Temperature of the

SN1987A Supernova
Provi des an Esti mate of the
Electron Neutri no Mass
*
The t empor al disper sion of det ect ed super nova neut r inos pr ovides an est imat ed
value of t he neut r ino mass.
by John Mi chael Wi lli ams
jmmwill@comcast .net
Copyri ght (c) 2010, by John Mi chael Wi lli ams
All Ri ghts Reserved
* Or iginal ver sion post ed at t he Amer ican Physical Societ y epr int sit e as
aps1999jan31_001 and at ar Xiv as physics/ 0007035.
1
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
Abstract
Numer ous upper bounds on t he (ant i)neut r ino r est mass have been published
based on t he SN1987A obser vat ions. Her e, we use a nonkinemat ic (t her mal) t ime
ext ent t o pr ovide a r est -mass est imat e of a few eV (as mc
2
ener gy), if not zer o. In
t he solut ion, we find t hat a t ypical upper -bound for mula for t he mass implies t hat
t his t her mal ext ent was at t r ibut able t o about 10% of t he par t icle ener gy measur ed
on Ear t h. The pr esent appr oach yields an expect ed value for t he mass, given any
t heor et ical or model-dependent est imat e of t he fr act ion of t he det ect ed neut r ino
ener gy at t r ibut able t o t he super nova t emper at ur e.
This is a r epost ing of an old paper which descr ibes an analysis pr ot ocol which can
be applied for any super nova for which a populat ion of neut r inos is obser ved.
2
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
I. Introducti on
The t heor et ical pr oposal of t he neut r ino par t icle in 1930, by Pauli, was followed
by t he exper iment al demonst r at ion of t he exist ence of t he elect r on neut r ino in 1953
by Reines. At t he t ime, it was assumed t hat , like t he phot on, t he elect r on neut r ino
likely would have a r est mass of zer o [1]. The cur r ent St andar d Model of
element ar y par t icles post ulat es massless neut r inos [2]; however , many t heor ist s in
ast r ophysics and par t icle physics believe t hat all t he lept ons, including t he
neut r inos, should be massive [32; 3-5]. At 5 eV c
2
, t he r est mass would be about
10
5
t hat of an elect r on; t his doesn't seem unr easonable, alt hough it cer t ainly is not
pr oven eit her by t he cur r ent paper or any pr evious wor k.
The t empor al int er val of an obser ved par t icle st r eam fr om a dist ant event , in t he
iner t ial r est fr ame of t hat event , may be analyzed int o t hr ee component s: (1) The
creation interval of t he pr imit ive event , (2) t he disper sion int er val of t he par t icle
cr eat ion kinemat ics (her e called t he energy extent), and (3) t he disper sion int er val
because of t he t emper at ur e dur ing cr eat ion (her e called t he thermal extent). The
t ot al t ime int er val at t he det ect or is t he detection interval. In t he case of super nova
neut r inos, t he cent er of mass mot ion of t he pr imit ive r egion, assumed ver y
subluminal r elat ive t o Ear t h, would not affect any of t he t ime int er vals measur ably;
and, no super nova pr ocess would be expect ed t o r educe t he t imes, under t he Fir st
and Second Laws of t her modynamics, unless by r ar e chance, a possibilit y we her e
ignor e.
If t he elect r on (ant i)neut r ino had zer o mass, t he t r ansit fr om a super nova t o
Ear t h would be assumed t o have been at t he exact speed of light in a vacuum,
making t he det ect ion int er val always equal t o t he cr eat ion int er val and t he ot her
component s zer o; however , a neut r ino wit h nonzer o r est mass may not be allowed
t he speed of light .
II. The 1987 Supernova Burst
The Kamiokande II and Ir vine-Michigan-Br ookhaven (IMB) neut r ino det ect or s
wer e designed t o st udy pr ot on decay and Solar neut r ino flux. Bot h wer e oper at ing
in Febr uar y of 1987, when t he SN1987A super nova event occur r ed in t he Gr eat er
Magellanic Cloud at a dist ance of about 50,000 par secs. The st ar causing t his
super nova has been ident ified and was cat alogued as a blue giant of about 15 Solar
masses befor e t he super nova [6]. The Kamiokande II dat a, wit h infer r ed neut r ino
ener gies accur at e t o about 20% [7], ar e plot t ed in Fig. 1; t he IMB dat a wer e similar
but show fewer neut r inos over a shor t er t ime int er val.
3
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1

SN1987A Ne utri no Burst at
Kami okande II
0
10
20
30
40
50
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Relat ive Ar r ival Time (s)
N
e
u
t
r
i
n
o

E
n
e
r
g
y

(
M
e
V
)
FIG. 1. Anti neutri no energy at the detector , assumi ng the
Cerenkov li ght represented anti neutri no+proton
posi tron+neutron i nteracti ons. Data after Hi rata et al [8, Table
1]. The square symbol represents the one li kely detector
background event.
Looking at Fig. 1, t he maximum det ect ion int er val possible would seem t o be
about 15 seconds. The per iod up t o about 2 seconds also might be consider ed t he
det ect ion int er val for a dist inct subevent . Super nova collapse and opacit y models
as of 1999 have suggest ed a pr imar y neut r ino emission pr ocess which would decay
exponent ially wit h a t ime const ant on t he or der of 3 seconds [33], based in par t on
t hese dat a.
III. Thermal Extent yi elds an Esti mate of the
Mass
A. Neutri no thermal veloci ty component
Let us assume t he neut r ino t o have nonzer o r est mass. Also, let us assume (a)
t hat a gas of bor on
8
B at oms (b) at appr oximat ely 10
9
K [9] was t he pr imit ive
subst ance of or igin for t he neut r inos det ect ed.
Consider t he effect of an er r or in assumpt ion (a): Pr imit ives, say, at oms or
st r ipped nuclei, heavier t han
8
B bor on, such as
28
Si or
56
Fe, would r educe t he
t her mal velocit y est imat e (t o be given below) by no mor e t han a fact or of t hr ee; for
all else t he same, t his would r equir e slight ly mor e massive neut r inos t o account for
t he obser ved det ect or ener gies. But , because t he cr eat ion int er val would include
any subsequent weak-for ce diffusion per iod, t he kinet ic t emper at ur e pr obably
4
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
should r eflect a pr imit ive light er t han t hese heavy-element fusion pr oduct s. So, we
will accept
8
B as t he pr imit ive subst ance somewhat ar bit r ar ily and wit hout fur t her
consider at ion of er r or . We accept assumpt ion (b) as r easonable and will comment
on a r ange of t emper at ur es lat er .
The t her mal ext ent by definit ion is meant t o ignor e all kinemat ic ener gy
differ ences [10] and t o sidest ep complexit ies [4, 9, 11-13] of st at e dur ing t he cr eat ion
int er val; t hese fact or s will be seen lat er t o be descr ibed in t he ener gy, not t her mal,
ext ent of t he obser vat ions.
The obser ved neut r inos being assumed massive, t he pr imit ive t her mal mot ion
would add a r andom component t o t he velocit y of t he neut r ino as measur ed in t he
iner t ial fr ame of t he det ect or on Ear t h. We est imat e t his velocit y disper sion by
equat ing t he pr imit ive kinet ic and t her mal ener gy as
1
2
3
2
2
m k T
p p B p
= , (1)
in which m
p
and
p
r espect ively r epr esent t he r est mass and r ms aver age t her mal
speed of a pr imit ive element dur ing cr eat ion of t he det ect ed neut r ino, k
B
is
Bolt zmann's const ant , and Tp is t he Kelvin t emper at ur e in t he pr imit ive r egion of
t he super nova.
Solving for
p
, which we shall use t o define t he aver age iner t ial fr ame of t he
det ect ed neut r ino par t icles, we get

p
B
p
p
k
m
T = 3 . (2)
The r est mass of
8
B would be a lit t le over 8 t imes t hat of t he pr ot on, making m
p
about 1 5 10
26
.

kg. Assuming T
p
t o be somewhat over 10
9
K, a r ough est imat e of
t he speed fr om eq. (2) would be
p
3 10
6
m/s 0.01c.
For simplicit y, we accept t his aver age speed of about 0.01c as mapping dir ect ly t o
t he t her mal ext ent . We shall double it t o conver t it fr om an absolut e-value scalar
t o t he one-dimensional magnit ude of t he t emper at ur e fact or in a neut r ino velocit y
vect or on t he line of flight bet ween t he super nova and Ear t h. The t her mal ext ent
may be scaled, if desir ed, based on t he r eader 's favor it e pr obabilit y t heor y (e. g.,
[14]); t he cr eat ion spect r al dist r ibut ion has been descr ibed as Planckian [15]. We
not e t hat for pur ely t her mal par t icles, we would add t he cr eat ion int er val, left for
now as an unknown, t o t he t her mal ext ent t o get t he det ect ion int er val.
So, t aking t he dist ance fr om t he Super nova t o Ear t h as s
S E
, t he spat ial line-of-
flight disper sion of int er neut r ino dist ance at Ear t h as ds
S E
, and t he speed of t he
5
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
neut r ino as v
S E
, t he t her mal ext ent dt
SE
t
may be comput ed fr om t he super nova (or
Ear t h) pr oper t r ansit t ime t
S E
using t hese r elat ions:
t
t s
SE SE
SE

= = , wit h

=

1
2
1
SE
c
; and, (3)
dt
ds
v t
SE
t SE
SE
p
SE
= = 2 2

, (4)
in which t

is t he neut r ino-pr oper t r ansit t ime and r epr esent s t he Lor ent z
(special r elat ivit y) t r ansfor mat ion. As alr eady ment ioned, t he fact or of 2 in eq. (4)
is because of t he assumed bidir ect ional r andom pr oject ion of t he t her mal velocit y of
any given neut r ino on t he dir ect ion vect or of t he super nova-Ear t h line of flight .
Defining t he conver sion fact or psk = (3.26)(60
2
)(24)(365)c = 3 10
16
for met er s per
par sec, eqs. (3) and (4) may be combined int o one for mula for t her mal ext ent ,
dt
s psk
c
SE
t
p SE
SE
SE
=
|
\

1
]
1
1
2 1
2
2

. (5)
B. Rest mass from veloci ty and thermal extent
In gener al, t he t ot al ener gy E of any fr ee par t icle wit h moment um p and r est
mass m in t r ansit in a vacuum is given by
( ) ( )
E pc mc
2
2
2
2
= + (6)
Solving (6) for m aft er subst it ut ing m for p yields, for t he (ant i)neut r ino,
m
E c
c
E c c c
c

=

=

2 2
3
2
3
2 ( ) ( )
. (7)
Now, (7), (5), and (2) yield t he r est mass for mula, depending on ener gy E
t
of
t he t her mal ext ent ,
( )
m
E
c
dt
c dt s psk
k
m
T
t
t t
t
SE
B
p
p
SE
SE

=
+
2
2 3
, (8)
6
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
t he super scr ipt indicat ing t he ener gy by assumpt ion exclusively cont r ibut ing t o t he
t her mal ext ent .
We not e t hat t he t her mal speed
p
has been eliminat ed in favor of t emper at ur e
and t her mal ener gy, and t hat t her e is no assumpt ion of any spr ead in par t icle
ener gies in (8). Also, (8) is an expect ed-value est imat e, depending solely on t he
bounds of it s par amet er s; it is not a for mula for an upper or lower bound.
IV. Energy Extent yi elds an Upper Bound on the
Mass
A pr oposed analysis based on ener gy disper sion was published by Zat sepin [16] in
1968, long befor e dat a wer e available; he suggest ed t hat super nova dat a could be
used t o est imat e an upper bound on t he neut r ino r est mass at least down t o about 2
eV c
2
. The subsequent lit er at ur e [10, 12-15, 17-31] based on ener gy analysis of t he
SN1987A dat a have concluded neut r ino mass upper bounds in t he low t ens of eV or
less. Anada and Nishimur a [27] used a t emper at ur e-based coher ence ar gument t o
eliminat e t he SN1987A dat a as a way of evaluat ing t he t heor y of neut r ino t ype
oscillat ions. Roos [24] ment ioned t he possibilit y of calculat ing a t her mal-disper sion
bound on t he neut r ino r est mass but evident ly did not at t empt a for mula for it .
Abbot t et al [21] used bot h ener gy and t her mal par amet er s in a differ ent ial
for mulat ion which seemed t o yield a zer o r est mass because zer o fell near t he middle
of a fair ly br oad er r or r ange. At least one aut hor [19] has asser t ed t hat "model-
independent " limit s ar e not r eliable. The major it y of t he published paper s on t he
subject int r oduce specific super nova or par t icle assumpt ions.
Reasonable model-independent for mulae for t he ener gy ext ent usually assume a
neut r ino cr eat ion int er val of a few seconds or less. Her e, we adopt a var iat ion of a
for mula in [10; cf. 24] as follows,
dt
s
c
m c
E
SE
E SE
E
=

2
2
, (9)
in which dt
SE
E
is t he ener gy ext ent , s
SE
is as above, and E
E
is t he ener gy of t he
det ect ed neut r ino. The det ect ed ener gy of cour se would include any t her mal kinet ic
component det er mined by t he pr imit ive t emper at ur e. Ther e is an implied
assumpt ion t hat t he cr eat ion int er val amount ed t o a negligible t ime, so t hat t he
ener gy ext ent would r efer t o all or most of t he det ect ion int er val; namely,
E E
E E
1
( ) ( )
duration E duration E
E E
1. This yields an upper bound on t he
mass: The E
E
cannot r easonably exceed E
E
; and t his for mula ignor es t he kinet ic
t er m in (6) above, moving super numer ar y ener gy int o t he mc
2
mass. Solving (9) for
t he neut r ino mass m

yields
7
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
( )
m
E
c
dt
c s psk
E
E
E
SE
SE

= , (10)
which may be compar ed wit h t he for mula (8) above for m
t

.
V. Impli cati ons of the Two Rest Mass Formulae
Suppose t he neut r ino cr eat ion kinemat ic ener gy was const ant , so t hat all
neut r inos wer e cr eat ed wit h t he same ener gy but wit h differ ent t her mal var iat ion.
Then, t he t her mal ext ent would equal t he ener gy ext ent and not mer ely be included
in t he lat t er . In t his case, (8) might be used alone t o est imat e t he r est mass.
We her e accept t hat t he kinemat ic ener gy was not equal for ever y neut r ino, and
so might be used t o account for any assumed differ ence bet ween cr eat ion and
det ect ion int er vals. The t her mal (8) and ener gy (10) est imat es each yield a mass
based on an unknown over lap in t he t her mal vs. ener gy cont r ibut ions. However , in
neit her for mula is t he over lap defined; t hus, in neit her is it const r ained. So, having
assuming a nonzer o r est mass, we equat e t he m
t

and m
E

masses (8) and (10) of t he

neut r ino and ar r ive at t he following for mula,
dt dt
s psk
c
E
E c
k
T
m
create SE
SE
t
E B
p
p
=
|
\

1
]
1
1
2
2
3 , (11)
in which t he expect ed-value br acket s for E
t
have been dr opped. Using t he t r ial
values, dt
SE
= 10s and E
E
= 10 MeV, we find t hat dt
create
fr om (11) can be wit hin a
few seconds of zer o only for values of E
t
about as shown in Table 1. E
E
only
implies an upper bound on t he mass because of (10); it is independent ot her wise of
any bound. So, t he value of E
E
might be used dir ect ly in place of E
t
in (8) for a
mass est imat e, pr ovided a model or t heor y could account for t he t her mal fr act ion at
t he det ect or .
Table 1 shows t hat 10 MeV neut r inos cr eat ed at a pr imit ive t emper at ur e of 10
9
K
would r equir e E
t
near 1 MeV. Happily, t he r ange of t he ener gy r at io near dt
create
= 0
in (11) is r elat ively insensit ive t o t he value of dt
SE
chosen; t he Table 1 dependence
on pr imit ive t emper at ur e is r elat ively mild in t he r egion t abulat ed.
8
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
TABLE 1. Neutri no energy i n the thermal extent,
for E
E
= 10 MeV, yi eldi ng a creati on i nterval near
zero i n eq. (11), for vari ous supernova
temperatures.
Pr imit ive
Temper at ur e
Tp (K)
Ener gy of
Ther mal Ext ent
E
t
(MeV)
10
8
0.611
10
9
1.08
10
10
1.93
10
11
3.43
10
12
6.09
Finally, Fig. 2 displays t he r est mass her e est imat ed for t he fir st t ime by t he
t her mal ext ent ; it also shows how t he ener gy ext ent pr ovides an upper bound as
or dinar ily est imat ed. Taking t he det ect ion int er val as 2 s, which seems not
unr easonable fr om t he Kamiokande II dat a in Figur e 1, we conclude t hat t he mass
would be a few eV c
2
and can not exceed about 6 eV c
2
. If we wer e allowed t he
addit ional assumpt ion t hat t he cr eat ion int er val was, say 1.5 s, we could use Figur e
2 t o conclude a neut r ino mass of about 3 eV c
2
. Conver sely, if we knew t he
neut r ino mass t o be, say, 1 eV, we would know t hat t he cr eat ion int er val was just
1.8 s. As shown by t he differ ences bet ween t he t her mal-ext ent and ener gy-ext ent -
bound cur ves in Figur e 2, as t he assumed cr eat ion int er val decr eases, t he t her mal
ext ent comes t o dominat e t he det ect ion int er val, r egar dless of t he super nova model.
The same dominance would be expect ed under an incr ease in t he assumed
super nova pr imit ive t emper at ur e.
9
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
dt
create
(s)
N
e
u
t
r
i
n
o

M
a
s
s

(
e
V
/
c
2
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Energy Extent Bound
From Thermal Extent
dt
SE
= 10 s
dt
SE
= 2 s
FIG. 2. Rest mass of the SN1987A neutri nos as a functi on of the
creati on i nterval, from eqs. (8) and (10), for two values of the
detecti on i nterval, d t
SE
.
10
J . M. Williams Neut r ino Temp v. 2..1
VI. Conclusi on
We have shown t hat t he t her mal line-of-flight disper sion of t he neut r inos fr om
super nova SN1987A might be used t o est imat e t he r est mass, knowing t he fr act ion
of neut r ino ener gy at t he det ect or at t r ibut able t o t emper at ur e. Then, assuming
massive neut r inos cr eat ed in an int er val not exceeding 10 seconds and at a bor on-
like pr imit ive t emper at ur e of 10
9
K, we used an upper -bound for mula t o find t hat
t he t her mal fr act ion might r easonably account for about 10% of t he neut r ino ener gy
at Kamiokande II. Fr om t his, not t he ener gy upper bound per se, it followed t hat
t he neut r ino r est mass, her e assumed not zer o, would be as much as a few eV c
2
.
The pr esent appr oach assumed not hing about t he super nova dynamics but st ill
yielded an expect ed value, not a bound. Any super nova model pr oviding a bet t er
est imat e of t he t her mal ener gy fr act ion would yield a bet t er expect ed value.
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Acknowledgements
The aut hor t hanks Kai Mar t ens for a copy of t he Kamiokande II dat a for t he
pr esent analysis. Thanks also ar e due t o Mar io Rabinowit z, for r eading t he paper
and suggest ing some impr ovement s.
This paper was not suppor t ed by any gr ant t o t he aut hor , who is an independent
invest igat or , but it was inspir ed by pr esent at ions at t ended at t he SLAC Summer
Inst it ut e, The Physics of Leptons, given in August 1997.