from mevalonic acid by suppressing the conversion of HMG-
CoA The inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase by statins has pleiotropic effects independent of their lipid-
lowering effects (e.g., anti-inflammatory and anti-arteriosclerotic effects) . These benefits are mirrored in
many renal disease models . In a rat model of chronic CsA nephropathy, we showed that pravastatin
treatment attenuated interstitial inflammation and fibrosis. The suppression of OPN, TGF-β1, and
intrarenal C-reactive protein expression along with increased eNOS expression may be responsible for the
renoprotective properties of pravastatin
Anti-inflammatory drugs, such as pentosan polysulfate and mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) , are also
suggested to have protective effects in chronic CsA-induced renal injury. In a study by Schwedler et al. ,
pentosan polysulfate reduced tissue injury but was unable to improve renal function. We have reported
that the administration of MMF is partially effective in preventing the development of chronic CsA
nephropathy. Moreover, the combination of MMF and losartan (an Ang II type 1 receptor antagonist) or the
administration of MMF after CsA withdrawal affords superior protection compared to losartan monotherapy
or CsA withdrawal alone
Other strategies include vitamin E , recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) , rosiglitazone , or
spironolactone therapy. Vitamin E treatment is reported to preserve renal function and reduce free radical
production, vasoconstrictive thromboxane levels, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, probably by suppressing
the production of superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, malonyldialdehyde, hemeoxygenase I, and some
mediators (TGF-β1 and OPN) . The preventive effect of rHuEPO on chronic CsA-induced renal injury is
associated with its anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory properties . The exogenous administration of
rosiglitazone, a peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor gamma agonist, has been shown to reduce
chronic CsA-induced renal injury , but the mechanism underlying this effect remains unknown. The
blockade of aldosterone receptors with spironolactone has been shown to ameliorate chronic CsA
nephropathy [. Interestingly, spironolactone therapy not only attenuated structural damage, but also
improved renal function, perhaps via the prevention of TGF-β and extracellular matrix protein over-
expression and the reestablishment of renal blood flor
COMENTARIO
Tema:
Factores que modifican los efectos de los fármacos
Docente:
Dr. Miguel Ángel Marcelo Vereau
Dr. Wilson Becerra Llempén
Alumno:
Juan Carlos Núñez Liza
Grupo :
07A