Projections from the Top in Yoruba Art

Author(s): Margaret Thompson Drewal

Source: African Arts, Vol. 11, No. 1, (Oct., 1977), pp. 43-92
Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3335223
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 PROJECTIONS
Yoruba art is well known to the readers
of AfricanArts, andthe corpusof schol-
arship on this subject is expanding rapidly.
Recent studies tend to be particularistic,
focusing on forms associated with specific
cults or ritual contexts. This essay takes an
alternate and complementary approach,
analyzing the significance of a motif often
mentionedin the literaturebut almost totally
unexplored. I will refer to this motif very
broadly as a "projection from the top": the
projectionmust be attachedto the head or the
top of a construction.1This motif appearsin
hairstyles, headgear, wood masks, cloth
masquerade costumes, sculpture, and ar-
chitecture.Despite greatvariationin formand
mediumanddespite multipleshadesof mean-
ing, these projectionsshare a basic principle
of Yorubareligious thought.
The Yorubaview all organicmatteras pos-
sessing a vital force (ase) thatcan be manipu-
lated to regulate the quality of man's life.
Herbalists,native doctors, priests, and divin-
ers prepareaccordingto formulasuch natural
elements as leaves, stones, water, earth, and
partsof animals.2As medicinalpreparations,
they may be carriedin a container,rubbedon
the skin, ingested, or entered into the
bloodstream through incisions. Particularly
relevantto this discussion is the fact thatprep-
arationsconstitutingase are placed inside in-
cisions madeon the craniaof priestsandpries-
FROM THE TOP IN
tesses who then become mediums for the
gods.
The priest is possessed on ritualoccasions
by the spirit of the god. The Yoruba say the
god "mounts" (gun) the inside head (ori
inun) of his priest, and the head swells (wu),
taking on the personalityof the god. A pos-
session priest is known as adosu-literally,
"one who receives osu." Osu as defined by
Pierre Verger is "a ball of the size of a knot
made of the elements consitituting the ashe
[vital force] of the gods, reduced to powder
and amalgams" (1954b:324). In a Yoruba-
derived cult house in Bahia, Brazil, I saw an
adosu with an osu recentlyembeddedin inci-
sions madeon the top of the head(Fig. 1). The
termalso refersto hairthatis allowed to grow
over the spot of the incision. In Figure 2 the
osu is a squarepatchof hair. The hairstylesof
Oshunpriestsfrom Oshogbo are more promi-
nent; the patch has developed into a pro-
nouncedtuft or conical shape projectingfrom
the cranium(Fig. 4).
Relatedto the hairstylesof these priestsare
those of royal messengers, ilari (Fig. 3). In
the pastilari servedas intermediariesbetween
ABOVE: 1 CANDOMBLE INITIATEWITH PAINTED INTERSECTINGLINES AND OSU ON TOP OF SHAVEN HEAD. BAHIA,
BRAZIL, 1974. LEFT: 2. AN ADOSU WITH A SMALL SQUARE PATCH OF HAIR (OSU) MARKING THE PLACE WHERE
MEDICINEHAS BEEN RUBBED INTO HER HEAD. EGBADO, 1975.
YORUBA ART
the king and his officials and the various cult
groups (Morton-Williams 1964:253). They
and their distinctive hairdos were known as
far west as Porto-Novo in Republique
Populairedu Benin (Dahomey). Accordingto
A. Akindele and C. Aguessy, in the kingdom
of Porto-Novo the head of a new "lari" is
shaved "taking care to leave a cone of hairat
the summit of his cranium" (1953:60). This
hairdo marksilari as consecrated to the ser-
vice of the king andinvests themwith some of
the king's powers. The roles of adosu and
ilari are similarin thatboth are intermediaries
endowed with certain powers of their as-
sociates. Ilari literallymeans "incision on the
head," ila ori. Samuel Johnson reports
medicines placed in the headwere "supposed
to be a charm capable of giving effect to
whateverthe name given to the individual at
the same time signifies" (1921:61). So strik-
ing is the role and image of ilari thatthey have
been depicted in Gelede masks (see Drewal,
1974, fig. 8), identifiableby their distinctive
stem-shaped hairdos.3 Like the intersecting
lines painted on the head of the Brazilian
initiate (Fig. 1), the hairline of the ilari,
43
separatingthe rightfromthe left side, is inter-
sected by the vertical line of the tuft which
marks the place of the incision.
Anotherexampleof the projectionfromthe
top of the head is found in the most sacred
mask of the Gelede society, called Iyanla or
Ososomu, the Great Mother (Fig. 8).4 The
projectionis again called osu, representinga
tuft of hair, and it reflects one of the Great
Mother'spraisenames:Apokodosu(a pa oko
di osu), "The One Who Killed Her Husband
in orderto Receive Osu." The osu here, like
those on the heads of priests and royal mes-
sengers, signifies thatthe mask has been pre-
paredwith powerful substances. So potent is
the preparationthatgazing uponthe maskwill
cause baddreamsandtemporaryinsanity,and
women of child-bearingage risk amenorrhea
and infertility.In anothermaskfrom the same
generalarea, the osu was replacedby a single
bird perched on top, reflecting the power of
the Great Motherto transformherself into a
bird in the night. The Yoruba refer to the
Mother as Oloju Meji-"One with Two
Faces"-and AbaaraMeji-"The One Who
6. A PRIESTESS POSSESSED BY SHANGO DANCES WITH
Possesses Two Bodies." As one informant AN OSHE. OHORI, 1975.
explains, "You see her one way in the day,
and at midnightshe turnsto anotherthing."
The projectionon the top of her head, then, that cannot be seen with "the naked eyes."
also hintsat the vital force, representedby the The lidded pot on the head of one image has
5. OSHE SHANGO WITH THE DOUBLE CELT MOTIF substances inside that "we cannot know."
bird, inside the head. SPRINGING FROM THE DEVOTEE S HEAD. PROBABLY
The idea that projections from the head EGBADO. CLEVELANDSTATE UNIVERSITY. Like the hairstylesof priestesses, royal mes-
may characterizevital force is apparentin the sengers and the Great Mother, and like the
form and context of Yoruba oshe Shango 1962:27). In Figure 6, a priestess possessed doublethunderceltsdepictedon oshe Shango,
by Shango dances with an oshe, which in these projectionsfrom the head are visualiza-
(Figs. 5, 6). These dance staffs are carried tions of the vital force that resides inside.
generallyby one possessed by Shango, god of essence mirrorsthe stateof the priestesscarry-
thunder.The double celts projectingfrom the ing it: herhead is swelled with the presenceof Nowhere is the concept of inner power
head representvital force (Verger 1964:17) Shango, and the thunderceltsemerging from more apparentthanin Egunguniconography.
and reflect the god's power to hurl thun- the head of the kneeling priestessdepictedon Egungunmasqueradersrepresentspiritsfrom
dercelts to earth in the form of lightning, a the sculpture convey the nature of the vital the realm of the ancestors. Performancesof
power believed to be shared by priests of force in her head. Egungunaffirmthe Yorubabelief in the inter-
Other images of the head radiatinginner cession of ancestors in the affairs of their
Shango (Wescott and Morton-Williams descendantswhile precautionsto preventthe
power are depicted in chalk drawings on an
adosu's compoundwall (Fig. 11). The pries- audience from touching the performersrein-
tess says thatthese images arespiritsandthey force the separationof the two realms. Three
have many things projectingfrom theirheads types of Egungun from the Egbado area of
Yorubalandillustrateprojectionsfrom the top
of the head (Figs. 9, 10, 12). The first is
Alabala(Fig. 10), probablythe most common
type of Egungunin this areasince it is the first
costume a cult member acquires. Each
Alabala has an osu in the form of a tuft made
of yarn. An Egungun tailor commenting on
the tuft said, "When that osu is there, it
means that the cloth of that Egungunis com-
plete. So it can be takenout. But if thatosu is
not there, you will never see them carryit out
and say that Egungun is coming." The osu
tells us that the Egungun has been prepared
with the proper ingredients for efficacy.

TOP LEFT: 7. EGUN ELEGBA WITH AN ANIMAL HORN ?

PROJECTING FROM HIS HEAD. OHORI, 1975. BOTTOM
LEFT: 8. MASK OF THE GREAT MOTHER IYANLA/
OSOSOMU WITHA PROMINENTOSU. OHORI, 1975. TOP
3. ROYAL MESSENGER (ILARI)OF THE KING (ALAAFIN)
RIGHT:9. EGUN ELEGBAWITHA YARN OSY JUST ABOVE
OF OYO. AFTERA PHOTOGRAPHBY VERGER,ca. 1950 IN
THE FACE NETTINGAND A CARVED HEADDRESS (ERE)
THE ARCHIVES, I.R.A.D., PORTO-NOVO, R.P. DU BENIN
DEPICTING THE GOD ELEGBA WITH TAILED HAIRSTYLE
(DAHOMEY). CURVING TO THE LEFT SIDE. EGBADO, 1975. BOTTOM
RIGHT: 10. ALABALAMASQUERADEROF THE EGUNGUN
4. OSHUN PRIESTAT OSHOGBO, NIGERIA. CULT WITHAN OSU MADE OF YARN AT THE TOP OF THE
AFTERVERGER(1954a: pl. 110). HEAD. EGBADO, 1975.

44
7
Medicines are placed inside a calabash con-
cealed in the garments,sometimesmakingthe
cloth bulge. This practice has been
documented in myth by Joel Adedeji
(1970:75). The first Alabala was reportedto
be a hunchback,and before he died he willed
that whoever of his children had the hump
should be given the mantle of Egungun and
made the leaderof the society. However, an
impersonatortook the garmentsand carrieda
calabash under his costume to simulate the
hump. The myth states, "Oturu (the imper-
sonator) has carried a gourd! Ifa was con-
sulted for Oturu who carried a gourd and
called it a hump!" The ruse was exposed by
the drummers, but since the impersonator
danced with great flourish, the Alaafin (king
of Oyo) officially presented him with the
mantle and made him the rightful heir to
Egungun. The contents of the concealed
calabash constitute the essence of Egungun.
The osu is merely the outward sign of the
presence of inner power and the authenticity
of cloth.
A second type of Egungunis the powerful
Onidan(Owner of Miracles) (Fig. 12). Like
Alabala, Onidanis preparedwith efficacious
ingredientsconcealedwithinthe garment.His
osu, also made of yarn, runs horizontally
along the upperborderof the face netting. A
third type of Egungun is Egun Elegba, who
functions primarily as a crowd controller
(Fig. 9).5 Carryinga whip he keeps the audi-
ence from approachingthe spiritworld of the
Egungun. 6 He also serves Onidan, being the
only type of the three Egungun discussed
whose arms are free to handle equipment.
Egun Elegba is also called Egun Eleere be-
cause he may carry a carved image (ere) on
top of his head. Like Onidan,the projectionof
11. CHALK DRAWINGS OF THE ORISA ONDO AND ARE
ON A PRIESTESS COMPOUND WALL EGBADO, 1975.
12. ONIDAN, OWNER-OF-MIRACLES, WHOSE OSU OF
YARN RUNS HORIZONTALLYALONG THE UPPER BOR-
DER OF THE FACE NETTING.EGBADO, 1975.
46
Egun Elegba is arrangedhorizontally along
the upperborderof the face neeting. In addi-
the upperborderof the face netting. In addi-
the Yorubagod Elegba with a tailed hairstyle
curving to the left side (Fig. 9). Among the
Ohori Yoruba, Egun Elegba is depicted with
an animal horn projecting upward from the
masquerader'shead and slightly toward the
left (Fig. 7). The hornitself is a containerand
is one of many ingredients with which the
Egungunis prepared.The subtle bulge in the
cloth indicates where medicine that endows
the masqueraderwith power is concealed.
The projection depicted on the head of
sculpturesof Eshu-Elegbahas received much
attention in the literature (Wescott 1962;
Thompson 1971:Ch. 4; Pemberton 1975)
(Fig. 13). Referringto Elegba's tuft of hair,
one praise poem states, "Elegba Esu of the
road;Esu Adaradoes not have a headto carry
loads; this pointed-headedLaroye does not
have a head to carry loads" (Verger
1957:136). RobertThompsonnotes that"this
violates traditionaldecorum, for everyone in
Yorubalandis expected to carry his share,
depending upon age, on his head," and,
based on a myth collected from a priest of
Elegba, suggests the tufton the topof his head
is a symbol of his friendship with Ifa, the
Yoruba deity of divination (1971: Ch 4/3).7
OhoriYorubapriestssay thatElegbamustnot
be given loads to carrybecause he will steal
them and refuse to share with the gods; the
hairstyle prevents this possibility. His share
of sacrifices is offered separately from the
othergods andplaced at the crossroadswhere
he is believed to reside. Eshu is always given
his offerings first, a reflection of his role as
guardianof the crossroads, as one stationed
between the realmsof man andthe gods. This
perhapsexplains the tuft motif culminatingin
another face (Fig. 13). Eshu sees into both
realms and acts as the link between man and
the spirit world. This is indeed his role in
Egungun. Like the osu of priests and royal
messengers, Eshu-Elegba's osu identifies
him as a characterinvested with certain au-
thority and responsibility. The tuft of hair
denies the mundanefunctionof carryingloads
and implies a head preparedwith medicine.
There is evidence to suggest a directrelation-
ship between Eshu and certain of the king's
ilari.8 Verger reportsthat it was the function
of the leaderof the ilari to make sacrifices to
Elegba (1957:115).
The power in Eshu-Elegba'shead can best
be understoodin the context of anotherclass
of art object that also frequently displays a
head projection: paired figures joined by a
leatherthong at theirbases, which must hang
upside down either on shrines or aroundthe
necks of priests, who wear them on market
days (Fig. 14). The priests say if the head is
uprightthere will be confusion and possibly
bloodshed. Before the objects may be carried
outside, offerings of corn and gin must be
placed beneath them. Upon encountering a
priestwearingthese invertedfigures, a person
must pay alms. Giving small amounts of
money to a dormantEshu (one whose head is
down) insuresthose tradingin the marketof a
successful day. Eshu with an uprighthead is a
tricksterwho brings chaos and trouble.9
In the foregoing examples of head pro-
jections, theroleof mediatorhas appeared.If a
divination, the central mediating system of
the Yoruba, is performedby trained priests
and serves to orderthe universeby revealing
13. ESHU-ELEGBA DANCE WAND. WOOD, COWRIES,
37.5cm. GIFT OF RALPH B. LLOYD FOUNDATION. MU-
SEUM OF CULTURALHISTORY,UCLA.

14. ELEGBA PRIEST WEARING PAIRED FIGURES
AROUND HIS NECK AND A KONKOSO (HAT WORN BY
POSSESSION PRIESTS) WITH FEATHERS AND PROJEC-
TION AT THE TOP. OHORI, 1975.
the thoughts and actions of gods and ances-
tors, who are believed to influence man's
existence. 0 Before a priest begins the divin-
ing process, he places his equipmentso that
he faces the doorway, or if diviningin a grove
he orientshimself towardthe pathleadinginto
the clearing. Precautionsaretakento clearthe
path or doorway, for they are the road on
which the spiritstravel to the ceremony, and
priestsof Ifa say it is dangerousfor people to
come down the pathduringinvocations.They
divine on a wood trayknown as opon Ifa. The
borderof the tray is dominatedby the face of
Eshu-Elegba,which always faces towardthe
diviner so that it is directly between the road
of the spiritsandthe priest.HereagainEshu is
intermediary. He is Elegba Eshu ona,
"Elegba Eshu of the road" (Verger
1957:136).
By tapping the tip of an instrumentcalled
iro Ifa (Fig. 15) against the center of the
divinationtray, the divinergains the attention
of the gods. This tapper usually depicts a
human figure with a pointed projection at
either the head or the base. At the handle of
the instrumentis usuallya cavity for the inser-
tion of efficacious ingredients, but it is the
pointof the tapperthatmakescontactwith the
divinationtray and, thus, the spiritworld.1l
Anotherprojectionfrom the top appearson
headgear.In certainAnago and Ohoritowns,
priests, before entering possession trance,
must place tall conical hats on their heads
(Fig. 16).12 These hats, surmountedby a stem
(Fig. 18), sharecertainelements with Yoruba
beadedcrowns (Fig. 17). Thompsoncalls the
projection on beaded crowns a "stem-on-
cone" and notes that it is also found in brass
ceremonial crowns (1970:14-15, figs. 8,
9).13 The hats worn by the possession priests
are called konkoso, referringto the sieve- or
sifter-like form made of dried grasses;
Thompson illustratesthe structureof a par-
tially completed beaded crown that is also
conical (1970, fig. 2). Whitechicken feathers
are attachedto the largebeadedbirdshown in
Figure 17 during annual sacrifices to the
crown. Similarly, birdsarerepresentedon the
possession hats by feathers, which in one
town were said to be symbolsof extraordinary
power. In another,the featherswere actually
pluckedfrom the firstbirdsacrificesmadefor
the priests upon acquiringtheir positions as
mediums. To avoid exposing efficacious
medicines, the very sight of which can be
dangerous,thereis a prohibitionagainstlook-
ing inside the hat, not unlike that preventing
the king fromgazing inside his beadedcrown
(Thompson1970:10). More importantly,just
as the priestis the closest link with the god, so
is the "divine king" the link to the royal
forefathers.He representsthe royal dynasty,
the ancestralforce, which is incarnatedin his
beaded crown (Thompson 1970:8; Asiwaju
1976:114). A. I. Asiwaju confirms the sig-
nificance of the crown: "The ade [crown], as
an emblemof the royalancestralspirit,consti-
tutes an object in the palace shrine;and even
when the Oba [king] was not presentin per-
son, theade (more often the originalone) was
publicly displayed, usually by being placed
on the throne. Before it, the Yoruba were
obliged to observethe same protocolof rever-
ence and deference in the real presenceof the
monarch." Modified projectionsoccur even
among a king's everyday headgear (Fig.
20).14
16. PRIEST POSSESSED BY THE ORISA ONDO WEARING
A KONKOSO (POSSESSION HAT MADE OF A SIEVE WITH
A PROJECTIONAT THE TOP). ANAGO, 1973.
Another object featuringthe projectionat
the top is the ile ori, "house of the head"
(Fig. 21), which contains a "head" made of
41 cowries strung together in the shape of a
crown (Johnson 1921:27). Little is available
in the literatureabout this object's use. More
research on the spiritual concepts of ori
(head), ori ode (outside head), and ori inun
(inside head) and their relation to a person's
destiny, individuality, intellect, personal
power, and possession trance will undoubt-
edly add furthersignificance to projections
from the top.15
The final example of this motif is architec-
tural. In a large grove in Pobe, Republique
Populairedu Benin, threeshrinesare devoted
to three Anago Yoruba gods (M. T. Drewal
1975). Only the shrine for Elegba has a pro-
jection from the top of the roof that is ap-
proximately one meter in height (Fig. 19).
The constructionhere is non-functionaland
visually recalls the praise phrase, "This
pointed-headLaroye does not have a head to
15. TWO FIGURATED IFA TAPPERS (IRO IFA). IVORY.
LEFT. 32.4cm GIFT OF W. THOMAS DAVIS. RIGHT.
25.4cm. GIFT OF RALPH B. LLOYD FOUNDATION. MU-
SEUM OF CULTURALHISTORY,UCLA.
47
 s- 1 *.'^ I
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. .X
' R *: iV *...A.
- :*
. i^-^j---''
tX^ ;t-.. ^^
.!s
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. .- sV*
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a Z

; _= >~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:
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ii "I?
carryloads" (Verger 1957:136). Cult officials say that Elegba be chaotic. The lines that divide the head (the intersectinglines
is the god one finds first upon entering the sacred grove. His on the Brazilian initiate's head, the sagittal line of the shaved
shrinelies across what is believed to be the originalroad taken hairof royal messengers, and the black-and-whitecap of Eshu)
to settle the town. It is here that the first sacrifices are made. suggest the separation of realms. The vertical axis conveys
These are crucial in opening successful communicationwith their interpenetration.17Only those persons or objects "pre-
the gods. As the shrine is the dwelling of the "guardianof the pared" for mediating roles can operate in both.
road," the projection, in essence, is like a crossroads, where As we have seen, the projection from the top is usually
man establishes contact with the gods. associated with divine presence. Those who don it either in the
The most direct expression of the vertical projection as form of a hairstyle (osu) or headgear function as inter-
crossroads and its conceptualizationin architectureoccurs in mediaries. They include priests, royal messengers, Egungun
the New World, primarily in Haiti in the concept of poteau masqueraders,and the sacredking. And the projectionappears
mitan. The poteau mitan is the center post of the Voodoo in mediating objects such as the Great Mother mask, the Ifa
ceremonial enclosure, and like the projection from Elegba's tapper,oshe Shango, and sculpturefor Eshu-Elegba. In certain
shrine, it is architecturallynon-functional.16More striking is contexts the projectionmay also be observed in architecture.
that thepoteau mitan is also known as poteau Legba (Maximi- The heads or tops of these mediatingfigures literallyoperatein
lien 1945:34;Marcelin1949:16;Deren 1972:97;Brown 1976). two realms-realms accessible only throughthose persons and
Numerous researchers report that the gods use the post to objects that have been specially endowed for transcendence.
descend at a ceremony (Bastide 1958: 67-68; Courlander Projectionsfrom the top, then, are a dominant symbol of the
1944:44; Deren 1972:36, 97; Metraux 1959:77). HaroldCour- vital force of a divine associate; and in their various forms and
lander gives a good description(1944:44): "This center pole, contexts they may characterize the particularnature of that
called a po'teau (or po'teau mitan)is a significant 'prop' in the force. D
dramaand meaningof Haitiandancing. Down this pole the loa Notes, page 91
(spirits) come when they enter the gathering. Down this pole
comes the drum-spirit,too, to enter into the head and sticks of
the drums. At the foot of the po'teau sacrifices are laid out, and
maize flour paintings made. In the topmost parts of the pole,
protective household gardes, or fetiches, may be suspended,
and in its branchesmay be hidden stone celts sacred to certain
loa. Aroundthis pole the dance characteristicallytakes place."
Alfred Metraux (1959:77) calls the poteau "the passage for
spirits . . . the ladder by which spirits come down into the
peristyle when they are invoked." Maya Deren (1972:97)
relates the poteau mitan more specifically to the crossroads:
"Legba-life-is the link between the visible, mortal world
and the invisible, immortal realms . . . Since he is god of the
poles of the axis, of the axis itself, he is God of the
Cross-roads,of the vital intersectionbetween the two worlds.
The poteau mitan, the center post of the peristyle, through
which the loa arriveat the ceremony, is also called the poteau
Legba."
Verticalprojectionsin these variouscontexts and forms may
be said to act as a poteau mitan, an avenue of the divine, with
vital ingredientsembedded at their bases to facilitate spiritual
presence. This idea can be most clearly illustrated by the
Brazilian medium's head (Fig. 1) recently endowed with ase.
Painted lines cross where the medicine was inserted;a raised
nodule forms the vertical projection. In the West African
context, certain royal messengers' hairdos demonstratethis
concept (see H. J. Drewal 1974, fig. 8). The head is divided
into rightand left sides, intersectedby a verticalstem. There is
a famous tale about Eshu wearing a cap that is white on one
side and black on the other. Eshu caused a fight between two
friendswho saw his hat from two differentperspectives. While
the two men were settling their dispute about whetherthe cap
was white or black, Eshu went about burning the town. The
story defines Eshu as a trickster,but it also warns that the two
worlds that he mediates must remainseparateor existence will

TOP LEFT. 17. BEADED CROWN WITHVEIL.WHITECHICKENFEATHERSARE ATTACHED

TO THE BEADED BIRD ON TOP DURING ANNUAL SACRIFICESTO THE CROWN. SAID TO
HAVE BEEN MADE AT IJEBU-ODE, ca. 1948. AWORI, 1975. TOP RIGHT: 18. KONKOSO
(POSSESSION HAT) DECORATED WITH COLORFUL CLOTH, CALABASHES, BIRDS
FEATHERS,AND A PROJECTION AT THE TOP. WORN BY A PRIEST OF ESHU-ELEGBA.
ANAGO, 1973. BOTTOMLEFT:19. SHRINE FOR ESHU-ELEBGAWITHROOF SURMOUNTED
BY A METER-HIGHNON-FUNCTIONALPROJECTION.ANAGO, 1973. BOTTOM RIGHT: 20.
ROYAL HEADGEAR FOR EVERYDAY USE WITH MODIFIED PROJECTION ON THE TOP. 21. HOUSE OF THE HEAD (ILEORI). WOOD, COWRIES, FABRIC, 36.2cm
AWORI, 1975. GIFT OF W THOMAS DAVIS. MUSEUM OF CULTURALHISTORY,UCLA.

49
 31. According to Kyerematen,eight Asantehenesare represented
by twelve swords, with only four chiefs having the customarytwo
swords (1961: 11-14). The swords of destooled chiefs are not re-
tained in the state regalia.
32. Linguiststaffs also served this function. Significantly, manyof
the Asante paramountchief's staffs date to the 1920s and 1930s.
ASANTE SWORD ORNAMENTS,Bibliography
Anonymous. 1977. Durbar in Honour of His Royal Highness the
Prince of Wales, Kumasi.
Barbot,John. 1744. A Description of the Coasts of Northand South
Guinea, in A. Churchhill,Collection of Voyagesand Travels, v. 5,
London.
Bassing, Allen andA. A. Y. Kyerematen,1972. "The Enstoolment
of an Asantehene." African Arts 5, 3: 28-31, 62-63.
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PROJECTIONS,Notes, from page 49
An earlierversionof this paperwas presentedat the AfricanStudies
AssociationConferencein Boston, November4, 1976. It is basedon
field researchamong the Yorubain 1970-71, 1973, and 1975 (sup-
portedin partby grantsfrom the Institutefor InterculturalStudies,
Inc.) and in Brazil among the members of the Yoruba-derived
Candomblecult, Bahia, in 1974. I am gratefulto HenryJohnDrewal
for editorialcomments and Raimi Akaki Taiwo for researchassis-
tance. Most of all I wish to acknowledgethe wisdom of the Yoruba
elders whose words and actions first suggested the import of the
motif.
I. The projectionfrom the top might be called what Victor Turner
termsa "dominant"symbol (1967:31): "Dominantsymbols appear
in many different ritual contexts, sometimes presiding over the
whole procedure,sometimes over particularphases. The meaning-
content of certain dominant symbols possesses a high degree of
constancyandconsistencythroughoutthe totalsymbolic system . .
Such symbols also possess considerableautonomywith regardto the
aims of the rituals in which they appear."
2. See Warren,Buckley and Ayandokun(1973) and Verger(1967)
for examples of medicinal formulas.
3. For a discussion and illustrationof a Gelede mask depicting an
ilari, see H. J. Drewal (1974:14-15). Apparentlyosu was worn by
the Are-Ona-Kakanfo,the commander-in-chiefof the Oyo army.
Johnstonwrites(1921:74): ''Like theIlaris, at the time of his taking
office, he is first to shave his headcompletely, and201 incisions are
made on his occiput, with 201 different lancets and specially pre-
paredingredientsfrom 201 viols [sic] are rubbedinto the cuts, one
for each. This is supposed to renderhim fearless and courageous.
They arealways shaved, butthe hairon the inoculatedpartis allowed
to grow long, and when plaited, forms a tuft or sort of pigtail . . .
They [Kakanfo]have all been more or less troublesome, due it is
supposedto the effect of the ingredientsthey wereinoculatedwith.'"
4. For a detailed analysis of lyanla/Ososomu, see H. J. Drewal contain medicine inside the central projection. To the west of the
(forthcoming). Yorubaland among the Fon and Ewe, figures representing the
5. EgunElegbais simplyone manifestationof the god Eshu/Elegba. Eshu/Elegba-relateddeity Legba in many cases have small proj-
6. Pemberton'sinformants(1975:27) explain that "Eshu goes out ections from the center of the head. The extent and significance of
like the king's messenger, blowing his whistle to say that a great these head projectionsawait furtherresearch.
person is coming. 'He clears the way.' " 16. Roger Bastide (1958:67) documents the existence of a center
7. The myth relates how Ifa, to test the sincerity of his friends, pole in Candomblehouses, at the foot of which is buriedtheaxe (ase)
spreadthe rumorthat he had died. Most of them ignoredthe rumor, of the cult. During the summerof 1974 I only saw one cult house
butEshu, who was in the processof shavinghis head, ranto Ifa upon containingthe centerpost. Perhapssignificantlyit was in the house
hearingthe news, tearsstreamingdown his cheeks. Ifa said, "I have consideredthroughoutBahia to be the oldest and most traditional.
seen you arrivewith your hairunfinished,Henceforth,this tuft will M. and F. Herskovits(1947:191-192) documenta centerpole com-
remain on your head as a sign of friendship which is genuine" parableto those in HaitiandBrazilin the Protestantcult of theTrinity
(Thompson 1971:Ch. 4/3). in Trinidad.
8. Pemberton informs me that "there is certainly a relationship 17. While it may be said that vertical projections from the top
between Eshu and certain of the king's ilari in Ila [Orangun]" suggest beings endowed with special powers of an associate, it is
(Personalcommunication,January12, 1977). importantto recongize that there are also many individualswhose
9. For Eshu as trickster/agentprovocateur see Wescott (1962). headshave been likewise specially endowed, but who communicate
10. For a review of the literatureon Ifa, see Bascom (1969:13-25). this fact in otherways thanby displayinga projection.Forexample,
11. It is perhapssignificant to note that Walker(1976:24) records possession priests of Shango in Egbado area shave the front of the
the use of the tapperby women as a musical instrumentin honorof head and plait the back portion.This coiffure alludes to possession,
Eshu. The pointed end of the tapper may therefore be a direct andthusto a headendowedwith the force of Shango, by creatingthe
referenceto the same configurationon Eshu sculpture. illusion of an enlargedforehead.As will be remembered,in posses-
12. Possession hatsof this type are wornto my knowledgethrough- sion the head is believed to swell (wu).
out Anago andOhoriareasby priestsof Ogun, Sango, Odua, Elegba, PROJECTIONS,Bibliography
Ondo, Are, and Sopannon.Fora detaileddescriptionof a ceremony Adedeji, J. 1970. "The Originof the YorubaMasqueTheatre:The
where these hats are used, see M. T. Drewal (1975). Use of Ifa DivinationCorpusas HistoricalEvidence," AfricanNotes
13. Thompson (1970:10) describes traditionalcrowns as "either 6,1:70-86.
cone-shaped (frequently with an apertureat the point of the cone Akindele, A. and C. Aguessy. 1953. "Contributionsa l'Etudede
where the base of a beaded bird may be inserted) or a vertical L'Histoire de L'Ancien Royaume de Porto-Novo." Memoires de
stem-on-conestructurecharacterizedby the elongationof thecone so 1'I.F.A.N., 25.
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presides a bird and the sides of which often serve as ground for Traditions in Africa: The Case of Yoruba Crowns, 1900-1960,"
subsidiarybirdsarrangedas an inward-facingcircle." Anothertype Africa 46,2:113-127.
of headgearfashionedlike a crown is thebayani. Like the crownand Bascom, W. R. 1969. Ifa Divination: CommunicationBetween
the possession hats, thebavani has a projectionat the top. Babatunde Gods and Man in West Africa. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity
Lawal (1971:32) reportsit is the official headgearof Shangopriests Press.
"donnedon ceremonialoccasions, especially whengoing to demand Bastide, R. 1958. Le Candomble de Bahia (Rite Nago). Paris:
ransomat a housejust struckby lightning.'' A neolithicthundercelt, Mouton & Co.
the most sacred of objects on any Shango shrine, representinghis Brown K. M. 1976. "The Center and the Edges: A Structural
vital force, is sewn into the bayani. Lawal (1971:101) says that the Analysis of Haitian Religious Imagery." Paper for the Afro-
axe-headedoshe, discussed above, is groundedin the idea that by American Religious History Working Group of the American
adding the celts to the top one symbolically reinforcesthe power Academy of Religion, October.
alreadyheld to be immanentin the head, "as Sango priestsset 'live' Courlander,H. 1944. "Dance and Dance-Dramain Haiti." The
thunderboltsin their headdress, the bayani." Function of Dance in HumanSociety, ed. F. Boas. New York:The
14. Crowns for everyday use probablyreflect European(or more Boas School.
specifically British)crown conventions. It may be that non-Yoruba Deren, M. 1972. Divine Horsemen:The VoodooGods offHaiti,New
crowns suitedtraditionalpurposesin partbecauseof the projection. York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc.
15. There are many more examples of projectionsfrom the top in Drewal, H. J. 1974. "Gelede Masks:Imageryand Motif." African
Yorubaart, including Igodo masks, Elefon masks, Eyinle pots, and Arts 7,4:8-19, 62-63, 95-96.
Osanyin puppets. Beyond Yorubaland,projectionsfrom the top of Drewal, H. J. Forthcoming."Art and the Perceptionof Women in
the head appearin the King of Benin's royal headgearand bronze YorubaCulture." Cahiers d'EtudesAfricaines.
heads surmountedwith elephants'tusks found on ancestorshrines. Drewal, M. T. 1975. "Symbols of Possession: A Study of Move-
PaulaBen-Amos, in commentingon this paperafterits presentation mentandRegaliain an Anago-YorubaCeremony.''Dance Research
at Boston, noted that the crown of the Oba of Benin does in fact Journal of Cord 7,2:15-24.
_
CONTRIBUTORS
EZIOBASSANIis a consultantin Africanartfor the Centrodi Studi per la Museologiain Flor-
ence, and contributorto the art reviewCriticad'Arte.
WALTERBATTISS, a well-knownSouth Africanartistand an authorityon rock painting,was
formerlyhead of the Departmentof Fine Artat the Universityof SouthAfrica.
MARGARET
THOMPSONDREWALreceived her M.A.in dance fromColumbiaUniversity.The
currentpaper grew out of research on possession trance and dance in West Africa1970-71,
1973 and 1975 and in Brazilin 1974.
GEORGER. ELLISis Assistantto the Directorof the Museumof CulturalHistory,UCLA,and a
memberof the AfricanArtsconsultingeditorialboard.
IRISKAYwas formanyyears a numericalanalystand computerprogrammer.She is nowa travel
consultantand devotes much of her time studing the historyand artof West Africa.
KEITHNICKLINhas been workingas an Ethnographerin the NigerianFederalDepartmentof
Antiquitiessince 1970.
JOHN W. NUNLEYreceived a Ph.D. in art historyfromthe Universityof Washingtonand has
been teaching at the Universityof Illinoissince 1974. In1977-78 he willbe studyingthe EriDevil
Masqueradersof SierraLeone, Freetown,withthe supportof a Fulbright-Hayes grant.
J.V. OLUFEMIRICHARDSis a Sierra Leonean born in Nigeria, and is a member of the Re-
search Committeeof NigerianArtsCounciland on the AdvisoryBoardof the journalBlack Or-
pheus. He recentlytaught Africanart and architectureat the Universityof Massachusetts on a
two-yearleave fromthe Universityof Lagos.
JOHNADKINSRICHARDSON is currentlyProfessorof Artand Design at SouthernIllinoisUni-
versityat Edwardsville.
DORANH. ROSS is a Ph.D.candidate in Africanarthistoryat the Universityof California,Santa
Barbara.IncollaborationwithHerbertM.Cole, he has spent the past two years in research and
preparationfor "TheArtsof Ghana"exhibition.
JILLSALMONSis a doctoralcandidate at the Universityof Nigeria,Nsukka.She spent the past
several years researchingAnnangart in Cross RiverState.
91
Herskovits, M. J. and F. Herskovits. 1947. TrinidadVillage. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Johnson, S. 1921. The History of the Yorubas. London:Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
Lawal, B. A. 1971. "YorubaSango Sculpturein HistoricalRetros-
pect." UnpublishedPh.D. dissertation, IndianaUniversity.
Marcelin, M. 1949. Mythologie Vodu(Rite Arada). Port-au-Prince:
Editions Haitiennes.
Maximilien, L. 1945. Le VodouHaitien, Rite Radas-Canzo. Port-
au-Prince:Imprimeriede L'Etat.
Metraux,A. 1959. Voodoo in Haiti. London:Andre Deutsch Ltd.
Morton-Williams,P. 1964. "An Outlineof the Cosmology andCult
Organizationof the Oyo Yoruba." Africa 34, 3:243-261.
Pemberton,J. 1975. "Eshu-Elegba:The YorubaTricksterGod."
African Arts 9,1:20-27, 66-70, 90-92.
Thompson, R. F. 1970. "The Sign of the Divine King." African
Arts 3,3:8-17, 74-80.
Thompson, R. F. 1971. Black Gods and Kings: Yoruba Art at
UCLA. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Turner,V. 1967. TheForest ofSymbols: Aspects of NdembuRitual.
Ithaca:Cornell University Press.
Verger, P. 1954a. Dieux D'Afrique. Paris: Paul Hartmann.
Verger, P. 1954b. "Role Joue par I'Etat d'Hebetude au Cours de
L'lnitiationdes Novices aux Cultes des Orishaet Vodun." Bulletin
de l'F.A.N. serie B 16,3-4:322-340.
Verger, P. 1957. "Notes sur le Cultedes Orisaet Voduna Bahia, la
Baie de Tous les Saintes au Bresil et a l'Ancienne C6te des Esclaves
en Afrique." Memoires de l'I.F.A.N. 51.
Verger, P. 1964. "The Yoruba High God-A Review of the
Sources." Paper preparedfor the Conference on the High God in
Africa, Ibadan, December 14-18.
Verger, P. F. 1967. Awon Ewe Osanyin:YorubaMedicinalLeaves.
Ile-Ife: Instituteof African Studies, University of Ife.
Walker, R. A. African Women/AfricanArt. New York: African-
American Institute.
Warren,D. M., A. D. Buckley, andJ.A. Ayandokun.1973. Yoruba
Medicines. Legon: The Instituteof African Studies, University of
Ghana.
Wescott, J. 1962. "The Sculptureand Myths of Eshu-Elegba, the
YorubaTrickster." Africa 32,4:336-353.
Wescott, J. and P. Morton-Williams. 1962. "The Symbolism and
Ritual Context of the YorubaLaba Shango." Journal of the Royal
AnthropologicalInstitute 92,1:23-37 (January/June).
KONGO DRUM, Notes, from page 37
1. Translatedfrom the Italianby the author.The person who made
the list (probablythe collector himself) has madean obvious mistake
in attributingthe carving to the Azande.
2. This type of ndungu was also introducedinto Latin America by
Africanslaves. F. Ortizwroteaboutthis instrumentin Cuba,where it
is called el dungo: "Aged colouredmen tell us thatthe black people
in Loango used in Cuba a wheeled drumcalled dungo or ndungo:it
consists of a large and heavy tree-trunk,emptied inside, the lower
position of which rests on a boardwith wheels at both ends, so thatit
may be drawn around" (vol. 3,1952:408).
3. On the Copenhagendrumstand, the passengersits with crossed
legs on the leather thong-a ratherimprobableposition.
4. Relazione del reame di Congo et delle circonvicine contrade
ricavata (as the author warns us) dalli scritti et ragionamenti de
Odoardo Lopez Portoghese, published in Rome by Bartolomeo
Grassi in 1591 (see De Jonghe 1938 and Filesi 1968).
5. Translatedfrom the Italianby the author.
6. Translatedfromthe Italianby the author.This manuscript,dating
from the beginning of the seventeenthcentury, is a compilationof
documents and informationon the Congo. The author might be
Giovanni Battista Confalonieri, head of the archives of Castel
Sant'Angelo in Rome. See J. Cuvelier and L. Jadin (1954:8).
KONGO DRUM, Bibliography
Boone, Olga. 1951. Les Tamboursdu Congo Belge et du Ruanda
Urundi. Annales du Musee du Congo Belge, Sc. de l'Homme,
Acknowledgments
Page
17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23 (bottom), 24 (top left & center; right) Photographs:Doran H. Ross
19, 23 (top), 24 (bottom left) Photographs: HerbertM. Cole
25 Photographs: Ghana Ministry of Information
26, 27 (bottom; left & right), 28 (left; top), 29, 46 (right), 47 (right) Photographs:Robert Woolard
27 (top center) Photograph: Susan Einstein
28 (bottom right), 49 Photographs: Larry duPont
30-33, Inside Back Cover Photographs: Keith Nicklin
35 Photograph:Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale Archives
38-42 Photographs: Otto Lundbohm
43 (right), 44 (top right), 45 (top left; bottom), 47 (center),
48 (top; bottom right) Photographs: Henry John Drewal
43 (left), 45 (top right), 46 (left & center), 47 (left),48 (bottom left) Photographs: Margaret Drewal
44 (top center) Photograph: Nathaniel Eatman
60 Photographs:John W. Nunley
71 (left) Photograph:Allen Newbourn
73 Photographs:Bob Hanson
74 Photographs:Andre Louis
75 Photographs:Jonas Dovydenas
77 Photographs:Iris Silverman
79 Photographs:Ramiro Fernandez
81 Photographs:Dean-Bradshaw
92
Ethn., Tervuren. New Series 4.
Brasio. A. 1953. Monumenta Missionaria Africana 2. Lisboa:
Agencia Geral do Ultramar.
Cavazzi, G. A. 1687. Istorica Descrizione de tre regni Congo,
Matambae Angola. Bologna: Giacomo Monti.
Cuvelier, J. and L. Jadin. 1954. L'ancien Congo d'apres les Arc-
hives Romains 36,2:8. Brussels: Academie Royale de Sc. Col. T.
Dapper, 0. 1668. Naukeurige Beschrijvingen der afriakaensche
gewesten van Egypten,Barbaryen,Lybien . . . Amsterdam:J. Van
Meurs.
Dapper,0. 1686. Descriptionde l'Afrique . . . Amsterdam:Boom
and Somerer.
de Jonghe, M. E. 1938. "Le Congo au XVI Siecle, Notes sur
Lopez-Pigafetta." InstituteRoyal Col. Belge. Bulletin de Seances
9:33. Brussels.
Filesi, T. 1968. "Duarte Lopez ambasciatoredel Re del Congo
presso Sisto V nel 1588." Africa 23,1:44-84.
Laman, K. 1936. Dictionaire kikongo-frantaise. Brussels.
Ortiz, F. 1952. "Los instrumentosde la musica afrocubana."Pub-
licaciones de la Direccion de Culturadel Ministerode Educacion3.
La Havana.
Pigafetta, Filippo. 1591. Relazione del Reame di Congo et delle
circonvicine contrade. Rome.
Soderberg, B. 1956. Les instrumentsde musiqueau Bas Congo et
dans les regions avoisinantes. Stockholm:The EthnographicalMu-
seum of Sweden.
MASK CARVER, Notes, from page 69
The researchon whichthis paperis basedwas carriedout in 1972 and
1973 in Sierra Leone as partof a wider study of traditionalSierra
Leonean artists.The researchwas sponsoredby the School of Afri-
can and Asian Studies, University of Lagos, Nigeria.
1. Today various forms of Bundu or Bondo associations exist in
many parts of Sierra Leone and Liberia. The Gola and Mende in
Sierra Leone and Liberiacall it Sande. The name "Sande" is also
used by the Gbande and the Kpelle of Liberiato describetheirown
versions of it. Among the Mende the name for the artist is sowei
hawa m6 and the mask is called sowei.
2. In 1668 Dr. Olfert Dapperrecordedthe presenceof Sandeamong
the Gola in the Upper Guinea Coast (in Umstdndliche und
Eigentliche Beschreibungvon AfrikaAnno 1668, reprintedin Ger-
many in 1964). Therearealso referencesto Sandeamongthe Mende
in George Thompson, Thompsonin Africa . . . Mendi Mission,
Cleveland, 1852. References to female initiation-societies in the
Upper Guinea Coast abound in other early Europeanwritings.
3. John Peterson,Province of Freedom:A History of Sierra Leone
1787-1870, Evanston:NorthwesternUniversityPress, 1969, p. 268.
4. This informationis recordedin the official files on the collections
of the Sierra Leone Museum, Freetown, 1966. No pagination.
5. Masksof the Gondeor clown dancervaryin size andformandare
always intended to be ugly. Initiates of Bundu use the masks to
entertainthemselves while in seclusion, enactingthe mannerismsof
ugly and uninitiatedgirls.
SIKILEN MASKS, Notes, from page 64
Researchfor this paperwas completed in affiliationwith the African
Studies Program, University of Ghana, December 1972-August
1973.
1. The entry number for the National Museum mask is C-4-11.
Horned masks of the same style as the la are commonly used in
funeraryceremoniesof the Ko (Gourounsisubgroup)of UpperVolta
(Wallace Pinfold, personal communication 1976).
2. Field photos of the fragmentedmask were taken in February
1973.
3. Field notes, February-March1973. After lengthy negotiationsit
was decided thata white hen should be sacrificed to the spiritof the
mask to offset any offense resulting from my investigation.
4. Two years later I learned from Eugene L. Mendonsa, who has
investigated Sisala divination, that the wearerof the mask became
very ill afterthis episode;his illness was blamedon my queriesabout
the mask.
RARE BOOKS
Rare books on the arts of Africa, Oceania,
China and Japan, the pre-Columbian
Americas; ethnology, history, discovery, ex-
ploration and travel. Books bought and sold
Book wants searched. Write or call: James
Normile/Books, ABAA. 6888 Alta Loma Ter-
race, Los Angeles, California 90068. (213)
874-8434. By appointment only.
AKAN GOLDWEIGHTS
Bought or exchanged by private collector. Box
97, African Arts, African Studies Center,
UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90024.
5. According to Wallace Pinfold, masks of the Ko of Upper Volta
are carvedby casted blacksmiths.This specialized role of the smiths
may exist throughoutthe Voltaic area; in fact, the sikilen masks
might also have been carvedby such smiths. This wouldexplainwhy
the Sisala (who do not have casted smiths)cannotcarve new masks.
6. BruceT. Grindal,writtencorrespondence,1976. It is unfortunate
that Grindal's original print and negative cannot be located. The
dancer who appearsin the photographnow has the only available
copy.
7. This is also the Bobo patternfor masqueradeshonoringthe death
of blacksmiths(Rene A. Bravmann,personal communication).
8. The reportsthat the sikilen was once used to combat anti-social
behavior recalls the function of Gbain anti-witchcraftmasks that
Rene Bravmannhas described in west centralGhana (1974:119).
SIKILEN MASKS, Bibliography
Bravmann, Rene A. 1974. Islam and Tribal Art in West Africa.
London:CambridgeUniversity Press.
Grindal, Bruce Theodore. 1969. Education and Culture Change
Among the Sisala of NorthernGhana. Ph.D. dissertation,Indiana
University.
Mendonsa,Eugene L. 1974. DivinationAmongthe Sisala of North-
ern Ghana. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge.
Nunley, JohnW. 1976. Sisala Sculptureof NorthernGhana. Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Washington.
Ottenberg,Simon. 1975. MaskedRitualsof Afikpo.Seattle:Univer-
sity of WashingtonPress.
Rattray,R. S. 1932. The Tribes of the AshantiHinterland, vol. 2.
Oxford: The ClarendonPress.
Thompson, RobertFarris. 1974. AfricanArt and Motion:Icon and
Act. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of CaliforniaPress.
DOGON ICONOGRAPHY,Notes, from page 57
I am indebtedto Floyd Coleman, an authorityon Afro-Americanart,
fordirectingmy attentionto the Dogon andfor manysuggestionsand
insights relative to their art.
1. This essay by GriauleandDieterlenis a highly condensedexposi-
tion of essential Dogon beliefs. For the sake of convenience and
becauseit gives a simplifiedyet authoritativeview, I have reliedon it
for citation here. For more comprehensive treatmentssee Marcel
Griaule's Dieu d'eau: entretiens avec Ogotemmeli, a record of
conversationswith a Dogon blind man who was a diviner, and his
L'AfriqueNoire.
2. Forexample, the wife of a male child's maternaluncle is addres-
sed by the child as his wife, and the nephew can take all sorts of
liberties with her, up to and including sexual intercourse.
3. See MarcelGriaule(1948: 66) andMarcelGriauleandGermaine
Dieterlen(1951 passim) for a moredetaileddiscussionof this aspect
of Dogon thought.
4. The view thatmen areby natureactiveandwomenpassive has its
origins, surely, in the biological facts of ordinarymammaliancoitus.
Most human societies have, of course, extended the mechanical
characteristicsof lower animalbehaviorfarbeyond nature'smodel.
Forexample, althoughmale lions fightone anotherformatesandcan
overpowermost of the females, what they do mostly is lie around,
roar,andeat. The lionesses are the huntersof the pride;theboys roar
to frighten game toward the ladies.
DOGON ICONOGRAPHY,Bibliography
Fernandez,James. 1966. "Principlesof Oppositionand Vitality in
Fang Aesthetics." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
25,1:59.
Griaule, Marcel. 1947. L'AfriqueNoire, Paris.
Griaule, Marcel. 1948. Dieu d'eau: entretiens avec Ogotemmeli,
Paris.
Griaule, Marcel and GermaineDieterlen. 1951. Signes graphiques
soudanais, Paris.
Griaule, Marcel and Germaine Dieterlen. 1954. "The Dogon."
African Worlds, ed. Daryll Forde, Oxford.
Guillaume, Paul and Thomas Munro. 1926. Primitive Negro
Sculpture, New York.
Pasztory, Esther. 1970. "Hieratic Composition in West African
Art." The Art Bulletin 52,3:305.
Steefel, LawrenceD. Jr. 1975. "A Neglected Shadow in Poussin's
Et in Arcadia Ego." The Art Bulletin 57,1:99-101.
OPPOSITE PAGE: ANANG-IBIBIO FUNERARY SHRINE
ERECTED IN THE MEMORY OF A TRADITIONALCHIEF.
THE SHRINE IS DECORATEDWITHA CLOTHMADEBY AN
APPLIQUE TECHNIQUE: IN FRONT IS A RACK BEARING
BONES FROMTHE BEASTS SACRIFICEDAT THE SECOND
BURIALCEREMONYWHEN THE SHRINE WAS ERECTED.