Global Bauxite WG Report CCC 4-InF.10-Annexes

ANNEX 2 CCC 4/INF.
10
Global Bauxite Working Group
Report on Research into the Behaviour of

Bauxite during Shipping
May 2017
CCC 4/INF.10
Global Bauxite Working Group Report on Research into the Behaviour of Bauxite during Shipping
DISCLAIMER
No person, corporation or other organisation ("person") should rely on the contents of this report and
each should obtain independent advice from a qualified person with respect to the information
contained in this report. The Global Working Group, its members, consultants and contributors
(collectively "GBWG") is not responsible for the consequences of any action taken by any person in
reliance upon the information set out in this report, for the accuracy or veracity of any information
contained in this report or for any error or omission in this report. GBWG expressly disclaims any and
all liability and responsibility to any person in respect of anything done or omitted to be done in
respect of the information set out in this report, any inaccuracy in this report or the consequences of
any action by any person in reliance, whether wholly or partly, upon the whole or any part of the
contents of this report.
i
CCC 4/INF.10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Bauxite has been shipped safely for many decades, however recent events have required industry to
investigate the behaviour of bauxites during shipping. To undertake this task, industry formed the
Global Bauxite Working Group (GBWG) with the aim of conducting a detailed investigation into the
characteristics and behaviour of bauxite during ocean transportation.
The GBWGs specific aims were to:
1. Provide a science based, peer reviewed globally valid criterion for distinguishing Group C and
Group A bauxites.
2. Develop a globally applicable Transportable Moisture Limit (TML) test for Group A bauxites,
which can be used to develop a schedule for Bauxite Fines and amend the schedule for
Bauxite.
Although generally composed of similar minerals, bauxites have large differences in particle size
distribution depending on the deposit and subsequent processing. Bauxites characterised and
investigated by the GBWG include those from Australia, Brazil, India, Indonesia, Guinea, Guyana,
Jamaica and Malaysia -representing over 90% of the seaborne traded bauxites.
Most bauxite is transported in Panamax size vessels, although Capesize and Handymax sizes are
also utilised. Vessel motions were simulated to define the forces acting on the bauxite cargoes. The
results found that Handymax vessels experience the largest motions for similar sea state conditions.
The forward hold experiences the greatest acceleration which is typically less than 1G. Bauxite cargo
was observed during shipping to understand its behaviour. The bauxite cargo mass did not move
significantly within a hold during the voyages undertaken, even though severe weather was
encountered on some journeys. Laser scanning and photogrammetry provided estimations of the
3
bauxite cargoes bulk densities, with values up to 2t/m being measured. Bilge pumping data,
discharge inspections and observations show some bauxites are free draining, and that the formation
of a wet base in such bauxite cargoes was not dangerous and was instead evidence of free draining
behaviour of the cargo.
The GBWG utilised various experimental techniques, including cyclic triaxial testing (CTT) and
physical modelling to investigate all possible modes of instabilities of bauxite due to moisture. The
assessed bauxites did not liquefy in cyclic triaxial tests conducted in undrained conditions at worst-
case ship motions. However, some bauxite exhibited excessive straining in these tests. Physical
modelling tests found that some bauxites exhibit instabilities due to moisture where the cargo
dynamically separates to form a perched free slurry surface with an underlying lower water content,
unsaturated and competent solid cargo. A detailed explanation of the dynamic separation mechanism,
together with a geotechnical background is outlined in the report. For the cargo to undergo dynamic
separation, it must have considerable amount of fines particles, high moisture content and experience
sufficient forces due to vessel motions. If all of these factors are present, the cargo, that was initially a
pile, will compact, pore water pressures will increase, but not to liquefaction levels, causing moisture
to be expelled to the cargo surface. The bulk of the cargo becomes lower in moisture content and
more competent than its original state. As the water migrates to the surface, the pile can slump and
flatten to form a free slurry surface. This was further verified with evidence from real world shipments
of bauxites showing that instabilities due to moisture cannot be explained by liquefaction phenomena,
but can be explained by a dynamic separation mechanism of instability.
Based on the bauxites propensity to strain (cyclic softening) in CTT or undergo dynamic separation in
physical tests, a criterion to distinguish Group A and Group C bauxites was developed. The criterion
offers a safety margin on the measured particle sizes of 19 to 25% in relative terms. The criterion
proposed by the GBWG is;
o Group C D301mm OR D402.5mm OR BOTH

o Group A D30<1mm AND D40<2.5mm
Where Dx is the size corresponding to x% on the cumulative particle size distribution curve.
ii
CCC 4/INF.10
The effect of dynamic separation phenomena on cargo stability and on the vessel behaviour was
investigated and compared to known vessel behaviour from empirical evidence - particularly evidence
from vessel losses and incidents. Where cargo instability due to moisture was by dynamic separation
two distinct phases of vessel behaviour (leading to capsize) will be experienced;
o Phase 1: - development of a list or steady heel due to free surface effects

o Phase 2: - catastrophic capsizing due to cargo shift.
The implications of dynamic separation of the cargo to the safety of the vessel and its crew are
significant and pose similar risks to the vessel of that of liquefaction of the cargo.
To ensure the safe shipping of Group A bauxites, the development of a TML test applicable to global
bauxites must provide a TML that mitigates the risk of any cargo instabilities due to moisture -
including the dynamic separation phenomenon. The Proctor-Fagerberg test (PFT) is the only TML test
based on sound geotechnical principles while measuring key geotechnical parameters. This makes it
an appropriate test for determining a TML for all the identified moisture-controlled instability
mechanisms, including liquefaction risk and dynamic separation. The PFT determined TML ensures
the bauxite is drier than the optimum moisture content (OMC) which prevents the generation of pore
water pressures and reduces the risk of moisture migration.
A bauxite PFT which utilises a larger mould size and sample reconstitution allows proper testing of
bauxites containing large particles, and is recommended. Furthermore, calibration of the compactive
effort to match the measured in hold determined densities found the D hammer to be the most
appropriate effort whilst still being conservative.
Utilising the proposed bauxite PFT D method produced compaction curves where the OMC of all the
bauxites tested consistently occurred between 80-95% saturation. The method also provided good
repeatability in TML results. The GBWG recommends that the TML of the tested bauxite is read at
70% or 80% saturation, depending on the saturation degree of its OMC. In either case, a minimum
further safety margin of 10% on the degree of saturation is provided by the proposed method. This
compares with a 5% margin provided by Fagerberg (1965) and Fagerberg and Stavang (1971) in the
standard Proctor Fagerberg method.
Based on the GBWG research into the safe shipping of globally traded seaborne bauxite, the group
recommends:
1. The draft schedules for Group A BAUXITE FINES and Group C BAUXITE which are included
in the report be considered for inclusion in the IMSBC code.
2. The amended Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test methodology developed as part of the
research is considered for inclusion in Appendix 2 of the IMSBC code.
3. Further consideration be given to the classification category of Group A liable to liquefy
cargoes, to broaden it, as other excess moisture-induced cargo instabilities may also need to
be considered.
iii
CCC 4/INF.10
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Global Bauxite Working Group (GBWG) ............................................................................. 1
1.2 General Characteristics of Bauxite...................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Description ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Sources .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.3 Seaborne volume ........................................................................................................... 4
1.2.4 Chemistry/Minerology ..................................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Mining/Processing .......................................................................................................... 5
1.3 IMSBC Code Bauxite Schedule History .............................................................................. 6
1.4 Characteristics of Bauxites studied by GBWG .................................................................... 6
1.5 Cargo Instabilities due to Moisture .................................................................................... 21
1.5.1 Tests to understand/quantify cargo behaviours and instabilities .................................... 21
1.6 Chapter 1 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 22
2 Chapter 2 Vessel Motions and Cargo Behaviour .................................................................... 23
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 23
2.2 Vessel Motions and Forces .............................................................................................. 23
2.2.1 Calculated Vessel Motions and Forces ......................................................................... 23
2.3 Cargo Observations ......................................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 Introduction and Methods ............................................................................................. 32
2.3.2 Results ......................................................................................................................... 33
2.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 50
3 Chapter 3 Bauxite Instabilities Due To Moisture ........................................................................ 51
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 51
3.2 Background to geotechnical behaviour of granular materials such as bauxite cargoes ...... 51
3.3 Liquefaction Investigation ................................................................................................. 53
3.3.1 Induced Cargo Stresses ............................................................................................... 53
3.3.2 Cargo resistance Stresses - Cyclic Triaxial Tests (CTT) ................................................ 56
3.3.3 Analysis of Resistance to Liquefaction .......................................................................... 65
3.3.4 Other Tests Direct Simple Shear (DSS) Tests ............................................................ 66
3.4 Other Modes of Instabilities .............................................................................................. 69
3.4.1 Hexapod Tests ............................................................................................................. 69
3.4.2 Dynamic Centrifuge (DC).............................................................................................. 71
3.5 Bauxite Instability Mechanism........................................................................................... 80
3.5.1 Schematic of Dynamic Separation of Bauxite Cargo ..................................................... 82
3.6 Generalised Behaviour of Bauxite..................................................................................... 84
iv
CCC 4/INF.10
3.7 Criteria of Classification of Bauxite ................................................................................... 85

3.7.1 Criteria definition .......................................................................................................... 86
3.8 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 90
4 Chapter 4: Influence of Cargo Behaviour on Vessel Stability ..................................................... 91
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 91
4.2 Evidence from Vessel Incidents and Accidents ................................................................. 91
4.2.1 Summary of Vessel Incidents and Accidents................................................................. 92
4.2.2 Summary of the Vessel Behaviour Leading to Capsizing............................................... 93
4.3 Impact of Fluid Cargo Components on Vessel Stability ..................................................... 93
4.3.1 Free Surface Effect (FSE)............................................................................................. 93
4.3.2 Assessment of Reduction in Stability due Free Surface Effect....................................... 95
4.3.3 Magnitude of the steady heel (Phase 1) ........................................................................ 96
4.3.4 Effect of Wind and Waves on the Heel Angle .............................................................. 101
4.3.5 Capsizing (Phase 2) ................................................................................................... 102
4.3.6 Mechanistic Evaluation ............................................................................................... 103
4.3.7 Small scale model confirmation .................................................................................. 104
4.3.8 Summary of Sequence of Events leading to the Capsize of a Handymax ship............. 107
4.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 108
5 Chapter 5 Bauxite TML Test Development ........................................................................... 109
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 109
5.2 Background to geotechnical behaviour of compacted granular material such as bauxites 109
5.3 Limitations of Existing IMSBC TML Test Methods for Bauxite Ores ................................. 112
5.4 Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test Development ................................................................ 113
5.4.1 PFT Mould Size Selection........................................................................................... 113
5.4.2 PFT Hammer Selection .............................................................................................. 114
5.4.3 Specific Gravity (SG) Determination ........................................................................... 115
5.4.4 Sample Preparation for Testing .................................................................................. 115
5.4.5 Bauxite PFT Procedure .............................................................................................. 119
5.5 Bauxite PFT Results .................................................................................................... 120
5.6 Experimental Repeatability and Reproducibility............................................................... 131
5.7 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 132
6 Conclusion and Recommendations ......................................................................................... 133
6.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 133
6.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 135
6.2.1 Proposed Bauxite Fines Schedule .............................................................................. 136
6.2.2 Proposed Bauxite Schedule........................................................................................ 138
v
CCC 4/INF.10
6.2.3 Proposed Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test Method ..................................................... 140

7 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 147
vi
CCC 4/INF.10
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Global Bauxite Deposits ...................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: Global Bauxite resources by country (2016) (ROW = Rest of World) ................................... 4
Figure 3: Global Bauxite Seaborne Trade, Mtpa by country (2016)..................................................... 4
Figure 4: Vessel Size used for Seaborne Bauxite Trade as % of Total Seaborne Tonnage ................. 5
Figure 5: Vessel Size used for Seaborne Bauxite Trade as % of Total Shipments .............................. 5
Figure 6: Particle Size Distribution of Nominal Bauxite Products......................................................... 7
Figure 7: D50 versus D10 of Bauxite Nominal Products ........................................................................ 8
Figure 8: % Passing 0.063mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Bauxite Nominal Products ...................... 9
Figure 9: % Passing 0.1mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products .......................... 9
Figure 10: % Passing 5mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products ......................... 10
Figure 11: % Passing 10mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products ....................... 10
Figure 12: % Passing 1mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products ......................... 11
Figure 13: Photograph of A1 bauxite ................................................................................................ 12
Figure 17: Photograph of B1 bauxite ................................................................................................ 14
Figure 24: Photograph of C2 bauxite................................................................................................ 17
Figure 28: Photograph of R1 bauxite................................................................................................ 19
Figure 29: Photograph of R2 bauxite................................................................................................ 20
Figure 30: Photograph of G1 bauxite ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 31: Photograph of G2 bauxite ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 32: Global Wave Statistics climatological areas ..................................................................... 24
Figure 33: Wave scatter diagram for area 41, East China Sea ......................................................... 24
Figure 34: Operability plot ................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 35: Malaysia China Route .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 36: Australia China Route .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 37: Brazil China Route ....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 38: Guinea China Route..................................................................................................... 27
Figure 39: Tropical Revolving Storm Map ........................................................................................ 28
Figure 40: Encountered Roll Response for Australia-China route for a 205kDWT Capesize vessel... 28
Figure 41: Distribution of SDA values............................................................................................... 29
Figure 42: Australia - China Route mean, most probable voyage and 1% extreme SDA values ........ 30
Figure 43: Brazil - China Route mean, most probable voyage and 1% extreme SDA values ............. 30
Figure 44: Guinea - China Route mean, most probable voyage (MPV) and 1% extreme SDA values 31
Figure 45: 50kDWT Handymax mean, most probable voyage and 1% extreme SDA values ............. 32
Figure 46: Cargo observed (a) after loading and (b) before discharge .............................................. 33
Figure 47: Cargo observed (a) after loading and (b) before discharge for Cargo hold No.1 ............... 34
vii
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 48: Photos showing dry cargo hold conditions at end of discharge ........................................ 35
Figure 49: Photos showing wet cargo hold conditions at end of discharge ........................................ 35
Figure 50: Example of laser scanner output of cargo surface ........................................................... 36
Figure 51: Laser scan of empty hold 1 ............................................................................................. 37
Figure 52: Laser scan of hold 1 containing cargo, (a) after loading and (b) before discharging.......... 37
Figure 53: Cross section of cargo after loading and before discharge ............................................... 37
Figure 54: Example 1 - Photographs comparing as loaded and before discharge Brazilian bauxite for
domestic market .............................................................................................................................. 39
domestic market .............................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 56: Photographs comparing as loaded and before discharge Brazilian bauxite for international
market ............................................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 57: Location of the 5 mooring points used to measure the laser scanner. .............................. 41
Figure 58: Images of the Forte So Jos Ship with details of the laser scanning, performed to
calculate the volume ........................................................................................................................ 42
Figure 59: Demonstration of the ship in real image docked at the terminal, scanned image and detail
of the loaded holds .......................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 60: Details off the laser scanned hold with cargo as loaded before the voyage ...................... 43
Figure 61: Malaysia bauxite vessel monitoring period and example of recorded sea and wind
conditions ........................................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 62: Typical cargo pictures before and after voyage for Malaysian bauxite .............................. 45
Figure 63: Photograph of crew conducting ullage measurement on Malaysian bauxite cargo ........... 45
Figure 64: Average Cargo compaction form ullage measurement for Malaysian bauxite ................... 45
Figure 65: Summary of bilge water drainage in cargo holds ............................................................. 46
Figure 66: Photogrammetry records for Malaysian bauxite ............................................................... 47
Figure 67: Number of vessels monitored .......................................................................................... 48
Figure 68: Average cargo after voyage compaction for Guinean bauxite .......................................... 48
Figure 69: Typical cargo pictures before and after voyage for Guinean bauxite, and photo of empty
hold after discharge showing dry tank top and outline of cargo geometry. ........................................ 49
Figure 70: Summary of bilge water drainage in cargo holds for Guinean bauxite .............................. 49
Figure 71: Spectrum of particle size distributions for a binary granular material and the role of the fine
fraction ............................................................................................................................................ 51
Figure 72: mechanisms by which granular assemblies carry load illustrated by analysis of forces
(19,20,21,22)
within a loaded assembly of photoelastic rods (e.g. Oda and co-workers ). .......................... 52
Figure 73: Similar force chains/ network in a real soil composed of a mix of coarse and fine particles.
........................................................................................................................................................ 52
Figure 74: Filling the pore space between a granular network with small diameter or larger diameter
fines fraction. This has a secondary effect on behaviour of the mix. ................................................. 53
Figure 75: Induced CSR for bauxites transported on all routes using Handymax, Panamax and two
different Capesize vessels ............................................................................................................... 54
Figure 76: Induced CSR for bauxites transported in Capesize vessels ............................................. 55
Figure 77: Induced CSR for bauxites transported in Panamax vessels ............................................. 55
Figure 78: Induced CSR for bauxites transported in Handymax vessels ........................................... 56
Figure 79: Target resistance CSR for Cyclic Triaxial Tests ............................................................... 56
Figure 80: Cyclic Triaxial Testing System (Courtesy of Russell geotechnical Innovations) ................ 57
Figure 81: CTT test sequence and drainage conditions .................................................................... 58
Figure 82: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical coarse bauxite
........................................................................................................................................................ 59
Figure 83: Example of Shear Stress t verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical coarse bauxite ... 59
viii
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 84: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Axial Strain for a typical coarse bauxite .................. 60
Figure 85: Example of Excess Pore Pressure Ratio verses Number of Cycles for a typical coarse
bauxite ............................................................................................................................................ 60
Figure 86: Example of Axial Strain verses Number of Cycles for a typical coarse bauxite ................. 61
Figure 87: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical fine bauxite ... 62
Figure 88: Example of Shear Stress t verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical fine bauxite ........ 62
Figure 89: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Axial Strain for a typical fine bauxite ....................... 63
Figure 90: Example of Excess Pore Pressure Ratio verses Number of Cycles for a typical fine bauxite
........................................................................................................................................................ 63
Figure 91: Example of Axial Strain verses Number of Cycles for a typical fine bauxite ...................... 64
Figure 92: Patterns of behaviour in a CTT test if liquefaction occurs or if cyclic softening occurs. ..... 65
Figure 93: Pore Water Pressure Ratio as a function of % Passing 2.5mm ........................................ 65
Figure 94: Resistance CSR verses Induced CSR of Bauxite ............................................................ 66
Figure 95: Principal stress rotation during rolling. ............................................................................. 66
Figure 96: Schematic of Direct Simple Shear Test ........................................................................... 67
Figure 97: Typical results of the the simple shear tests. ................................................................... 68
Figure 98: Schematic of Permeability Tests carried out during CTT tests ......................................... 68
Figure 99: Example of saturated permeability test on a coarse ore after anisotropic consolidation .... 69
Figure 100: Example of saturated permeability test on a fine ore after anisotropic consolidation ....... 69
Figure 101: Hexapod apparatus ....................................................................................................... 70
Figure 102: Example of the behaviour of coarse bauxite in Hexapod tests (a) test start, and (b) test
end .................................................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 103: Example of the behaviour of fine bauxite in Hexapod tests (a) test start, and (b) test end
........................................................................................................................................................ 71
Figure 104: Dynamic Centrifuge Rolling Table ................................................................................. 72
Figure 105: DC RT container with bauxite pile ................................................................................. 73
Figure 106: Bauxite Base (22.9% -1mm, 34.1% -2.5mm) Before and After test pile profile and Water
location............................................................................................................................................ 74
Figure 107: Bauxite BX1 (29.8% -1mm, 42.5% -2.5mm) Before and After test pile profile and Water
location............................................................................................................................................ 74
location............................................................................................................................................ 75
location............................................................................................................................................ 75
location............................................................................................................................................ 76
location............................................................................................................................................ 76
Figure 112: Side and top view of water table formation in coarse bauxite tests ................................. 77
Figure 113: (a) Perched Water Table with (b) drier competent Bauxite underneath .......................... 77
Figure 114: Comparison of moisture content for coarse (BX2) and fine (BX3) bauxites in DC RT tests
........................................................................................................................................................ 78
Figure 115: Comparison of saturation degree for coarse (BX2) and fine (BX3) bauxites in DC RT tests
........................................................................................................................................................ 78
Figure 116: % Change in Bauxite Pile Height in Dynamic Centrifuge Tests as a function of % Passing
1mm ................................................................................................................................................ 79
2.5mm ............................................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 118: Example 1 of bauxite cargo dynamic separation ............................................................ 80
ix
CCC 4/INF.10

Figure 122: Schematic of initial unsaturated cargo in the loaded state .............................................. 82
Figure 123: Schematic of the initial stage of cargo instability via dynamic separation........................ 83
Figure 124: Schematic of the second stage of cargo instability via dynamic separation .................... 83
Figure 125: Schematic of the final stage of cargo instability via dynamic separation ......................... 83
Figure 126: Schematic of the final state of cargo after dynamic separation ....................................... 84
Figure 127: Bauxite behaviour summary of CTT based on % passing 1mm and 2.5mm ................... 85
Figure 128: Bauxites behaviour summary for all tests based on % passing 1mm and 2.5mm ........... 86
Figure 129: Criterion to distinguish bauxites based on % passing 1mm and 2.5mm.......................... 87
Figure 130: Undefined region if sizing criteria utilises different sizings .............................................. 88
Figure 131: GBWG proposed Criteria against the Nominal Bauxite Product PSDs........................... 89
Figure 132: Nominal Bauxite psds, GBWG Proposed criteria verses Japanese Port Authority Grading
Envelopes ....................................................................................................................................... 89
Figure 133: Schematic of vessel under upright and rolling conditions ............................................... 94
Figure 134: Schematic illustrations of the two free surface cargo geometry cases a) Flat Cargo and, b)
Peaked Cargo Pile........................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 135: Stabilising Destabilising Moment Effect of Slurry height on Heel Angle Flat Cargo
Case, 5 holds .................................................................................................................................. 98
Figure 136: Stabilising Destabilising Moment Effect of Slurry density on Heel Angle Flat Cargo
Case, FSE in 5 Holds ...................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 137: Stabilising Destabilising Moment Effect of Slurry Density on Heel Angle Peaked
Cargo Pile Case, FSE in 5 Holds ..................................................................................................... 99
Figure 138: Stabilising - Destabilising Moment Effect of No. of Holds with Free Surface for Flat
Cargo Case ................................................................................................................................... 100
Figure 139: Stabilising - Destabilising Moment Effect of No. of Holds with Free Surface for Peaked
Cargo Pile Case ............................................................................................................................ 100
(35)
Figure 140: Real-World example showing Phase 1: vessel listing due to free slurry surface ....... 101
Figure 141: Schematic of the Effect of Wind and Waves on Heel Angle.......................................... 101
Figure 142: Heel as a function of Fluid Hold Length (No of Holds) and free slurry surface density .. 102
Figure 143: Schematic of the final state of cargo after dynamic separation ..................................... 103
Figure 144: Schematic of the free slurry surface causes vessel to develop list or heel (Phase 1) .... 103
Figure 145: Schematic of the free slurry surface causes vessel list or heel to increase ................... 103
Figure 146: Schematic of the free slurry surface eroding the flattened cargo .................................. 104
Figure 147: Schematic of the final state of cargo and vessel after catastrophic roll and capsizing
(Phase 2) ...................................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 148: 1:180 scale model ....................................................................................................... 105
Figure 149: Model vessel behaviour due to FSE with 2 holds with free slurry surface ..................... 105
Figure 152: Comparison of real vessel and model vessel behaviour ............................................... 107
Figure 153: Compaction curve at a given compaction energy - configuration of the solid, water and air
phases in various parts of the compaction curve ............................................................................ 110
Figure 154: Compaction curve for a fine bauxite illustrating the granular fabric depicted in Figure 153
...................................................................................................................................................... 110
Figure 155: Compaction curve for a fine bauxite and the associated behaviour in the hexapod ...... 111
x
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 156: Illustration of the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) the parameter that controls the rate at
which, (i) pore water pressures dissipate and (ii) water is expelled from a saturated or nearly
saturated material ( w in the equation for Cv is the bulk unit weight) ............................................. 111
Figure 157: Standard D hammer (left) and Coal Modified D hammer for comparison (right)............ 114
Figure 158: Sample marked by standard D hammer compaction pattern in the 150mm CBR mould 115
Figure 159: Sample marked by modified D hammer compaction pattern in the 150mm mould ........ 115
Figure 160: Example where no reconstitution was necessary (weight % fraction > 25mm ~ 1%) .... 117
Figure 161: Example where Bauxite sample requires reconstitution (weight % fraction > 25mm ~ 28%)
...................................................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 162: Example of Particle Size Distributions of as shipped, 25mm scalped (-25mm),
reconstitution coarse fraction (-25mm +6.3mm) and the final reconstituted bauxite sample for testing
...................................................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 163: Effect of Scalping when 10% or less of material is greater than 25mm......................... 118
Figure 164: Schematic diagram of reconstitution sample procedure ............................................... 118
Figure 165: Proctor-Fagerberg compaction curves. Part (a) shows a curve with OMC at 95%
saturation. The TML is determined for a saturation of 80%. Part (b) shows a curve with OMC less than
90% saturation. The TML is determined for a saturation of 70%. .................................................... 120
Figure 166: Modified PFT Result Bauxite 1 ................................................................................. 121
Figure 172: Modified PFT Results Bauxite 7 ............................................................................... 124
Figure 175: Modified PFT Result Bauxite 10 ............................................................................... 125
Figure 180: In-hold bulk density versus Bauxite PFT bulk density................................................... 128
Figure 181: Examples of OMCs between 80% - 90% saturation and OMCs above 90% saturation 129
Figure 182: Overall results for bauxites tested according to Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg methodology
...................................................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 183: BS1377 method with 37.5mm scalp verses GBWG method sample 1.......................... 130
Figure 184: BS1377 method with 37.5mm scalp verses GBWG method sample 2.......................... 131
Figure 185: Example of bauxites after reconstitution (except for V no reconstitution necessary) .. 131
Figure 186: TML Results of tests done for 6 different bauxites at different labs............................... 132
xi
CCC 4/INF.10
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: GBWG Members and details ................................................................................................ 1
Table 2: Cargo compaction from cargo height (ullage) measurements ............................................. 34
Table 3: Bilge pumping summary ..................................................................................................... 35
Table 4: Bilge water volumes and percent cargo moisture reduction ................................................ 36
Table 5: Laser scanning summary of all hold results for cargo compaction and bulk density ............. 38
Table 6: Laser scanning results - Bulk density of bauxite B6 before and after voyage....................... 43
Table 7: Laser scanning results - Bulk density of bauxite B1 before and after voyage....................... 43
Table 8: Photogrammetry results - Bulk density of bauxite C5 before and after voyage .................... 47
(18)
Table 9: Bulk density of bauxite G2 based on ISO bulk density test .............................................. 50
Table 10: Bauxite mixes tested in the DC RT ................................................................................... 72
Table 11: Reduction of GM and vessel behaviour due to FSE alone................................................. 96
Table 12: Loss of GM and resulting GM for Handymax vessel under Flat Cargo and Cargo Pile Cases
........................................................................................................................................................ 97
Table 13: Existing IMSBC PFT mould and CBR adopted for bauxite mould dimensions ................. 113
Table 14: PFT equipment details and resulting compaction compactive effort ................................ 114
xii
CCC 4/INF.10
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS

Term Meaning
AS Australian Standards
ASTM American Standards and Test Methods

BC Bulk Cargo
BS British Standards
BF Beaufort Scale
CBR California Bearing ratio ( a standard mould size)

CoG Centre of Gravity
Cyclic Stress Ratio, which is the ratio of the axial deviator stress to the sample confining
CSR
stress in cyclic triaxial testing
CTT Cyclic Triaxial Testing
DC Dynamic Centrifuge
DEM Discrete Element Modelling
DSC Dangerous Goods and Solid Cargoes

DSO Direct Shipping Ore
DSS Direct Simple Shear Test
DWT Dead Weight Tonnes
FEM Finite Element Modelling

FSE Free Surface Effect
GBWG GBWG
GCG Geotechnical Consulting Group
GM Distance from vessels Centre of Gravity to its Metacentre (m)

Group A Cargoes which may be liable to liquefy
Group B Cargoes which may have chemical hazards
Group C Cargoes which have no hazards
GWS Global Wave Statistics

Hs Significant Wave Height (m)
IMO International Maritime Organization
IMSBC Code International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes code
IO Iron Ore
IOF Iron Ore Fines
ISO International Standards Organisation
MPV Most Probable Voyage
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
xiii
CCC 4/INF.10
PFT Proctor-Fagerberg Test

Proctor-Fagerberg test method using C energy compaction hammer as described in
PFT C
Appendix 2 of the IMSBC code
The moisture content at which 70% saturation is achieved in the modified Proctor-
PFT-D70
Fagerberg method for bauxite, when using a D energy compaction hammer.
The moisture content at which 80% saturation is achieved in the modified Proctor-
PFT-D80
Fagerberg method for bauxite, when using a D energy compaction hammer.
PSD Particle Size Distribution
PWP Pore Water Pressure
RAO Response Amplitude Operator

RGI Russell Geotechnical Innovations
RT Rolling Table
SAFETRANS Simulation software for vessel motion modelling
SDA Significant Double Amplitude

SG Specific Gravity
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea convention
TML Transportable Moisture Limit
TRS Tropical Revolving Storm

TWG Technical Working Group
VPR Vessel Performance Report
xiv
CCC 4/INF.10
1 Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Global Bauxite Working Group (GBWG)
There is a long history of safely shipping bauxites over many decades and problems and accidents
resulting from carrying bauxite cargoes are extremely rare. However, after the loss of the bauxite
carrying vessel the Bulk Jupiter in early 2015, the global bauxite industry was requested by the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) to undertake research into the behaviour of bauxites during
ocean transportation. The global bauxite industry responded by forming the Global Bauxite Working
Group (GBWG) to conduct research on the behaviour and characteristics of seaborne traded bauxites
to inform the IMO in relation to the safe shipping of bauxites. The GBWG study required the research
undertaken to be aligned, globally applicable and peer reviewed before its submission into the IMO.
The GBWGs specific aims are:
to provide a science based, globally valid criterion for distinguishing Group C and Group A
bauxites,
to develop a globally applicable TML test for Group A bauxites, and,
to inform the drafting of the new individual schedule for Group A bauxite fines, and the
amending of the existing Group C bauxite schedule.
The GBWG membership consists of a wide variety of key disciplines, including shippers (miners),
transporters (ship owner/operators) and users (alumina refinery operators) as well as various
consultants with backgrounds in geotechnical and hydraulic engineering, maritime science
engineering and real world operations.
The GBWG members and their details are outlined in Table 1 below. This research report is the
output of the global bauxite industry and its consultants who are jointly the authors of the GBWG
report.
Table 1: GBWG Members and details
Company Company Email GBWG Role

Contact
Rio Tinto Dr T. Evans tim.evans@riotinto.com GBWG Chair &
Author
Rio Tinto Mr O. owen.lofthouse@riotinto.com GBWG Member
Lofthouse & Author
Alcoa Mr G. Correria gustavo.correia@alcoa.com.br GBWG Member
& Author
Alcoa Mrs H. Ruggeri heloisa.ruggeri@alcoa.com.br GBWG Member
& Author
MRN Mr C. da Silva cacio.silva@mrn.com.br GBWG Member
& Author
Winning Mr L. Jian lujian@winninglogistic.com GBWG Member
& Contributor
Rusal Cpt K. Cribbin kevin.cribbin@augh.com GBWG Member
& Author
Oldendorff Cpt P. Jeffrey paul.jeffrey@oldendorff.com GBWG Member
& Author
South32 Mr I. Omar irshad.omar@south32.net GBWG Member
& Author
Deltares Mr J. johan.pennekamp@deltares.nl GBWG Member
Pennekamp & Author
1
CCC 4/INF.10
Company Company Email GBWG Role

Contact
RGI Mr C. Russell russellgeotech@russellgeotech.co.uk GBWG Member
& Author
GCG Dr C. Menkiti c.o.menkiti@gcg.co.uk GBWG Member
& Author
GCG Dr D. Hight d.w.hight75@gmail.com GBWG Member
& Author
Pimenta DeAvila Mr J. Pimeta joaquim.pimenta@pimentadeavila.com.br GBWG Member
de Avila & Contributor
CastelloMisorelli Mr R. Castello Robin.castello@castellomisorelli.com.br GBWG Head of
External Affairs
As some of the GBWG members operate as competitors, strict anti-trust regulations have been
followed by all members of the GBWG. The anti-trust statement outlined below is read and agreed to
by all members before each meeting and interaction.
Meeting participants are reminded that there can be no discussion of commercially sensitive
information of any nature. This includes discussions on sales, prices, specific products, production
volumes, marketing, supply and customer information, or effects from adverse regulations on
transactions, expansion plans and revenues. Results and details of tests shared should not be linked
or identified to specific products. In general, discussions should be kept generic and non-specific and
related to issues concerning test methods. If in doubt, attendees are instructed to bring the matter to
the attention of the Chair; attendees are also reminded they have access to in-house counsel and
may seek their advice on any anti-trust matters.
Chapter 1 of the GBWG report outlines the following:
general characteristic of bauxites,

the IMO schedule history of their safe transportation,
the characteristics of the bauxites studied by the GBWG,
an overview of potential cargo instabilities due to moisture,
and the tests used by the GBWG to elucidate the behaviour of bauxites during shipping.
Chapter 2 focuses on vessel motions and behaviour of bauxite cargoes. Vessel motions define the
forces acting on the bauxite cargoes. Quantification of the bauxite cargo behaviour during shipping
provides the initial conditions and calibration data required for lab testing.
Chapter 3 discusses in detail the possible modes of instabilities of bauxite due to moisture and
outlines the various experimental techniques that were used to investigate theses instabilities and the
outcomes of the tests. The ramifications of classifying bauxites as either Group A or Group C cargoes
are presented.
Chapter 4 summarises the empirical evidence of the vessels behaviour when cargoes have had
instabilities. The possible bauxite instabilities due to moisture highlighted in Chapter 3 are analysed
for their influence on the stability of the vessel and compared to the vessels behaviour from empirical
evidence.
Chapter 5 outlines the development of a TML test applicable to global bauxites for use to ensure the
safe shipping of Group A bauxites.
Chapter 6 summarises the findings of the GBWG study on bauxites behaviour and provides
recommendations on ensuring the safe shipping of bauxites, including proposed draft individual
schedules for Group A BAUXITE FINES, and amendments to the existing schedule for Group C
BAUXITE.
2
CCC 4/INF.10
1.2 General Characteristics of Bauxite
1.2.1 Description
Bauxite is a rock formed from the weathering of either silicate rocks (granite/basalt) or carbonate
rocks (limestone/dolomite). The main formation of bauxite is via silica rocks to form lateritic bauxite
where long term leaching of silica and other soluble materials due to a wet tropical or subtropical
climate results in the precipitation of aluminium hydroxides, namely gibbsite.
Large bauxite deposits are usually found as flat layers near the surface which extend many square
kilometres. Bauxite deposit layer thicknesses are typically about 5m however they can vary from less
than 1m to 40m.
Bauxite is typically a soft, white to grey to reddish brown material with an earthy luster. Bauxite was
named after the village Les Baux in southern France, where it was first recognised as containing
aluminium and named by the French geologist Pierre Berthier in 1821. Bauxite is the primary
aluminium ore for most of the worlds production of aluminium, with aluminium being the third most
abundant element in the earths crust.
1.2.2 Sources
Bauxite is found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical areas such as Africa, South America and Australia
with some small deposits located in Europe. Figure 1 outlines the regions where commercially viable
bauxite deposits are found.
Figure 1: Global Bauxite Deposits
Figure 2 provides the resources of global bauxites deposits by country (2016 data). Guinea and
Australia have by far the largest resources of bauxite in the world, followed by Brazil, Vietnam and
Jamaica. Indonesia, China and Guyana have the next largest bauxite resources at around 1000Mt,
followed by India, Suriname and Ghana with around 500Mt in bauxite resources.
3
CCC 4/INF.10
Jamaica, 2000
Indonesia, 1000
China, 980
Vietnam,
2100
Country, Mt
Guyana, 850
Brazil, 2600 India, 590

Sierra Leone, 300
Suriname, 580
ROW, 2700 Ghana, 400

Russia, 200
Other, 920
Kazakhstan, 160
Australia, 6200 Greece, 130

Guinea, 7400
Malaysia, 110
US, 20
Figure 2: Global Bauxite resources by country (2016) (ROW = Rest of World)
1.2.3 Seaborne volume
A total of approximately 100Mt of bauxite is transported by sea annually with the major shipping
countries as depicted below in Figure 3. Brazil and Guinea dominate seaborne supply with over
30Mtpa each. Australia supplies over 20Mtpa and Malaysia accounts for about 10Mtpa. Small
amounts are supplied from Sierra Leone, Guyana, Ghana and other shippers.
Figure 3: Global Bauxite Seaborne Trade, Mtpa by country (2016)
Indonesia supplied seaborne bauxite up to 50Mtpa prior to a bauxite export ban being put in place in
2014 by the Indonesian government. Since then other suppliers, notably Malaysia, Guinea and China,
have increased production to meet the demands of the Chinese bauxite refineries.
Figure 4 illustrates the vessel fleet utilised in the seaborne bauxite freight market. The majority of sea
freight is in Panamax (~80kDWT) sized vessels with approximately 10% each now being shipped in
Capesize (~>170kDWT) and Handymax (~50kDWT) vessels.
4
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 4: Vessel Size used for Seaborne Bauxite Trade as % of Total Seaborne Tonnage
The number of shipments that the seaborne tonnages equates to, based on the bauxite carrying fleet
is given in Figure 5. The Panamax size ships still are the dominate size vessel on a number of
shipment basis, with nearly 80% of bauxite carrying voyages being in Panamax vessels. Capesize
account for about 5% of the voyages and Handymax are about 16% of the total bauxite voyages.
Figure 5: Vessel Size used for Seaborne Bauxite Trade as % of Total Shipments
1.2.4 Chemistry/Minerology
Bauxite does not have a specific composition as it is a mixture of aluminium hydroxides, clay
minerals, and insoluble materials such as quartz, hematite, magnetite, siderite, and goethite. The
aluminium minerals in bauxite can include gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite AlO(OH), and, diaspore,
AlO(OH). Iron usually exists in bauxite as either goethite FeO(OH) and/or hematite Fe2O3. Bauxite
may also include the clay mineral kaolinite Al2SiO5(OH)4, and small amounts of the titanium minerals
anatase TiO2, Ilmenite, FeTiO3, and FeOTiO2. Generally commercially viable grades of bauxite range
up to 50% in aluminium hydroxides, up to 35% silica usually as quartz, up to 15% hematite/goethite
and up to 15% kaolinite.
1.2.5 Mining/Processing
Bauxite is usually extracted by strip mining, as it is almost always found near the land surface, with
processes that vary slightly depending on the location. The layer under the top soil is known as the
5
CCC 4/INF.10
overburden. On some surface deposits there is no overburden, and on others, the bauxite may be
covered by up to 20m of rock and clay. The bauxite layer beneath the overburden is broken up using
methods such a blasting, drilling and ripping with very large bulldozers. Once the bauxite is loosened
into manageable pieces it is generally loaded into trucks, railroad cars or conveyors and transported
to pre-processing plants (crushing and washing) before being stockpiled and then shipped to alumina
refineries.
In relation to the pre-processing of ore as mined prior to loading for shipping, seaborne bauxite can be
considered to fall in one of three categories:
1. Direct Shipped Ore (DSO): minimum screening and crushing to remove oversize and organic
contamination (tree roots etc).
2. Beneficiated ore: ore is crushed, screened and washed to remove fines.
3. Dried for handleability.
1.3 IMSBC Code Bauxite Schedule History

The current Group C BAUXITE individual schedule contains two relevant statements about the cargo
i.e.
Description Moisture content 0% to 10%
Characteristics - Size: 2.5mm to 500mm. 70% to 90% lumps and 10% to 30% powder
As per subsection 1.4.2. of the IMSBC code, text in the sections for Description and Characteristics
(other than Class and Group) remain recommendatory or informative. In practice, the shipping
industry considers cargoes exceeding 10% moisture content, and/or containing more than 30% of fine
particles less than 2.5mm are potentially Group A cargoes.
The GBWG wanted to understand the origin of the above moisture and sizing criteria. After an
extensive online search on the internet (including the IMO documentation website), as well as
searching the IMO physical archives (Courtesy of Intercargo) in London, the history of these criteria
could not be found. The earliest information on this schedule was traced back to DSC5 meeting in
2000. This submission only contained the sizing criteria. However a CG was established to review the
BC code and it was proposed by the CG to add under bauxite description, moisture 0 10%. At the
DSC6 meeting in 2001, an updated schedule was submitted which now included both the sizing and
moisture criteria. The scientific research or justification for these criteria could not be found.
1.4 Characteristics of Bauxites studied by GBWG

Bauxites under investigation by the GBWG include those from Australia, Brazil, India, Indonesia,
Guinea, Guyana, Jamaica and Malaysia. These represent over 90% of the seaborne traded bauxites.
The GBWG utilised various standards to ensure the sourcing, sampling and characterising of the
bauxites were done appropriately and on a similar basis. These included;
Sampling in accordance with ISO 8685(1) and AS 2806(2) (for sampling of Aluminium ores),
(3)
and ISO 10381-8 (guidance on sampling stockpiles).
Sample preparation in accordance with ISO 6140(4) for sample preparation of Aluminium ores.
Moisture determination in accordance with ISO 9033(5) for moisture analysis of Aluminium
ores.

(6)
Mineralogy determination in accordance with AS 2564 for mineralogical quantification of
Aluminium ores.

(7) (8) (9)
Sizing in accordance with ISO 4701 , Geospec 3 and AS 3638 .

(10) (11)
Specific Gravity determination using AS 1289 Section 3.5.1 or BS1377 Part 2 for water
(12)
pycnometry or ASTM 5550 for gas pycnometry
6
CCC 4/INF.10
1.4.1.1 Particle Size Distributions (PSD)
The particle size distributions (psd) of all the bauxites studied by the GBWG were determined using
wet screened sizing at typical Tyler mesh sizes ranging from 75mm down to 63microns. Finer sizings
were undertaken using hydrometer measurements. Results are reported as cumulative dry weight %
passing versus the screen diameter in millimetres (mm). The results for the bauxite nominal products
tested are shown in Figure 6 below. Bauxites have been anonymised for anti-trust purposes; however
the bauxites have been labelled to represent the respective supplier of the bauxite for testing by the
GBWG. The nomenclature of the GBWG tested bauxites is;
A Australia (Exporter of Bauxite)

B Brazil (Exporter of Bauxite)
C China (Importer of Bauxite including from Indonesia, India and Malaysia)
R Ireland (Importer of Bauxite including from Guinea, Guyana and Jamaica)
G Guinea (Exporter of Bauxite)
M Malaysia (Exporter of Bauxite)
With the subsequent numbering representing different nominal products.
Figure 6: Particle Size Distribution of Nominal Bauxite Products
The curves in above figure show that the tested bauxites have a wide and varying distribution of
sizes. Most ores have a broad range of particle sizes. Some bauxites are dominated by fine particles
(M1, M2, R3), others are dominated by coarse fractions (G1, B2 and B3) and some are uniformly
graded as they are processed to remove the fines (A2, A3 and A4).
As the psd of the bauxite nominal products are varied, the key requirement was to determine a sizing
or sizings that allow for the psd of all to be easily and concisely compared. The following graphs
outline some of the comparisons investigated to find a manageable relationship based on sizing that
all the bauxites conformed to.
Figure 7 depicts the D50 against the D10 for the bauxite nominal products. The results show little
correlation and large scatter. Some bauxites have D10 as low as 0.1microns and others have D10
above 1mm. D50 ranges from 0.1mm to over 30mm.
7
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 7: D50 versus D10 of Bauxite Nominal Products
Then next series of figures show the different size fractions plotted against the % passing 2.5mm. The
2.5mm was utilised as it is already used in the existing bauxites schedule and therefore a familiar
particle size. Figure 8 provides the relationship of the % passing 0.063mm against the % passing
2.5mm. The correlation first appears adequate for the coarser bauxites but becomes variable as the
bauxites become finer. Figure 9 shows the % passing 0.1mm versus the % passing 2.5mm. Again,
the relationship seems good for the coarser bauxites but deteriorates for the finer ones. Figure 10
provides the % passing 5mm versus the % passing 2.5mm behaviour. This correlation is opposite to
the others presented, in that the finer bauxites show some correlation but this deteriorates as the
coarser bauxites. The relationship of % passing 10mm and % passing 2.5mm is given in Figure 11.
As with the 5mm graph, the 10mm correlation is not adequate, although the finer bauxites appear to
have a better result.
8
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 8: % Passing 0.063mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Bauxite Nominal Products
Figure 9: % Passing 0.1mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products
9
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 10: % Passing 5mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products
Finally, the % passing 1mm versus the % passing 2.5mm is provided in Figure 12. Here we see a
correlation between these two sizings for all bauxites. This means that the gradient in the psd curve
between these two sizes is similar across the wide range of bauxites studied. It is important to
highlight that although a presentation platform based on the percentage passing 1mm and 2.5mm is
used, the influence and contribution of other particle sizes on the behaviour of the bauxites are
considered.
10
CCC 4/INF.10
1.4.1.2 Photographs of Bauxites
Photographs of some of the nominal bauxite products tested by the GBWG are provided in the
following pictures to give a visual understanding of the range of sizing bauxites can have.
Figure 13 shows a representative sample of Bauxite A1, which is an Australian bauxite that is not
washed. The particles are essentially spherical and there is little to no material greater than 25mm
and about 23% of the material is less than 1mm in diameter.
Bauxites A2, A3 and A4 are shown in Figure 14, Figure 15 and Figure 16 respectively, these bauxites
are also from Australia and present as spherical particles. Only a small fraction exists above 25mm in
diameter and the level of fines less than 1mm is low as these bauxites are washed to remove fines.
Geotechnically, A2 to A4 can be described as a gravel, while A1 is a sandy gravel with some silt.
11
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 13: Photograph of A1 bauxite
12
CCC 4/INF.10
Bauxites B1 to B7 in Figures Figure 17 to Figure 23 present samples from Brazil. Bauxite B2 is not
washed, whereas the other bauxites (B1, B3 to B7) are all washed and screened. The Brazilian
bauxites are characterised as angular to sub-angular particles with a range of particle sizes.
Geotechnially, B7 ore is a medium to coarse silty sand with particles less than 7mm in size. Bauxites
B1 to B6 can be described as sandy gravels to sandy silty gravels.
13
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 17: Photograph of B1 bauxite
14
CCC 4/INF.10
15
CCC 4/INF.10
16
CCC 4/INF.10
Bauxite C2, C3, C4 and C5 are or were imported by China from India, Malaysia and Indonesia. They
span a broad range particle sizes. C2 and C3 are washed products that can be described
geotechnically as sandy or sandy silty gravels with angular to sub-angular particles. C4 and C5 are
unwashed products that can be described as silt with much gravel to gravel with much silt (C5) and a
silty gravel (C4).
Figure 24: Photograph of C2 bauxite
17
CCC 4/INF.10
18
CCC 4/INF.10
Bauxites imported by Rusal from Guyana and Guinea have been considered and are depicted in
Figures Figure 28 and Figure 29. R1 and R2 are unwashed products with angular to sub rounded
particles that span a wide range of particle sizes. Geotechnically, R1 can be described as a gravel
with much silt and sand, while R2 is a sandy gravel.
Figure 28: Photograph of R1 bauxite
19
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 29: Photograph of R2 bauxite
Figures Figure 30 and Figure 31 present photographs of bauxites exported from Guinea (G1 and G2).
They contain sub-rounded to angular particles up to about 100mm diameter. Geotechnically, G1 is a
gravel with sand and cobbles. G2 can be described as a sandy silty gravel.
Figure 30: Photograph of G1 bauxite
20
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 31: Photograph of G2 bauxite
1.5 Cargo Instabilities due to Moisture

Although the IMSBC code specifically focuses on liquefaction as being the hazard to classify cargoes
as Group A, there are other potential cargo instabilities due to moisture that also need consideration.
The GBWG investigated the bauxites with the view that any potential instability due to moisture
should result in a Group A classification. The potential cargo instabilities due to moisture are primarily;
(13)
Liquefaction (as defined in IMSBC code Section 7)
Requires a fully saturated or near fully saturated and fine grained granular cargo with
sufficient cyclic forces
Formation of a dangerous wet base
Requires the cargo to drain and form a saturated layer.
Similar to liquefaction in that a fully saturated finer grained granular cargo and
sufficient cyclic forces are required
Loading as a slurry
Shipping as liquid and not as solid cargo
Others
As outlined in this study (Chapter 3)
1.5.1 Tests to understand/quantify cargo behaviours and instabilities
Understanding the stability of a cargo during shipping is paramount to ensuring the safe transportation
of bulk commodities. The key objective is to ascertain any instabilities occurring in the cargo due to its
moisture content, whether it be liquefaction, deformation or the formation of a free surface of liquid,
and to identify the conditions under which they occur. Unfortunately there is no single test that truly
defines the stability behaviour of a cargo during shipping. However, a successful approach and
methodology to investigate cargo stability includes examination of the cargo properties and marine
behaviour coupled with numerical and physical modelling. To define the cargo, numerous types of
tests are exploited to characterise a cargo by its chemistry, mineralogy, density, particle size
distribution and porosity, along with geotechnical tests that determine the cargoes compaction,
moisture retention, strength and resistance to cyclic stresses. The marine behaviour study is
paramount in understanding the forces the cargo is subjected to and cargo observations document
the real life behaviour of the cargo as a base level of understanding. Numerical modelling allows for
the prediction of the induced stresses that form within the cargo and can be compared to the
resistance stress of the cargo to determine at what conditions the cargo may fail. Physical modelling
can then be used to test extreme conditions that a cargo may experience and to allow for a
mechanistic understanding of failure modes and behaviours. Only by utilising the results of all these
21
CCC 4/INF.10
tests can the behaviour of cargoes during shipping be fully understood, quantified and limits be put in
place based on sound science to prevent the risk of cargo instabilities due to moisture.
Various cargo properties need to be determined to be able to understand how the cargo reacts to the
forces imposed on it by the vessels motions. Also the IMSBC code TML tests need to be applied to
understand their applicability to the cargo under study and to identify any modification that can
improve or make the test more suitable. Certain geotechnical tests are extremely valuable in
understanding the cargoes ability to retain moisture and its behaviour under shipping forces. The
ability of the cargo to resist instability can be estimated using these geotechnical tests which include
ore-moisture characteristic curves, bulk strength tests, permeability tests and cyclic triaxial tests
(CTT).
The marine behaviour work consists of characterising the actual behaviour of the cargo in real
voyages and understanding the motions and forces the cargo is subjected to. Cargo observations are
conducted in which the cargo is characterised immediately after loading and prior to discharge to
understand any changes that may have occurred during the voyage. This includes measurement of
changes in cargo density, compaction, removal of bilge water and observations of any failures (slips,
free water formation etc.) that occur over the voyage. The cargo observations provide real world data
used to validate and calibrate laboratory scale tests. The forces experienced by the cargo arise from
the response of the vessel to the sea states it encounters and need to be determined over the life of a
vessel. The forces are influenced by the vessels orientation to the waves, the waves magnitude, the
size of the vessel and the vessels ability to avoid tropical storms.
Numerical modelling allows the estimation of the stress developed in the cargo due to the vessel
motions (induced stress). These results provide for comparison against the geotechnical test work
results in that the induced stress can be compared to the cargoes resistance to stress.
Finally, small scale physical modelling allows for extreme conditions in cargo moisture and vessel
motions to be tested. These tests also elucidate the different instabilities and failure modes and at
what conditions of cargo moisture and vessel motions they occur.
1.6 Chapter 1 Conclusions
Bauxites come from various locations globally

Bauxites investigated by the GBWG include those from Australia, Brazil, India, Indonesia,
Guinea, Guyana, Jamacia and Malaysia and represent over 90% of the seaborne traded
bauxites
Bauxites are, within limits, composed of similar minerals, namely gibbsite, boehmite, kaolinite,
quartz and hematite
Bauxites have large differences in particle size distribution depending upon the deposit and
processing
Geotechnically, the bauxites studied can be described as ranging from silt with much gravel to
silty gravel with sand and cobbles. Particle shape ranges from spherical and round to angular.
All bauxites tested have a consistent particle size relationship between the % passing 1mm
and % passing 2.5mm
Other instabilities due to moisture, apart from liquefaction, need examination
There is no one single test that can adequately assess a cargoes susceptibility to instabilities
due to moisture. Several techniques (chemical, physical, geotechnical, numerical) are
required to understand a cargoes behaviour during shipping
22
CCC 4/INF.10
2 Chapter 2 Vessel Motions and Cargo Behaviour

2.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the motions experienced by different size vessels on the various shipping routes
utilised by the global seaborne bauxite trade and also the bauxite cargoes behaviour whilst being
shipped on these routes. The vessel motion investigation allows for the quantification of the forces on
the vessel, and hence what the cargo experiences during voyages, providing the necessary input
parameters for laboratory testing. Furthermore, the actual behaviour of the cargo under real shipping
conditions provides calibration data to be used in conducting and confirming the laboratory testing
and associated cargo modelling.
The parameters investigated in this chapter include vessel size, the extent of cargo movement, vessel
motions and accelerations, sea states (period, frequency and modal behaviour) and vessel responses
(roll, pitch, yaw, heave, sway and surge). These form modelling inputs that can be referred to as
cyclical stresses/forces that may be required to trigger cargo instabilities due to moisture, including
(14)
liquefaction. The work in this chapter is similar to the work conducted by the IOF TWG as outlined
in the TWG Marine report where vessel motions and forces were determined from voyage simulations
over the lifetime of vessels using real weather data and cargo observations were summarised.
The research undertaken covers Capesize, Panamax and Handymax vessel types. Panamax vessels
were the principal focus of the GBWG study, as outlined in Chapter 1, Panamax vessel types carry
~80% per cent of global bauxite tonnage. In addition, both Handymax and Capesize vessels were
included in the research, although these carry only about ten per cent each of the total bauxite
tonnage, they represent the smallest and largest vessel sizes carrying the globally seaborne traded
bauxites.
The bauxite cargo behaviour presented in this chapter is a summary of the many cargo observations
conducted by each of the GBWG members to describe the actual behaviour of bauxite cargoes during
ocean transportation.
2.2 Vessel Motions and Forces

The work conducted in the IOF TWG research on vessel motions found that observations of the
actual forces experienced by instrumented ships correlated extremely well with the characteristics of
vessel motions and forces obtained through voyage simulations. The findings allow for the
determination of the possible inertia loads imposed on the cargo during transit and the impacts of
vessel size and sea conditions (swell, sea and wind) using simulations rather than by direct
measurement which is costly and time consuming. The work outlined in the GBWG bauxite study
utilises the same voyage simulation process as utilised by the IOF TWG work, but applies it to
voyages and vessel sizes relevant to the global bauxite seaborne trade.
2.2.1 Calculated Vessel Motions and Forces
2.2.1.1 Introduction and methods
Vessel rigid body motions were estimated using vessels Response Amplitude Operators (RAOs)
calculated via hull Strip Theory, which was determined by utilising general arrangement drawings,
lines plans, mass distribution, stiffness and damping coefficients derived from information provided by
the shipbuilder or Class society.
In the offshore industry, the availability of wave measurements has led to the introduction of scatter
diagrams and Global Wave Statistics (GWS) (Figure 32), reflecting the joint statistics of significant
(15) (16)
wave height and average zero-upcrossing period. Work by Hogben and BMT has provided a
practical basis for the design of ships.
23
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 32: Global Wave Statistics climatological areas
Figure 33 shows typical wave statistics for Area 41, the East China Sea, which is used together with
other Areas transited by the voyages in this study.
Figure 33: Wave scatter diagram for area 41, East China Sea
24
CCC 4/INF.10
Rigid body motions were estimated using Strip Theory in voyage simulations and conventional panel
code for longitudinal bending moments and local pressures below the keel for added resistance.
Speed loss was estimated using Rankine source method and an empirical estimate of available
thrust. Longitudinal bending deflection was determined via quasi-static amidship bending moment and
whipping via an empirical estimate on basis of Storhaughs tests(17). These estimations along with the
wave scatter diagrams are used to determine operability plots. As an example, the operability plot of a
given ship in the southern Indian Ocean can be determined as shown in Figure 34. The lines in the
plots indicate the highest speed that can be maintained up to a particular wave height. The total
speed loss is the result of the added resistance in waves, which is revealed by the dip in speed in
longer waves and the wind, which is higher in short waves.
Figure 34: Operability plot
25
CCC 4/INF.10
In Figure 34 the ship loses around 1 knot in about 2m waves (~BF5). This increases to around 6 knots
in 6.5m waves (~BF9). The results for all ships show that the sustained speed is quite low in higher
waves. This implies that the estimates of the motions and accelerations, which were made at 14
knots, are probably rather conservative.
The SAFETRANS package (DNV approved in 2007) was used to make from 300 to over 900 trips
with Handymax (~50kDWT) vessel, Panamax (~80kDWT) and two Capesize vessels (175kDWT and
205kDWT) on four routes, from Malaysia, Australia, Brazil and Guinea to China. The routes are
shown in Figures Figure 35 to Figure 38.
Figure 35: Malaysia China Route
Figure 36: Australia China Route
26
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 37: Brazil China Route
Figure 38: Guinea China Route
The individual trips start at random points in the SafeTrans 10-year database with wind, waves and
swell and the related forecasts. At every 3-hour time step the prevailing conditions are used to
establish the progress. The 300+ voyages simulated cover the lifetime of the ship if the ballast return
voyage is counted as well (i.e. ~70 year for the long routes, ~40 year for the short route Australia to
China).
The ship routes from Malaysia to China and Australia to China are affected predominantly by Tropical
Revolving Storm (TRS) occurrence in the South China Sea in the period April-November (Figure 39).
TRS occurrence in the Timor Sea and offshore Northern Australia affect the Australia to China voyage
in the period December-April, but to a much lower intensity.
For the route Brazil or Guinea to China, the South Atlantic is free of TRSs, and the Indian Ocean
0
south of 40 S latitude is out of TRSs as well. These routes pass between the TRS areas of Indian
Ocean and NW Australia, so in the TRS season for those basins, stretching from December to March
(with extensions to October and April), the occurrence of severe TRSs over the route is scarce.
Hence, also for the Brazil-China and Guinea-China routes the TRS season in the South China Sea is
dominant.
27
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 39: Tropical Revolving Storm Map
Outside the TRS season, sea states are dominated by normal storm weather, which is present in the
higher latitudes of the Indian Ocean and in the South China Sea. The areas at lower latitude are
tropical, and have usually benign weather.
Every step in the simulation yields information on the significant double amplitude or SDA
(approximately the maximum single amplitude in a three-hour record) and mean period of the
encountered wave and the ship behaviour. The roll and pitch and the vertical and transverse
accelerations were evaluated.
Figure 40 below shows an example of the encountered roll response of a 205kDWT Capesize vessel
on the Australia-China route. The plot shows data for 937 voyages over a total of 42 years, with a
maximum roll encounter of 35 degrees.
Figure 40: Encountered Roll Response for Australia-China route for a 205kDWT Capesize vessel
Sorting the SDA values and plotting them as a function of the frequency of exceedance (the fraction
of the three-hourly SDA values exceeding a particular level) yields the cumulative distributions of the
SDAs. Figure 41 below illustrates the distributions of the wave height, the roll angles and the vertical
and transverse accelerations at Station 16 (Hold 1) for the above route.
28
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 41: Distribution of SDA values
A typical trip between Australia and China lasts 132 three-hour time steps (16 days). Reading the
distribution at F=1/132=7.5E-3 in the above graph yields a most probable (typical) extreme
significant wave height of around 6m.
The SDA values from the individual steps in the simulations were sorted to obtain a more quantitative
impression of the encountered ship behaviour of the ships on each route. Included are the mean
values, the Most Probable Voyage (MPV) and the level which is exceeded in 1% of the trips for roll,
vertical and transverse accelerations and significant wave height (Hs). The results are shown for the
Australia-China, Brazil-China and Guinea- China routes for the four vessel sizes considered in
Figures Figure 42 to Figure 44 respectively. The results show that the Australia China route has
smaller MPV roll values (10 -15 degrees) compared to Brazil China and Guinea China routes,
which are about the same (15 20 degrees) for all vessel sizes. So the average motions are higher
for the longer voyages. For the 1% extreme values, the Australia China route values are larger by
about 20% than those of Brazil China and Guinea - China routes for all vessels. This is due to the
higher probability of encountering TRS in either the Timor Sea or South China Sea. This greater
prevalence on the Australia-China routes mean one off extremes are more dominant on this route.
The results also show that Handymax vessels experience higher values than those of Panamax and
Capesize vessels and confirm the IOF TWG Marine report findings.
29
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 42: Australia - China Route mean, most probable voyage and 1% extreme SDA values
Figure 43: Brazil - China Route mean, most probable voyage and 1% extreme SDA values
30
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 44: Guinea - China Route mean, most probable voyage (MPV) and 1% extreme SDA values
A comparison of the SDA roll, vertical and transverse accelerations in hold 1 and the significant wave
height (Hs) for the Handymax vessel on the four routes of Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Malaysia to
China is presented in Figure 45. Here the results again shown that the Australia China route has the
lowest values for the MPV, with similar higher values occurring on the Brazil China and Guinea
China voyages. The Brazil and Guinea to China voyages are similar in all aspects as the voyage
routes are similar except for the different paths in the South Atlantic Ocean which is TRS free. The
Malaysian China trip has the smallest MPV values.
For the Handymax 1% extreme values, again the Australia China trip provides the largest roll and
accelerations, given the higher probability of experiencing TRS in either the Timor or South China
Sea. The Brazil China, Guinea China and Malaysia China routes have similar values which are
predominantly determined by TRS in the South China Sea.
31
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 45: 50kDWT Handymax mean, most probable voyage and 1% extreme SDA values
The conclusion of this work is that the 1% extreme values for accelerations are fairly similar for the
four routes, albeit the Australia China route experiences significantly higher one-off roll values. The
effect of ship size is in the order of 25 to 30%. Considering the discontinuity in the cumulative
distribution of the wave height on the Australian China route, it is concluded that typhoons (which
were included in the simulations) play a role in the results, although weather avoidance measures
taken by the vessels Master to minimise extreme motions has a significant impact in reducing the sea
states encountered through good seamanship.
2.3 Cargo Observations

This section describes the cargo observations undertaken by the GBWG companies, highlighting
specific observations and measurements in relation to cargo behaviour at loading, during transit and
at discharge. Common themes and particular findings are presented followed by specific conclusions.
2.3.1 Introduction and Methods
Observations of the behaviour of the different bauxite product cargoes during ocean transport have
been conducted. The voyage routes are typically for the external market seaborne trade from
Australia to China, Brazil to China, Malaysia to China and Guinea to China and these routes are the
basis for the simulation work in the previous section. Some observations have been conducted on
vessels travelling for internal markets (i.e. coastal routes), however these are the minority. For
Australian, Brazilian and Guinean bauxite cargo observations were conducted on Panamax or larger
vessels, as no Handymax vessels are used for these bauxites. Malaysian bauxite cargo observations
were conducted on Handymax vessels as these are the predominant size vessels used for
transporting Malaysian bauxites.
The cargos appearance was visually recorded after loading was completed and before discharging
commenced. As well as the visual observations, cargo heights were recorded after loading and before
discharge, either by measuring the height of the cargo at the hold wall and/or by measuring the
distance between the cargo and the hatch covers (ullage). From these measurements an estimation
of the percentage compaction was made. Bilge pumping data was also recorded to understand the
drainage behaviour of the bauxites during transit.
32
CCC 4/INF.10
The GBWG members also undertook laser scanning or photogrammetry of the cargo hold to
accurately map the cargo surface and provide a profile of the cargo after loading and before
discharging. The laser scanning and photogrammetry data confirmed the visual observations of ore
compaction and allowed estimation of bulk density and how it changed over the course of a voyage.
2.3.2 Results
2.3.2.1 Australian Bauxite products
125 cargo observations were undertaken on the four Australian bauxite products over the period from
September 2015 to December 2016, to ensure a good coverage of the possible range of sea
conditions encountered. While most voyages experienced relatively calm conditions (swell/seas up to
2.0/2.0 metres), some voyages encountered cyclone or typhoon conditions (swell/seas up to 8.0/8.0
metres). The most extreme weather occurred in the East China Sea area although some rough
conditions were also experienced off the North Australia coast. The vessel voyage conditions were
recorded from data in the Masters log as well as the Vessels Performance Report (VPR).
For each cargo observation, photographs before and after the voyage were taken. Figure 46 and
Figure 47 show examples of the cargo after loading and before discharge. Comparison of the
after-loading and before-discharge photographs shows a small amount of compaction occurred, as a
decrease in the pile height was evident mainly at the pile peak.
(a) (b)
Figure 46: Cargo observed (a) after loading and (b) before discharge
Sometimes small slips occurred and these were consistently associated with extreme sea conditions
(cyclone/typhoons), BF > 7 and swell > 3m, however the amount of mass involved in the slip was
minimal, with the slip often being only 2-3cm deep.
33
CCC 4/INF.10
(a) (b)
Figure 47: Cargo observed (a) after loading and (b) before discharge for Cargo hold No.1
From the cargo height measurements, the amount of compaction was determined. A summary of the
compaction results from all 125 observations of bauxite products shipped from Australia is given in
Table 2. The results show that compaction on average is small, around 3%, with the maximum
compaction being about 15%. Other height differentials may be attributed to very limited dry shift
events such as slips and slope failures, though these are negligible as they do not result in any
significant movement of mass. Typically, the cargo in Hold 1 experiences more compaction than the
cargo in the other holds, however this was not always the case. No correlation was found between the
compaction degree and the sea condition experienced during the voyage. The loading process
(dropping from greater than 20m) appears to be the dominant parameter for the initial compaction
state of the cargo. Measurements on partly loaded cargoes show similar bulk densities to fully loaded
so the weight of the material above has a minimal effect on the average bulk density of the cargo pile.
Table 2: Cargo compaction from cargo height (ullage) measurements
Compaction % All Holds

Average 2.7
Maximum 14.8
Minimum 0.1
Photography of the hold when the cargo had been almost completely discharged was undertaken to
monitor for evidence of cargo drainage or presence of standing (free) water during the voyage. Figure
48 shows examples of the cargo hold upon completion of discharging, with no evidence of moisture or
standing water on the tank top.
34
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 48: Photos showing dry cargo hold conditions at end of discharge
Observations revealed that the majority of cargoes had no wet base formation during the voyage and
the cargo hold tank top was dry at the end of discharge. However, on a few occasions when bilges
were not pumped, evidence of a wet base formation was found as small amounts of standing or free
water on the tank top, as shown in Figure 49. The formation of a wet base indicates that the bauxite is
free draining, with the water being easily removed via the bilges in most cases. But even in cases
where the bilges were not pumped, and the cargo drained to form a small wet base, the cargo pile
remained stable and unchanged by vessel motions, indicating the formation of a wet base is not in
any way dangerous and is actually indicative of a free draining and safe cargo.
Figure 49: Photos showing wet cargo hold conditions at end of discharge
Throughout the voyage, the bilges were sounded and the amount of water in the bilge and removed
from the bilge was recorded. An example of the bilge water removal over a voyage is shown in Table
3. The total amount of water removed through bilge pumping in this example was 38.24 tonnes
(38.24m) which is about 0.44% of the cargos moisture content. This could be attributed to
condensation of water from humid air during transit from warm tropics to cooler conditions en-route.
Table 3: Bilge pumping summary

Cargo Hold No. 7 No. 6 No. 5 No. 4 No. 3 No. 2 No. 1
Total Cargo
Type of Cargo BAUXITE IN BULK BAUXITE IN BULK BAUXITE IN BULK BAUXITE IN BULK BAUXITE IN BULK BAUXITE IN BULK BAUXITE IN BULK
Tonnage (mt) 9,974 MT 9,064 MT 9,563 MT 8,264 MT 9,862 MT 8,843 MT 10,203 MT 65,773 MT
Bilge Well (L*B) P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 P: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2
Area (sqm) S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2 S: 1.75*0.85=1.49m2
Bilge Well (Ht cm) P: 1.00m (1.49m3) P: 1.00m (1.49m3) P: 1.00m (1.49m3) P: 1.00m (1.49m3) P: 1.00m (1.49m3) P: 1.00m (1.49m3) P: 1.00m (1.49m3)
Capacity (m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3) S: 1.00m (1.49m3)
Date P S MT P S MT P S MT P S MT P S MT P S MT P S MT Total (MT)
24-Sep-15 AM 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
25-Sep-15 AM 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
26-Sep-15 AM 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.20 0.52 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.94
27-Sep-15 AM 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.45 1.12 0.05 0.30 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.25 0.52 0.02 0.00 0.03 1.79
28-Sep-15 AM 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.45 0.60 1.56 0.10 0.45 0.82 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.50 1.19 0.04 0.00 0.06 3.78
29-Sep-15 AM 0.03 0.05 0.12 0.00 0.15 0.22 0.65 0.80 2.16 0.15 0.60 1.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.75 1.12 0.05 0.00 0.07 4.81
30-Sep-15 AM 0.06 0.08 0.21 0.05 0.24 0.43 0.92 0.92 2.74 0.22 0.89 1.65 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.52 1.02 2.29 0.00 0.11 0.16 7.51
1-Oct-15 AM 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.25 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.70 1.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.64
2-Oct-15 AM 0.06 0.22 0.42 0.01 0.08 0.13 0.02 0.24 0.39 0.01 0.68 1.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.04 1.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.52
3-Oct-15 AM 0.06 0.25 0.46 0.04 0.15 0.28 0.20 0.25 0.40 0.05 0.45 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.82 1.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.56
4-Oct-15 AM 0.10 0.50 0.89 0.08 0.30 0.56 0.35 0.50 1.42 0.20 0.30 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.90 2.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.71
5-Oct-15 AM 0.06 0.30 0.54 0.05 0.20 0.37 0.00 0.41 0.61 0.00 0.79 1.18 0.00 0.06 0.09 0.00 1.10 1.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.43
6-Oct-15 AM 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.00 0.25 0.37 0.00 0.20 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.49
TOTAL PUMPED
OUT (MT)
38.24
35
CCC 4/INF.10
Bilge water volumes and percent of the cargo moisture removed for all observations of Australian
products are summarised in Table 4. Typically, no bilge water was observed. However, on about
25% of voyages, small amounts, of up to 1.5% of the cargo moisture, drained to the bilges or were
pumped from the bilges. This is equivalent to 0.20% reduction in cargo moisture, for cargo moisture of
14%. Some of this amount of moisture can be attributed to condensation, which finds its way to the
bilges from bulkheads and metal surfaces in the hold on sailing from hotter to colder conditions. The
remaining bilge water can be attributed to come from the cargo as these bauxites are very free
draining. When bilge water was present, no issues were encountered with pumping, with no
blockages of the bilges due to cargo ingress, and no instabilities were encountered from the formation
of a small wet base.
Table 4: Bilge water volumes and percent cargo moisture reduction
Bilge Water Total Volume from Voyage (m) % of cargo moisture reduction
Average 9.2 0.01
Maximum 143.0 0.20
Minimum 0.0 0.00
Laser scanning of the hold when empty, after loading and before discharge was undertaken to
determine the surface profile and volume of the cargo before and after the voyage. As the mass of ore
in the hold is known from load cells on the ship loading conveyor, the bulk density of the cargo can
readily be computed. Also, the difference in the after-loading and before-discharge profile provides
the degree of compaction. An example of the laser scanner output is given in Figure 50, which shows
the cargo profile in the hold.
Figure 50: Example of laser scanner output of cargo surface
Further examples from laser scanning are shown in Figure 51 and Figure 52. Figure 51 provides the
results for the empty hold 1 and Figure 52 gives the results for a scan from hold 1 containing cargo (a)
after loading and (b) before discharging. The results indicate the changes in the cargo pile due to the
forces applied to the cargo from vessel motions during the voyage were small and were mainly due to
compaction at the pile peaks.
36
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 51: Laser scan of empty hold 1
(a) (b)
Figure 52: Laser scan of hold 1 containing cargo, (a) after loading and (b) before discharging
An example of the cross section of a cargo obtained from laser scanning of the hold after-loading
(Australia) and before-discharging (China) is shown in Figure 53. The results clearly show a small
amount of compaction has occurred during the voyage. A maximum compaction of 0.9m had occurred
at the peak of the cargo pile, with the cargo initial cargo peak being about 18m high, this equates to a
compaction of about 5%. The compaction results from laser scanning were in good agreement with
the compaction data provided in Table 2 from ullage measurements.
Figure 53: Cross section of cargo after loading and before discharge
The laser scanning results for both the cargo compaction and cargo before and after voyage bulk
density determinations are listed in Table 5. The results are for bauxite products that are shipped from
Australia, with A2, A3, A4 being grouped together as they are all washed bauxites with similar
properties and hence similar behaviours. The bulk density of the cargo increased due to the
compaction that occurs during the voyage, although the average increase was small, up to 3%. Also,
37
CCC 4/INF.10
from laser scanning, the angle of repose for A1 was from 33 to 35 and the angle of repose for the
washed bauxite products, A2, A3 and A4 was from 28to 30.
Table 5: Laser scanning summary of all hold results for cargo compaction and bulk density
Bauxite A1 Bauxite A2, A3 and A4
Before Bulk After Bulk Before Bulk After Bulk

% %
Laser Scanning Density Density Density Density
Compaction Compaction
(t/m) (t/m) (t/m) (t/m)
Average 3.28 1.47 1.51 2.53 1.41 1.44

Maximum 14.77 1.52 1.56 12.28 1.62 1.63
Minimum 0.00 1.43 1.47 0.00 1.30 1.33
2.3.2.2 Brazilian Bauxite Products
Measurements were made during the transport of bauxite from inland mines accessed via the
Amazon river to coastal Brazil and China. For the domestic market, the transportation is
approximately 100 hours and travels through the restricted waters of the Trombetas and Amazon
Rivers and ends in the marine waters of the Brazilian Coast, between the Island of Maraj in Par and
the Bay of So Marcos in Maranho.
For the Chinese market, it takes approximately 30-40 days and travels through the restricted waters
of the Trombetas and Amazon Rivers, crossing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans before crossing the
South Cape to the ports of discharge.
The behavioural observations of the bauxite load were divided into three stages:
Capturing photographic images of the cargo shipped at the loading terminal as soon as the
operation is completed in each hold.
Capturing photographic images of the cargo prior to the start of unloading at the discharge
terminal prior to commencement of operations in each hold.
Analysis of the images in charge, discharge and data of granulometry and moisture of the
shipped load.
Brazil has carried out approximately 9000 shipments of bauxite since the beginning of its bauxite
mining operations. From April 2016 to January 2017, samples of images were collected for cargo
observations in the holds of the ships for Brazil and for China, to represent the behaviour of the
cargoes of the shipments made from Brazil.
Figure 54 to Figure 56 outline the images that were recorded, both at the loading terminal and in their
respective destinations (Brazil and China) for comparison. From the visual observations, none of the
monitored voyages demonstrated any significant cargo movement and there were no signs of
drainage or wet base observed, either for the domestic market (Brazil) or for the external market
(China).
38
CCC 4/INF.10
domestic market
domestic market
39
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 56: Photographs comparing as loaded and before discharge Brazilian bauxite for international
market
Density measurements were carried out from January to July 2016, in the holds of vessels which
were destined for the Brazilian internal market, using the laser scanning method. The Riegl laser
scanner model LMS-Z210ii, RISCAN PRO software for obtaining and processing the scanned data,
Topograph Software for calculating the field book and coordinates, and a total Trimble S3 station
were used to georeference the position for each scanning measurement. The laser scanner was
positioned strategically to be able to view the entire empty hold at a minimum of 4 points, where each
40
CCC 4/INF.10
positioning of the scanner was georeferenced to 5 fixed mooring points. The 5 fixed mooring points on
the ship are highlighted (MRN1, MRN2, MRN3, MRN4 and MRN5) in Figure 55.
Figure 57: Location of the 5 mooring points used to measure the laser scanner.
Laser scanning surveying consisted of recording the space of each empty ship's hold, and again after
loading the ship with bauxite. The difference between the first and the second survey is used to
calculate the volume of bauxite on board the ship. Figure 58, Figure 59 and Figure 60 provide
examples of the output of the laser scanning undertaken.
41
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 58: Images of the Forte So Jos Ship with details of the laser scanning, performed to
calculate the volume
Figure 59: Demonstration of the ship in real image docked at the terminal, scanned image and detail
of the loaded holds
42
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 60: Details off the laser scanned hold with cargo as loaded before the voyage
A summary of the bulk densities determined from the laser scanning measured volumes and the
loaded bauxite weights before and after voyages for the Brazilian bauxites B6 is provided in Table 6.
The results show little to no compaction occurs during the voyage, with around 8000 tonnes of bauxite
loaded in each hold and the before and after volumes determined by laser scanning being around
3 3
4000m , the average bulk density of the cargo pile only increases by about 1% to 1.95 t/m . There
was no correlation found between the cargoes change in density or compaction and the vessel
motions experienced.
Table 6: Laser scanning results - Bulk density of bauxite B6 before and after voyage
Brazilian Bauxite B6 Before Voyage Bulk After Voyage Bulk

Density (t/m3) Density (t/m3)
Average 1.93 1.95

Maximum 2.04 2.04
Minimum 1.82 1.84
A summary of the bulk densities determined for the Brazilian bauxite B1 is provided in Table 7. The
results show little change in the bulk density during the voyage with the average bulk density being
3 3
1.81t/m at the start of the voyage and increasing by 1.1% to 1.83t/m after the voyage.
Table 7: Laser scanning results - Bulk density of bauxite B1 before and after voyage
Brazilian Bauxite B1 Before Voyage Bulk After Voyage Bulk

3 3
Density (t/m ) Density (t/m )
Average 1.81 1.83
Maximum 1.87 1.89
Minimum 1.81 1.83
2.3.2.3 Malaysian Bauxite products
Cargo observation where conducted on 31 vessels carrying bauxite from Kuantan, Malaysia to China
during the period from November 2015 to April 2016 as outlined in Figure 61 below, which includes
the Monsoon period (typically November to March). The vessel observations undertaken on
Malaysian bauxites included photography for visual inspection of cargo changes during the voyage,
ullage measurements for compaction determination, bilge pumping data records, sea and wind
conditions (i.e. vessel speed and heading, sea state, sea direction wave height, swell, wind direction
and strength), and roll angle. The worst values of these parameters in intervals of 24 hour were
recorded though out the monitored voyages. In addition, the Masters comments on the cargo/ voyage
were invited and some Masters responded, while other made no comment. Photogrammetry was also
undertaken for cargo bulk density determination at the start and the end of selected voyages.
Voyages from Kuantan to China typically take 9 to 14 days depending upon the vessel size and
43
CCC 4/INF.10
weather on route. Most voyages experienced calm weather, but several voyages experienced rough
conditions (swells 7 8m, BF7 to BF10 recorded).
7
Number of vessels monitored
0
October November December February
January 2016 March 2016 April 2016
2015 2015 2015 2016
No. of vessels 7 5 8 3 4 3 1
Figure 61: Malaysia bauxite vessel monitoring period and example of recorded sea and wind
conditions
An example showing typical pictures of the Malaysian bauxite, before and after sailing is shown in
Figure 62. The photographs show the cargo is dry and no changes can be seen to have occurred
over the course of the voyage. Out of the available 31 vessels monitoring reports, there are 25
vessels for which the captains reported no adverse observations on the cargo stability during the
voyage. For the remaining 6 vessels, observations were made of minor cargo local slides with some
surface cracks appearing. These did not represent any significant translation or risk of cargo
translation.
Ullage measurements were conducted by the crew before and after each voyage as shown in Figure
63. The ullages were used to calculate the average compaction of the cargo due to the vessel
motions during the voyage. The compaction values derived from the ullage measurements were
verified by comparison to more accurate compaction measurements from the photogrammetry
analysis. This gave confidence in the use of the ullage measurements to monitor a larger number of
vessels. The results for the average cargo compaction from ullage measurements are given in Figure
64. No correlation was observed between compaction and duration of voyage. Any compaction that
does take place seems to occur early on in the voyage and the average compaction was determined
to be about 0.5%, with a maximum compaction measured of 6%. Negative values can arise due to the
accuracy of the measurements. The ullage measurements are considered accurate to +/-10cm.
44
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 62: Typical cargo pictures before and after voyage for Malaysian bauxite
Figure 63: Photograph of crew conducting ullage measurement on Malaysian bauxite cargo
Figure 64: Average Cargo compaction form ullage measurement for Malaysian bauxite
45
CCC 4/INF.10
Bilge water sounding and pumping records from the voyages were investigated. A summary of the
bilge water results is shown in Figure 65. Mostly, no water was pumped from the bilges. On the few
occasions that water was pumped out, the Masters report that this was rain water that fell into the
hold before loading when the hatches were open and the water remained in the bilges. The bilges
were subsequently pumped. The bilge water removed during the voyages on average was equivalent
to less than 0.01% of the cargo weight, with the maximum being measured equivalent to 0.13% of the
cargo weight in the hold.
Figure 65: Summary of bilge water drainage in cargo holds
The cargo volume in the hold was determined using photogrammetry which utilises multiple
overlapping digital photo images taken from different locations in and around the cargo hold. Up to
300 images are taken for each hold and these were processed using various software (Reality
Capture, Scanmaster, etc) to form a 3D mesh of the empty hold, before voyage loaded hold and after
voyage loaded hold. From these 3D meshes, cargo volumes could be determined. An example from
the photogrammetry undertaken on all 5 holds of a vessel is given in Figure 66.
(a) Photogrammetry for five hold and several voyages
46
CCC 4/INF.10
(b) Details for Hold 1 for one voyage (loading and discharge); note good correlation with ullage
measurement.
Figure 66: Photogrammetry records for Malaysian bauxite
The cargo volume, together with the weight loaded into the hold was used to determine an average
bulk density of the Malaysian bauxite C5 before and after sailing, with the results listed in Table 8.
3
The average bulk density of the bauxite C5 was 1.82/m after loading and increased only by about 1%
during the voyage.
Table 8: Photogrammetry results - Bulk density of bauxite C5 before and after voyage
Malaysian Bauxite C5 Before Voyage Bulk After Voyage Bulk

3 3
Density (t/m ) Density (t/m )
Average 1.82 1.83
Maximum 1.88 1.89
Minimum 1.74 1.75
2.3.2.4 Guinea Bauxite Products
Cargo observations were conducted on 13 vessels carrying bauxite from Guinea to China (~45 day
voyage) during the period from December 2015 to January 2017 as outlined in Figure 67 below. This
period covered the monsoon season which occurs from June to November. A few of the monitored
vessels experienced very rough to very high seas with Beaufort wind force BF8 to BF9 and swells of
up to 6m. The vessel observations undertaken on Guinean bauxites were identical to those described
above for Malaysian bauxites and included photography for visual inspection of cargo changes during
the voyage, ullage measurements for compaction determination, bilge pumping data records, sea and
wind conditions, vessel speed and direction and max roll.. Voyages typically take 40 days, but can be
up to 52 days depending upon the weather on route.
47
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 67: Number of vessels monitored
Ullage measurements provide information on the compaction behaviour of the cargo during the
voyage. The measured compaction over the voyages is given in Figure 68, and shows the average
compaction of the Guinean bauxite was very small, approximately 0.2%, with the maximum measured
being 2.3%. No correlation observed between compaction and duration of voyage.
Figure 68: Average cargo after voyage compaction for Guinean bauxite
An example showing typical pictures of Guinean bauxite, before and after sailing is shown in Figure
69. The photographs show the cargo is dry and no changes can be seen to have occurred over the
course of the voyage. All 13 vessels observations reported no adverse observations on the cargo
stability during the voyage.
48
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 69: Typical cargo pictures before and after voyage for Guinean bauxite, and photo of empty
hold after discharge showing dry tank top and outline of cargo geometry.
Bilge water sounding and pumping records from the voyages from Guinea were collated. A summary
of the bilge water results is shown in Figure 70. The bilge water removed during the voyages on
average was equivalent to less than 0.02% of the cargo weight, with the maximum being measured
equivalent to 0.12% of the cargo weight in the hold.
Figure 70: Summary of bilge water drainage in cargo holds for Guinean bauxite
The cargo average density was estimated using the ISO bulk density test to determine an average
bulk density of the Guinean bauxite G2 with the results listed in Table 9. The average bulk density of
3
the bauxite G2 was 1.46t/m .
49
CCC 4/INF.10
(18)
Table 9: Bulk density of bauxite G2 based on ISO bulk density test
Guinean Bauxite G2 Before Voyage Bulk

3
Density (t/m )
Average 1.46
Maximum 1.57
Minimum 1.34
2.4 Conclusions
The vessel motions and cargo behaviour study undertaken by the GBWG has identified the forces
imposed on the vessel and cargo for different vessel sizes across the routes and sea states
experienced in the ocean transport of bauxites. The study has also characterised the behaviour of the
bauxite cargoes on these voyages. These have been identified through:
Vessel motion simulations

Cargo observations
The parameters quantified in this study include the input forces and initial conditions of the bauxites to
be utilised in lab scale and small scale testing as inputs to understand and quantify the behaviour of
bauxites during shipping.
A summary of the key findings are as follows:
Vessel Motions and Forces

Accelerations and motions in Handymax vessels are significantly greater than those of
Capesize vessels, with Panamax sized vessels sitting in between
Maximum acceleration experienced on the routes of Australia, Malaysia, Brazil and
Guinea to China are similar and are governed by encounters with tropical revolving
storms
All vessels have a natural roll period of about 10 seconds or 0.1 Hz
Hold 1 (forward hold) experiences the largest accelerations.
The vessel accelerations are less than 1G, typically 0.1G.
Cargo Observations
Show that the bauxite cargo mass did not move significantly within a hold during the
voyages undertaken, even though severe weather was encountered on some voyages.
Cargo volume compaction varies from 0-15%, but is typically around 3%.
Laser scanning/photogrammetry allows for precise determination (+/-0.5% volumetric) of
cargo bulk density.
Volumes of pumped bilge water indicate up to 0.5% reduction in the bauxites moisture
content during a voyage.
Bilge pumping data as well as discharge inspections and observations show some
bauxites are free draining.
Although the cargo observations undertaken by the GBWG did not show any issues,
these cargoes conform to the IMSBC code requirements and it does not mean that other
bauxites would not have issues if shipped too wet (see Chapter 3 photo)
50
CCC 4/INF.10
3 Chapter 3 Bauxite Instabilities Due To Moisture
3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines research into understanding the various instabilities that may occur in bauxite
cargoes due to the moisture contained within the cargo. As outlined in Chapter 1, moisture instabilities
include liquefaction, but there may be other phenomena that result in the cargo threatening the safety
of the vessel. The focus of the investigation is to elucidate the cargoes potential behaviour modes as
a function of the cargoes properties, including moisture content, particle size distribution and density
and the input forces imposed by the vessel motions on the cargo. Seaborne bauxites span a wide
range of particle sizes as discussed in Chapter 1 and this was one of the challenges of this research
project. To understand the spectrum of behaviour observed for the bauxites, a short geotechnical
background is given at the beginning of this chapter on the behaviour of granular materials.
The initial conditions for the test work outlined in this chapter have been presented in Chapter 2 of this
report. An investigation into the liquefaction potential of bauxites is presented, where the induced
stresses in the cargo due to ship motions are compared to the resistive stress of the bauxite cargoes
themselves. Further study, using physical modelling, is described, allowing for the identification of any
instability due to moisture that occurs in bauxite cargoes. The overall outcome of this chapter is to use
the test work and results described within to determine suitable criteria that distinguish bauxite
exhibiting Group A properties from those with Group C properties.
3.2 Background to geotechnical behaviour of granular materials such as

bauxite cargoes
Bauxite cargoes comprise of particles that typically span from diameters up to 100mm (cobble size) to
fine silt (6 microns) see Figure 6 in Chapter 1. In understanding the behaviour of this wide range of
bauxites, it is conceptually useful to consider the particles as being divided into a binary mix of coarse
particles and fine particles, as depicted in Figure 71. The range of behaviour observed in the bauxites
is reflected in the range of behaviour that would occur as the fines content is increased from near zero
to a pure matrix of only the fines.
A granular material composed only of the coarse particles (left side of Figure 71) would carry load
though a network of the coarse particles with the forces being transmitted through the network at
particle contacts between coarse particles. This is illustrated in Figure 72 using the work done on
photoelastic assemblies. The behaviour of such a material will be dominated by the response of the
coarse particle network. The material will have a high permeability and would be a free draining
material.
Figure 71: Spectrum of particle size distributions for a binary granular material and the role of the fine
fraction
51
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 72: mechanisms by which granular assemblies carry load illustrated by analysis of forces
within a loaded assembly of photoelastic rods (e.g. Oda and co-workers(19,20,21,22)).
As the fines content increases, the pore space between the coarse particles becomes partly filled with
fine particles, although a small amount of the fines may exist as bridges between the coarse particles.
This is described as an under-filled fabric. The resulting material is described as under-filled. Its
behaviour under load would be dominated by the strength and stiffness of the network of coarse
particles (the the coarse-coarse network) as they carry most of the load (see Figure 73). The
materials permeability would still be high, dominated also by the permeability of the coarse-coarse
network. The fine particles are lightly loaded and, depending on their diameter, may be moved by
flowing water. The permeability would reduce as the degree of filling by the fines increases.
Note that the force chains/ network that carry load within the assembly are highlighted in the left hand
picture with red arrows. The right hand picture shows the same image without the arrows to show
more clearly the stress fringe patterns at particle contacts. Most force chains form parallel to the
maximum principal stress direction, 1. Similar formation of force chains/ networks in real soils have
(23)
been verified by many researchers (e.g. Sharma ) and by numerical modelling using the Discrete
(24) (25,26)
Element Method (DEM), e.g. Cundall et al and Rothenburg and Bathurst .
Further increases in fines content reach a critical condition when the fines completely fill the pore
space of the coarse-coarse network (critically filled fabric, see Figure 71). When loaded, load is
shared between the coarse-coarse network and the fines matrix filling the voids. The behaviour of the
material under load is due to the combined behaviour of the coarse-coarse network and the fines
matrix (see Figure 73). The permeability of the soil would tend to be low and would be governed by
the permeability of the fine matrix.
Figure 73: Similar force chains/ network in a real soil composed of a mix of coarse and fine particles.
Further increases in fines leads to an over-filled fabric. Here the coarse particles are separated and
isolated within a matrix of fines (Figure 71). The behaviour is dominated by the behaviour of the fines,
although there is still some contribution from the coarse particles. The permeability of the granular
material will be low and governed by that of the particle matrix.
52
CCC 4/INF.10
The size of the fine particles that infills the coarse-coarse network has a secondary impact on the
behaviour (see Figure 74). Filling with fines of a large diameter (e.g. filling with sand) will give a more
permeable material than filling with silt or clay sized material.)
Figure 74: Filling the pore space between a granular network with small diameter or larger diameter
fines fraction. This has a secondary effect on behaviour of the mix.
Another factor that can have an influence on the behaviour is the plasticity of the fines. Plasticity is
(11) (27) (10)
measured on the fine fraction passing the 0.425mm (e.g. BS1377 , ASTM D4318 , AS1289 ).
Bauxites are found to range from non-plastic to intermediate plasticity, with plasticity index values
ranging from 12 to 26, in bauxites which had a sufficient amount of -0.425mm to allow for its
measurement. Bauxites from Indonesia and Malaysia have higher plasticity to those from Brazil,
which have low plasticity.
Although bauxites span a wide range of particle sizes, the observed range of behaviour can be
explained and understood by considering the range of behaviour of a binary granular material with
increasing filling of the pore space between the network of coarse particles.
3.3 Liquefaction Investigation
3.3.1 Induced Cargo Stresses
Stresses induced in the cargo due to vessel motions have been modelled based on the vessel motion
simulations outlined in Chapter 2. The distributions of encounter motions, typically roll, over a vessels
life can be utilised to determine the forces imparted on the cargo as a function of the number of cycles
the vessel and hence cargo experiences. Together with the properties of the cargo, the shear
stresses occurring in the cargo can be determined using a simple linear elastic analysis. This method
was utilised, amongst other methods, in the IOF TWG research work(14) and was shown to provide
good agreement with more complex models (FEM, DEM, etc.). The results outlined here that are
applicable for bauxites were calculated using similar techniques as undertaking in the IOF work with
the maximum possible induced cyclic shear stress ratio (CSR) occurring at the cargo surface and
being approximately proportional to the tangent of the roll angle. The CSR occurring in the bulk of the
cargo, where liquefaction may occur, is typically at least half this maximum CSR and is reduced as
the confining pressure increases in the cargo bulk. The shear stress of the cargo for each simulated
voyage can be determined and, like the vessel motions can be summarised to determine a maximum
value occurring in the the cargo bulk. Taking this maximum and dividing by the confining pressure, the
maximum induced CSR occurring in the cargo bulk can be evaluated against the number of cycles
that occur for each particular voyage for each vessel size studied.
The results from this modelling work for bauxite are shown in Figure 75 to Figure 78. The outcomes
for the four vessel sizes (Handymax, Panamax and two Capesize vessels) on the different routes are
given in Figure 75. The results show that the Handymax vessels generate the largest induced forces
in the cargo as the have the greatest motions.
53
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 75: Induced CSR for bauxites transported on all routes using Handymax, Panamax and two
different Capesize vessels
A comparison of the induced CSR for bauxites carried on Capesize vessels is shown in Figure 76.
The results show minimal differences between the 175kDWT and 205kDWT Capesize vessels, albeit
the smaller Capes have slightly larger induced CSRs. The voyage from Brazil and Guinea to China
has larger CSR values at increased number of cycles, however the Australia-China voyage has the
largest induced CSRs at low number of cycles and these are attributed to the probability of
encountering Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS).
Similar findings occur for both the Panamax vessels (Figure 77) and the Handymax vessels (Figure
78), where the Brazil and Guinea to China routes have larger induced CSR at the higher cycles and
the Australia to China route having the greatest induced CSR at low cycle numbers due to TRS. The
voyage from Malaysia to China is included in the Handymax induced CSR graph and shows the
induced CSR on this voyage becomes similar to the other voyages at the low cycle end, indicating
that it is the one-off or extreme events that occur from encountering TRSs that induce the greatest
stress in the cargo bulk.
To estimate a materials resistance to liquefaction, the material needs to be resistant to induced

stresses greater than those provided in the above figures. The resistance CSR of a material is
typically determined using Cyclic Triaxial Tests (CTT). These tests were undertaken for the bauxite
study in this research and the procedure and results are outlined in the following sections of this
Chapter. However, before these tests can be undertaken, target CSRs need to be set to ensure the
material is tested under conditions relevant to shipping. As such, target CSRs for CTT were set
based on the results of the induced CSR for the bauxite bulk determined for all vessel sizes and all
routes. The target CSR for CTT is outlined in Figure 79. Target CSRs for CTT are CSR of 0.2 for
3000 cycles, CSR of 0.3 for 1000 cycles and CSR of 0.4 for 500 cycles. Note that these are targets
for the CTT only and any CSR at the given number of cycles achieved in excess of the induced curve
indicates that the material has good resistance to liquefaction under cyclic triaxial compression.
54
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 76: Induced CSR for bauxites transported in Capesize vessels
Figure 77: Induced CSR for bauxites transported in Panamax vessels
55
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 78: Induced CSR for bauxites transported in Handymax vessels
Figure 79: Target resistance CSR for Cyclic Triaxial Tests
3.3.2 Cargo resistance Stresses - Cyclic Triaxial Tests (CTT)
3.3.2.1 Method
Samples were prepared based on dry densities obtained from stockpile and in-hold measured
densities, or when these were unavailable densities from ISO and compacted tests were used. Cyclic
Triaxial Testing (CTT) was conducted on apparatus shown in Figure 80 under fully saturated
56
CCC 4/INF.10
anisotropic undrained conditions using the following procedure. These CTT tests are similar to those
(14)
undertaken in the IOF TWG research . A schematic of the test sequence and drainage conditions is
outlined in Figure 81.
The CTT procedure was;
The samples were homogenised and tamped into a triaxial mould in 5 layers at known
moisture content to the dry density required and then flooded at atmospheric conditions to
begin the saturation process.
The sample was then sealed fully and placed under a -20kPa vacuum in order that the
preparation mould could be removed whilst leaving the sample intact. The sample
dimensions were then checked again to make sure the correct density had been achieved.
The equipment was then fully assembled and the cell filled with water whilst the sample
remained under a small vacuum.
A cell pressure/back pressure ramp was then initiated over a set time period to fully saturate
the sample at the end of which an undrained cell pressure increment was carried to check
that the B value (measure of saturation) was greater than 0.95 (values greater than 0.95
indicate that the material is sufficiently saturated so that pore water pressure measurements
will be accurate throughout the successive stage of the test).
An isotropic (same pressures all round (1= 3) consolidation stage was then carried out to
bring the sample to an equivalent confining pressure to place it within the centre of the hold
material.
An anisotropic (vertical stress different to horizontal (1> 3 or in this case h> v)) stress was
then applied to the sample by applying a vertical deviator stress (ramped with time) to a
target which represents the sample being at the base (centre) of the in-hold pile
After resting the sample by allowing full drainage and equalisation to the applied stresses the
drainage valves were then closed and the rest of the test completed undrained (zero volume
change) in order to model imposed cyclic stresses at varying CSRs, with a fully saturated
sample in an artificially undrained state. This would be considered to be the worst case
drainage scenario for any such materials and the reaction to the cyclic stress ratios applied
was at their most extreme. This loading scenario is intended to investigate if a material is
susceptible to liquefy under modelled sea states when fully saturated.
The CSR was increased stepwise from 0.05 for 500 cycles, then to 0.1 for 500 cycles, before
achieving the first target CSR of 0.2 for 3000 cycles.
Figure 80: Cyclic Triaxial Testing System (Courtesy of Russell geotechnical Innovations)
57
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 81: CTT test sequence and drainage conditions
Liquefaction would have occurred when pore water pressures within the sample reach 95% of the
initial effective stress. For this condition the excess pore water pressure would have reduced the inter-
particle contacts (and so shear strength) to almost zero causing the possibility of sudden and total
collapse of the sample (liquefaction). In terms of the equivalent cargo (saturated) behaviour in a hold
if liquefaction occurred, there would be sudden, uncontrolled and unlimited shift of the cargo in the
hold.
All bauxites were tested in 100mm diameter CTT equipment at the same laboratory (Russell
Geotechnical Innovations). Some bauxites were also tested in 100mm CTT equipment at different
laboratories (Deltares and University of Sydney). Tests conducted in 100mm CTT equipment
required the bauxites to be scalped at 25mm to ensure the maximum particle diameter was smaller
th
than 1/4 of the sample diameter. This resulted in a number of the bauxites tested in CTT having
their as tested psd much finer than that of the as shipped bauxites psd. Some coarse bauxites were
tested in a 450mm diameter CTT there by allowing the full as shipped psd to be tested. In addition
monotonic triaxial compression tests were also carried out on 100mm and 300mm diameter samples
in Kiso-Jiban (Japan) to test the full as shipped psd and to verify any effects of scalping to 25mm on
shear strength, stiffness and pore pressure response.
3.3.2.2 CTT Results
The CTT results outlined below have been generalised to show examples of the typical behaviour of
coarse and fine bauxites up to a CSR of 0.2 for 3000 cycles.
Figures Figure 82 to Figure 86 give the CTT results for typical behaviour of coarse bauxite, in this
case one with 6% passing 1mm and 13% passing 2.5mm. Figure 82 depicts the deviator stress
verses the mean effective stress. Figure 83 provides the shear stress verses the mean effective
stress. Figure 84 shows the deviator stress as a function of the axial strain. Figure 85 and Figure 86
are the results of pore pressure ratio and axial strain respectively against the number of cycles. The
results indicate that no liquefaction occurs, with maximum pore pressure ratio reaching about 35% of
the confining pressure. Furthermore the axial strain developed was around 7%, indicating that the
coarse bauxites resistance to deformation under load was good.
58
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 82: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical coarse bauxite
Figure 83: Example of Shear Stress t verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical coarse bauxite
59
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 84: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Axial Strain for a typical coarse bauxite
Figure 85: Example of Excess Pore Pressure Ratio verses Number of Cycles for a typical coarse
bauxite
60
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 86: Example of Axial Strain verses Number of Cycles for a typical coarse bauxite
Figures Figure 87 to Figure 91 give the CTT results for typical behaviour of fine bauxite, in this case
one with 45% passing 1mm and 57% passing 2.5mm. Figure 87 depicts the deviator stress verses the
mean effective stress. Figure 88 provides the shear stress verses the mean effective stress. Figure 89
shows the deviator stress as a function of the axial strain. Figure 90 and Figure 91 are the results of
pore pressure ratio and axial strain respectively against the number of cycles. The results indicate
that no liquefaction occurs, with maximum pore pressure ratio reaching less than 60% of the confining
pressure. However the axial strain developed was around 30%, indicating that the fine bauxites
resistance to deformation under load had reduced. However, the deformation is still gradual and
controlled and is not a runaway flow. At the end of the cyclic phase, the sample still had frictional
strength and could carry additional compression loading, if it had been applied. In terms of the
behaviour of an equivalent cargo (fully saturated), this would have implied a gradual and progressive
deformation of the cargo, and not a sudden cargo shift of uncontrolled and unlimited deformation.
61
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 87: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical fine bauxite
Figure 88: Example of Shear Stress t verses Mean effective Stress p for a typical fine bauxite
62
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 89: Example of Deviator Stress q verses Axial Strain for a typical fine bauxite
Figure 90: Example of Excess Pore Pressure Ratio verses Number of Cycles for a typical fine bauxite
63
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 91: Example of Axial Strain verses Number of Cycles for a typical fine bauxite
Figure 92 shows the expected response if liquefaction occurs and the pattern of response observed
for bauxites. It confirms that liquefaction did not occur in the bauxites tested. Some pore pressures
develop during the cyclic tests, but these are not sufficient to cause the bauxites to lose strength to
low values that cause flow of the bauxite. Instead, for the fine bauxites, cyclic softening occurs with
gradual accumulation of deformation, but with an available capacity of additional strength which
resists uncontrolled flow.
(a) Behaviour in a Cyclic Triaxial Test (CTT) if liquefaction occurs. Behaviour in a monotonic triaxial
compression test (i.e. compression to failure without cycling - red line) on the same conceptual
material is also shown for comparison
64
CCC 4/INF.10
(b) Observed behaviour of bauxites in a Cyclic Triaxial Test (CTT). No liquefaction occurs, sample still
has frictional strength, is strain hardening and is able to mobilise more strength via dilation by
climbing up the failure line. This is cyclic softening. The behaviour in a monotonic triaxial compression
test is also shown for comparison (red line)
Figure 92: Patterns of behaviour in a CTT test if liquefaction occurs or if cyclic softening occurs.
Pore water pressure ratio results for all the bauxite CTT tests are given in Figure 93 and show
pressures never approach 95% of the vertical stress. This is consistent with a propensity for the finer
bauxites to display cyclic softening.
Figure 93: Pore Water Pressure Ratio as a function of % Passing 2.5mm
3.3.3 Analysis of Resistance to Liquefaction
The results of CTT tests demonstrated that none of the bauxites tested exhibited liquefaction under
anisotropic, fully saturated and undrained conditions at forces and induced CSRs above those
65
CCC 4/INF.10
experienced in shipping. All bauxites showed a significant resistance to liquefaction in these tests. In
order to compare the bauxites resistance to liquefaction, the bauxites resistance CSR was compared
to the induced CSR as provided in Figure 94.
Figure 94: Resistance CSR verses Induced CSR of Bauxite
The resistance CSR for all bauxites is above the induced CSR curves for all routes for the Handymax
vessel, which induces the largest CSR in the bauxite cargo of all the vessel sizes studied. It is to be
noted that all the resistance measurements are pass results in that no liquefaction occurred, so the
actual failure (liquefaction) curve of the bauxites tested would be even further away from the induced
curve. This further indicates that the bauxites tested are not liable to liquefy under even the worst
case shipping conditions.
3.3.4 Other Tests Direct Simple Shear (DSS) Tests
Direct Simple Shear tests were conducted to understand the bauxites strength and resistance to
shearing. In the hold, the rolling motion causes some rotation of the principal stress as shown in
Figure 95. Principal stress rotation is not reproduced in the CTT test, so some bauxite was tested in
the DSS machine to examine this impact.
Figure 95: Principal stress rotation during rolling.
66
CCC 4/INF.10
The tests were undertaken as outlined in Figure 96. Due to the large top size of the ores, scalping
was required to get particles size appropriate to the size of the DSS. To ensure that the results are
still appropriate, given the scalping, a parallel set of tests were carried out in the 100mm diameter
triaxial cell scalped to the same way. The tests were repeated scalping at a higher top size to
calibrate the DSS tests against the triaxial tests. The procedure used was as follows:
Ores were scalped at 20mm and another batch at 4mm, and each was prepared at bulk water
contents of 10% and 20%.
For DSS tests on 100mm diameter by 40mm high specimens of bauxite, tests were
conducted for each water content at stress levels of 50kPa and 300kPa.
DSS tests were carried out by shearing at constant volume (i.e. undrained conditions) after
initially flooding and hence saturating the sample. A second series of tests were carried out by
shearing at constant volume without flooding the specimen to test the behaviour of
unsaturated samples.
Shearing rates were carried out at 4%/hour.
Figure 96: Schematic of Direct Simple Shear Test
Typical results are shown in Figure 97. Even under conditions of principal stress rotation, the samples
do not show a tendency to liquefy. For the flooded (and thus saturated) samples, the stress-strain
plots are ductile. At strains as high as 20%, they still show substantial strength. They do not show a
brittle stress-strain response with strengths dropping to low values as would be the case for materials
susceptible to liquefaction. The results also show that the unsaturated materials (at the shipped water
content range) behave even better and show strain hardening behaviour decreasing to low strengths.
They did not plunge towards zero effective stress (and zero strength) as would be expected if
liquefaction had occurred.
67
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 97: Typical results of the the simple shear tests.
3.3.4.1 Permeability Tests
Triaxial Constant Head Permeability tests were carried out on some samples throughout the test
series where possible in order to monitor the drainage characteristics of the bauxites at different
stresses and to inform the understanding of the behaviour of the various bauxites. Tests were done at
a number of laboratories around the world and on samples of various sizes up to 250mm diameter
and 1000mm high. Typically the tests were conducted with a small pressure difference of 10kPa
across the sample height on saturated samples during the CTT tests as shown in Figure 98.
Examples are presented in Figure 99 and Figure 100 for permeability tests carried out on a coarse
bauxite and a fine bauxite. These results indicate that the coarse bauxite has a permeability about two
orders of magnitude greater than the finer bauxites indicating that the coarse ores are very
permeable, while the fine ores have lower permeability.
Mid height pore pressure U

(typically 700kPa)
Figure 98: Schematic of Permeability Tests carried out during CTT tests
68
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 99: Example of saturated permeability test on a coarse ore after anisotropic consolidation
Figure 100: Example of saturated permeability test on a fine ore after anisotropic consolidation
3.4 Other Modes of Instabilities
3.4.1 Hexapod Tests
Small scale physical modelling was undertaken using a Hexapod Actuator to study the behaviour of
bauxites under sea state and more extreme conditions and to elucidate if there are any modes of
instability, other than liquefaction, that need identifying. The hexapod testing was similar to that
employed in the IOF TWG research(14), where a container was actuated in all six degrees of freedom
to mimic various sea state conditions.
A schematic of the Hexapod is given in Figure 101. Typical roll motions were excited at 0.1Hz which
is nominally the frequency of rolling in the vessels studied. Further to sea state motions, rolling only
motion was tested to 25 degrees, and the frequency of rolling increased up to 0.4Hz in an attempt to
identify any potential instability due to moisture. Pore water pressures were monitored by the
placement of pressure transducers in the pile base and pile middle and the change in the pile
geometry with time was recorded.
69
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 101: Hexapod apparatus
For the coarser bauxites, the test found that moisture would migrate to the bottom of the cargo pile, to
form a water table which didnt impact the stability of the pile, as no sliding or liquefaction of the wet
base was evident. Figure 102 shows an example of a coarse bauxite behaviour when extremely wet
(100% saturation), with the formation of a water table clearly evident at the end of testing. As the
cargo hold rolled, the water was transported from one side to another with its movement damped by
the bauxite particles, but not affecting the pile stability. In a real ships hold, this water would be
removed to the bilges and pumped out. This confirms that not all wet bases are dangerous and that
the presence of water in the base of the hold of a real vessel does not necessarily imply a dangerous
wet base condition.
Five fine bauxites were tested, including the finest one. For the finer bauxites, test results showed that
under extreme motion conditions (typically high roll angle and higher frequency), some bauxites would
exhibit a slumping behaviour in which the cargo gradually spread with the height gradually
decreasing. During this process, moisture was expelled from the cargo, initially to the corners, forming
a slurry. If the motions continued for a long enough duration with a high enough excitation energy, the
cargo would become flat due to continued slumping or flat due to erosion of the remaining pile by the
slurry. Either way, the end result was a solid cargo with an overlying layer of water/slurry. The solid
cargo remained flat, with its flattened top parallel to the tank top, as the hexapod rolled. The flattened
cargo did not slosh from side to side as a liquid, which would have been the case if the cargo had
liquefied. The layer of water/slurry at the top could slosh from side to side above the coherent
flattened cargo.
(a) (b)
Figure 102: Example of the behaviour of coarse bauxite in Hexapod tests (a) test start, and (b) test
end
Pore water pressure sensors in this case registered an increase in water pressures, but well below
the confining pressure. All these aspects of the extreme response in the hexapod are consistent with
cyclic softening observed in the CTT. In some cases, the resulting layer of water/slurry appeared to
be perched (e.g. where the upward expulsion of water had drawn out fines from the cargo heap), with
the underlying cargo being found drier and unsaturated on excavation, as if the cargo had separated
due to the dynamic forces experienced. A photograph showing an example of this behaviour for fine
bauxite is provided in Figure 103. The resulting cargo state (Figure 103 (b)) is often labelled as
70
CCC 4/INF.10
liquefaction; however this is not the case. When the container was tilted after the bauxite had
dynamically separated, only the top water layer moved, the underlying solid cargo remained in place.
(a) (b)
Figure 103: Example of the behaviour of fine bauxite in Hexapod tests (a) test start, and (b) test end
It needs to be noted that one major issue with the hexapod is the confining pressure of the pile is very
small compared to that of real cargo piles. In the hexapod, the pile heights are typically 0.5m, and with
3
a bulk density of about 2t/m , the confining pressure in the hexapod is about 10kPa. Whereas the
cargo pile heights in vessels can be up to 20m, so real cargo piles have confining pressures that can
be up to 400kPa.
3.4.2 Dynamic Centrifuge (DC)
As the main draw back with most physical modelling is the issue of scaling of the stresses including
confining pressure and building a pile at full scale height in a physical model is impractical, another
alternative to meet pressure scaling was sought. In earthquake engineering testing, pressure scaling
is overcome by increasing gravity (static g-force) using a centrifuge and adding the dynamic
component of the earthquake movement to undertake dynamic centrifuge (DC) tests. The simulation
(28)
of a vessels rolling motions in a centrifuge has been conducted previously by Taylor et al. and
(29)
scaling laws have been outlined by Atkinson and Taylor and others. The rolling simulation was
shown to be a useful method to understand a cargos behaviour during shipping.
In this section, the results of DC testing to simulate the cargo pile at the correct confining pressure
scale under vessel motions is summarised. As the rolling motion has been shown to be the dominant
(14)
force input into the cargo (see also GBWG Chapter 2), a rolling table (RT) was developed to
simulate the roll motions a vessel experiences. The development of the rolling table for the centrifuge
will not be outlined in detail here, as a peer reviewed paper on this topic is in the process of
publication. Also, the full results from the centrifuge program are also due for publication hence details
published in the GBWG report will be limited to findings on bauxite. It should be noted that the
centrifuge exacerbates drainage and that the migration of moisture at 50 times gravity (50G) would
never occur at 1G as the capillary forces may not be overcome.
The centrifuge used for DC RT testing had a diameter of 7m, and could carry a payload of 7t up to a
maximum g-force of 100 times gravity (100G). For the vessel rolling simulation tests, a g-force of 50G
was utilised. Maximum rolling angle utilised was 25 degrees for a duration of 20 cycles, and this
represents a worst case scenario, as a vessel will rarely experience consecutive 25 degree rolling.
The cargo container had the dimensions of 600x200x450mm and could contain approximately 70kg of
bauxite cargo. The rolling table actuated the container at 5Hz based on vessel rolling frequency of
0.1Hz but scaled to the 50G environment of the centrifuge. The aim roll was achieved in 4 cycles, and
then repeated for 20 cycles, before ramping down to stop in 4 cycles. A photograph of the rolling table
and container is given in Figure 104 and depicts the four hydraulic accumulators used to power two
hydraulic rotary motors which are controlled by a servo valve.
71
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 104: Dynamic Centrifuge Rolling Table
Bauxite A1 was used as the base bauxite and was tested at its as received psd, and also with
additional fines added to understand the behaviour of bauxite with increasing fines content. Table 10
shows the measured % passing 1mm and % passing 2.5mm of the samples tested. All tests were
conducted at starting moisture contents of around 16% (wt% gross).
Table 10: Bauxite mixes tested in the DC RT
Bauxite % Passing 1mm % Passing 2.5mm
BX Base 22.9 34.1
BX 1 29.8 42.5
BX 2 33.8 47.3
BX 3 37.4 52.3
BX 4 40.1 56.3
BX 5 46.9 63.9
Each experiment was conducted by preparing each bauxite material by mixing a certain amount of
finer (-5mm) material to the as received bauxite and adjusting the moisture content to the target. The
bauxites were left for 12 hours to equilibrate before being loaded into the container. Five pore water
pressure sensors were placed in the bauxite pile as it was constructed to record the generation of
excess pore water pressure. The pile profile was measured and the container placed into the rolling
table in the centrifuge. A photograph showing the loaded container and pile profile is given in Figure
105.
72
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 105: DC RT container with bauxite pile
For each test, the centrifuge was ramped to 50G over 30min and the container oscillated under rolling
conditions of 25 degrees for 20 cycles at 5Hz. The centrifuge was then ramped down to earth gravity,
the container removed and the pile profile measured.
The pile profiles for each test are provided in Figures Figure 106 to Figure 111. The profiles show that
below a certain sizing (Tests - BX Base, BX1, BX2), the bauxite compacts, moisture in the bauxite
drains to the bottom to form a wet base and the pile remains intact and without instability, either
liquefaction or a dangerous wet base. The pore water pressure sensors measure the formation of a
water table and show only the static increase in pressure due to the water table formation. The
bauxite is coarse enough for the water to be held in the particle structure. This can be clearly seen in
Figure 112, which shows the water table level found when excavating the bauxite pile. In a ships hold
this water would enter the bilges to be removed.
Once the bauxite passes a certain sizing achieving a finer psd, a water table no longer is maintained,
the cargo dynamically separates as moisture is expelled, causing the pile to slump and form a flat
surface. The final condition is a competent cargo with an overlying perched water/slurry layer. Figure
113 (a) gives a picture of the perched water/slurry layer after the test and (b) shows the unsaturated
competent bauxite underneath the perched water/slurry layer. This behaviour is similar to some of the
results from bauxites tested in the Hexapod, where the pile slumps and becomes flat as it expels
moisture. Pore water pressure data for the tests where water was expelled showed an increase in
pressures up to a maximum of 50% confining pressure which is well below pressures required to
achieve that of liquefaction but sufficient to develop the upward flow of water. The bauxite surface
underneath the liquid layer shows a high level of slimes from the transportation of ultra-fines in the
bauxite to the surface as the water is expelled. The ultra-fines collect on the surface and effectively
seal it allowing the water to remain perched and not be readily adsorbed back into the bulk.
73
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 106: Bauxite Base (22.9% -1mm, 34.1% -2.5mm) Before and After test pile profile and Water
location
location
74
CCC 4/INF.10
location
location
75
CCC 4/INF.10
location
location
76
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 112: Side and top view of water table formation in coarse bauxite tests
(a) (b)
Figure 113: (a) Perched Water Table with (b) drier competent Bauxite underneath
To further examine the bauxite behaviour and the instability due to moisture arising from the rolling
forces, the cargoes were excavated in layers after the test, with each layers volume, weight and
moisture content being determined. This data enabled the calculation of bulk density, dry density, void
ratio and saturation degree. The results for BX2 and BX3 are given in Figure 114 and Figure 115 for
comparison of moisture content and saturation degree respectively for the average of the pile before
the rolling test start (i.e. at static 50G) and after testing, as well as each layer, surface, top middle and
bottom after the test. Both the moisture and the saturation degree results clearly show the formation
of a water table when the bauxite is coarse (BX2), with higher moisture contents and saturation
degrees towards the pile base. For the finer bauxite (BX3), the formation of a perched water table or
free surface with an underlying competent solid material is evident as the moisture content and
saturation degree is higher near the surface and significantly reduces towards the base of the pile.
77
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 114: Comparison of moisture content for coarse (BX2) and fine (BX3) bauxites in DC RT tests
Figure 115: Comparison of saturation degree for coarse (BX2) and fine (BX3) bauxites in DC RT
tests
These results indicate that the gradient of moisture content and saturation with pile depth is a function
of the bauxite psd, with the coarse bauxite showing a drier unsaturated surface and a wet and nearly
fully saturated base, whereas the fine bauxites demonstrates a wet and nearly fully saturated surface
and a drier unsaturated base.
78
CCC 4/INF.10
To elucidate the change in behaviour as a function of the bauxite cargos psd, the % change in height
of the bauxite pile was determined from the profile data and plotted against the % passing 1mm
(Figure 116) and the % passing 2.5mm (Figure 117). The results clearly indicate the change in
behaviour is a function of the psd and the properties of the cargo influenced by psd, for example
compressibility and permeability. Based on the DC work on bauxites, a clear change is evident for
bauxites with more than 35% passing 1mm and 48% passing 2.5mm. The DC results indicate that
when the bauxite has enough fines to allow for the particles to re-arrange and pack densely, water
can be expelled to form a free surface
1mm
2.5mm
79
CCC 4/INF.10
3.5 Bauxite Instability Mechanism

The results from CTT testing found that the bauxite tested do not liquefy under fully saturated
conditions at input forces well above those experienced during shipping. Furthermore, physical
modelling tests undertaken at different scaled cargo pile confining pressures have revealed a dynamic
process occurring in the cargo due to moisture that may have a possible impact on the vessels
stability and this deserves attention. The process identified in the physical models suggest a
mechanism whereby the cargo dynamically separates into two distinct phases, liquid and solid, with
the liquid slurry (water plus fine solids) phase being perched to form a free surface above the solid
phase which has become drier, more unsaturated and competent. If the separation of liquid was the
result of consolidation after liquefaction, then the bauxite underneath would still be saturated. As the
bauxite underneath the free surface is unsaturated, a different mechanism to liquefaction is
responsible for or contributory to the outcome.
Based on the evidence of dynamic separation occurring in the physical models, evidence from real
world observations was sought to validate this mechanism of instability. The follow photographs
(Figure 118 to Figure 121) outline real world evidence that bauxite cargoes do not liquefy, but will
dynamically separate into a liquid and competent solid given enough fines are present, moisture
contents are high and considerable cyclic (dynamic) forces are imparted on the cargo due to the
vessels motions. In Figure 118 photograph, two free surfaces can be seen, each occupying a different
level. The cargo slope between the two free surface pools appears drier and intact. Under the
dynamic separation mechanism, this type of two tiered perched liquid is possible, but cannot be
explained by liquefaction.
Figure 118: Example 1 of bauxite cargo dynamic separation
In Figure 119 photograph, perched free slurry surface can be seen in the corners of the holds, with
the cargo being excavated looking dry and unsaturated. For liquefaction to have occurred the
underlying cargo would need to still be saturated. This is clearly not the case. In Figure 120
photograph, again there exists a perched free slurry surface above a drier and unsaturated cargo.
80
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 121 provides photographs showing a bauxite cargo in the process of dynamic separation. Here
the cargo has not fully slumped and/or eroded flat, but significant perched water has formed a free
surface which has been sloshing and eroded the cargo pile.
81
CCC 4/INF.10
The mechanism of bauxite instability, regardless of scale, whether its in the hexapod, centrifuge or
real life, is not liquefaction but involves the cargo dynamically separating. A mechanistic description of
the process of dynamic separation is outlined below.
The cargo is loaded as an unsaturated pile containing: dry solids, water and air. Nothing will happen if
the ship stays stabile in port. Once the vessel sails and experiences sea keeping motions and other
vibrations from slamming events, engine vibrations and hull deformations due to the sea state it
experiences, these forces are also imparted to a certain degree on the bauxite cargo itself. These
forces cause the bauxite pile to compact and the piles bulk density increases. If the water and air
phases stay continuous nothing will happen apart for a slight subsidence of the bauxite pile level and
some minimal moisture migration to the base of the pile. This is what occurs with the coarser bauxites
and also the finer bauxites when shipped at modest moisture contents.
However; if the bauxites particle size distribution is fine, its moisture content is above a certain
critical level and the sea states encountered cause the vessel motions and hence forces on the
cargo to exceed a certain level of dynamic excitation, then the process of dynamic separation can
occur.
3.5.1 Schematic of Dynamic Separation of Bauxite Cargo
1) The cargo is loaded into the vessel to form a pile of cargo with a given geometry, bulk density and
moisture content. Although some gradients are possible within the pile, the cargo is essentially
uniform and homogenous and unsaturated in the loaded state. (Figure 122)
Figure 122: Schematic of initial unsaturated cargo in the loaded state
2) Cargo compaction due to ship motions results in the cargo increasing its bulk density via
compaction and moisture migrating to towards the bottom of the cargo pile. Once the moisture
content at any location in the pile reaches a critical level, the dynamic forces on the cargo cause
the pore water pressure to increase. This increase in pore water pressure cause moisture to flow
to the nearest low pressure, which in the case of the bauxite loaded pile, is to the nearest surface
at the pile corner/bulkhead/wall boundary. The flow of water continues resulting in the separation
of the cargo moisture from the solid cargo. A significant percentage of the cargos moisture has
now formed a free surface evident as a perched water layer, albeit confined to the corners. The
solid cargo at the bottom of the pile is now significantly drier and unsaturated, has gained in
strength and is more competent than the as loaded cargo (Figure 123). The cargo pile top, in the
centre of the hold, is now significantly drier, and often can be seen with cracks developing in its
surface. This initial stage of a cargo undergoing dynamic separation is comparable to the real
world example given in Figure 121 (Example 4), where the free surface of the perched free
surface layer can be seen in the corners and the pile top has developed cracks from drying.
82
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 123: Schematic of the initial stage of cargo instability via dynamic separation
3) Further parts of the cargo increase in moisture content as the water is pushed towards surface.
This upward movement of moisture causes the upper part of the cargo to slump (cyclic softening)
and the formation of more free surface water and a deeper perched water layer in the pile corners
(Figure 124). These free water surfaces slosh during ships motions causing erosion of the cargo
pile edges and entrainment of particles in the water forming a slurry. The drier, unsaturated and
competent cargo at the base of the pile becomes thicker and may increase in strength.
Figure 124: Schematic of the second stage of cargo instability via dynamic separation
4) Continuation of moisture separation, cargo slumping and erosion of the cargo pile. Free slurry
surface that is perched above the solid cargo extends the full width of the cargo hold (Figure 125).
The upward movement to moisture entrains ultrafine particles with it that once reaching the
surface settles as a layer that reduces the permeability and prevents the moisture from being
readily adsorbed back into the cargo bulk. The bulk of the cargo underneath the free slurry
surface layer is significantly drier, unsaturated and more competent, with increased strength
compared to that of the initially loaded cargo.
Figure 125: Schematic of the final stage of cargo instability via dynamic separation
5) Final state of the cargo after dynamic separation is complete. The cargo pile is now completely
flat with free surface slurry layer that extends the full width of the cargo hold which is perched
above the solid cargo (Figure 126). The cargo underneath the free slurry surface layer is drier,
unsaturated and more competent, with increased strength, compared to that of the initially loaded
cargo.
83
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 126: Schematic of the final state of cargo after dynamic separation
Like liquefaction, the process of dynamic separation can be prevented by ensuring that the bauxite
has limited fines content and a limited moisture content, as both particle size distribution and moisture
content are the main parameters for the occurrence of this phenomenon.
3.6 Generalised Behaviour of Bauxite

The CTT results were re-investigated based on the evidence that the instability due to moisture
associated with bauxite cargoes is that of dynamic separation and not liquefaction. As during dynamic
separation the expelling of moisture from the bauxite occurs in parallel to a slumping of the pile, the
CTT rate of axial strain development was analysed. The rate of axial strain development can be
readily determined from the change in CSR as the sample is cycled. The percentage change in CSR
for test where the aim CSR was 0.2 for 3000 cycles was compared for all the bauxites tested. The
change in CSR reflects the tendency for the CTT sample to bulge as the target load for the CSR is
maintained by the test equipment. In general geotechnical engineering, an axial strain of 25% or more
may be considered excessive, and as such this threshold was used as a basis to distinguish between
bauxite exhibiting minimal strain and one with excessive strain.
Results for the tested bauxite were re-plotted against their % passing 1mm and 2.5mm sizings (Figure
127) with bauxites exhibiting stability under loads with strains of less than 25% marked as blue
diamonds and bauxites exhibiting unstable behaviour under loads with strains greater than 25%
marked as red triangles. The results show that there is a region where only coarse bauxites show
stable behaviour.
84
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 127: Bauxite behaviour summary of CTT based on % passing 1mm and 2.5mm
3.7 Criteria of Classification of Bauxite

A criterion for distinguishing the behaviour of bauxites into two categories, Group C no hazards, and
Group A potential instabilities due to moisture, is to be developed from the test results. For the
loading conditions of seaborne bauxites, the CTT data showed that no bauxites liquefy under even
worst case shipping conditions in undrained conditions, however coarse bauxites were found to be
very stable with little straining, while generally the finer bauxite exhibited a tendency to slump and
strain. DC results showed that coarse bauxites exhibit free draining stable behaviour, whilst the finer
bauxite undergoes an instability where the cargo slumps and separates, expelling moisture to form a
perched free slurry surface with an underlying drier, unsaturated and competent solid cargo.
The behaviour found in both the CTT and DC tests was used to develop a criterion for the safe
shipping of bauxites. All bauxites were plotted as their % passing 1mm verses their % passing
2.5mm as outlined in Figure 128. Bauxites exhibiting stable behaviours for the research are plotted as
blue diamonds, and bauxites that show an indication of unstable behaviour are plotted as red
triangles. The results show that there is a coarse region where bauxites exhibit only stable behaviour.
There is also a region where the finer bauxites may exhibit unstable behaviour, however not all finer
bauxite have unstable properties, and this is due to the fact that that plotting % passing 1mm and
2.5mm provides a comparison for the primary factor (coarseness of the bauxite), whereas other
factors, such as fines content, plasticity, diameter and shape, etc. also play a role in the bauxites
propensity to for moisture-induced instabilities. Notwithstanding this point, the % passing 1mm and
2.5mm offers an effective screening criteria for Group C and Group A bauxites, albeit that any
criterion developed requires an additional factor to ensure safety.
85
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 128: Bauxites behaviour summary for all tests based on % passing 1mm and 2.5mm
3.7.1 Criteria definition
Based on Figure 128 above, the first point where bauxite shows instability occurs at approximately
37.5% passing 1mm and 47.5% passing 2.5mm. So any criterion to distinguish between the stable
and unstable behaviours must lie coarser of this point. In order to ensure a satisfactory safety margin,
a criterion of 30% passing 1mm and 40% passing 2.5mm is proposed. This is shown graphically,
along with the test data in Figure 129 as well as presented below using the Dx notation where D is the
particle diameter and x is the % passing this diameter.
Based on this proposal, the criteria for bauxite would be as follows;
Group C bauxites are defined as; less than or equal to 30% passing 1mm OR less than or
equal to 40% passing 2.5mm OR BOTH
o i.e D301mm OR D402.5mm OR BOTH
Group A bauxites are defined as; more than 30% passing 1mm AND more than 40% passing
2.5mm
o i.e D30<1mm AND D40<2.5mm
86
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 129: Criterion to distinguish bauxites based on % passing 1mm and 2.5mm
The safety margin provided by the proposed criterion is 7.5% in absolute terms. This offers a
significant buffer to address errors encountered with sampling and particle size determinations. On a
relative scale the safety margin equates to a 25% margin for % passing 1mm (i.e. a margin of 7.5% in
30%) and ~19% margin for % passing 2.5mm (i.e. a buffer of 7.5% in 40%). This is a significant safety
factor that will ensure the criterion is robust and valid.
The similarity in criteria sizing prevents any of the criteria being met by potentially unstable bauxite.
i.e. if a bauxite is 39% passing 2.5mm, then the most that can be passing 1mm is 39%. i.e. everything
less than 2.5mm is less than 1mm. As no bauxite can exist above the 40% passing 1mm and be less
than the 2.5mm criteria, a limit to the amount of fines a Group C bauxite can contain is ensured.
An alternative criteria could be proposed based on sizings that are further apart, for example based
on 1mm and 10mm, as shown in Figure 130 (green line) i.e;
Group C D301mm OR D7010mm OR BOTH

Group A D30<1mm AND D70<10mm
Using a criteria with sizings further apart allows the criteria to be met by potentially unstable bauxite.
i.e. if a bauxite is 69% passing 10mm, then the most that can be passing 1mm is 69%. i.e. everything
less than 10mm is also less than 1mm. With this criteria, no bauxite can exist above the line
representing % passing 1mm equals % passing 10mm. However, bauxite can exist in an area that is
potentially undefined and therefore a limit to the amount of fines a Group C bauxite can contain is not
ensured by this definition and has many limitations.
87
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 130: Undefined region if sizing criteria utilises different sizings
Figure 131 shows the criteria against the psds of the nominal bauxite products shown in Chapter 1.
Due to slope of bauxite psds being similar in a large zone around the 1mm to 2.5mm zone, the plot of
the -2.5mm fraction against the -1mm fraction collapsed to a narrow line. It can be seen that the 1mm
and 2.5mm points are well separated in this semi-log plot and are suitable as index sizes for
specifying a psd threshold for this family of psd curves, which characterise bauxite ores. Using the
1mm 2.5mm criterion is therefore an effective presentation platform for the psd screening criteria.The
criteria limits the amount of fines that can be permitted in Group C material as previously discussed.
This is entirely consistent with the behaviour of binary granular material assemblages which is
presented in Chapter 3.
Using the 1mm & 2.5mm gives a valid criterion that is preferred by industry, while meeting technical
requirements as just described. It is preferred by industry because these mesh sizes are often used or
are readily available at remote locations, meaning that application of the proposed criteria can be
easily and reliably done, even in such locations. This adds to the safety and reliability of the proposed
system.
In addition, extrapolation of the criteria linearly on the standard psd semi log plot shown in Figure 131
to 10mm the free-draining bauxites are unduly penalised. To include theses bauxites then a criterion
that is 100% passing at 10mm would need to be specified. This would be too broad and of not much
value in screening out vulnerable ores
Figure 132 provides a comparison of the proposed criteria to common earthquake liquefaction
screening criteria. The earthquake criteria are not directly applicable to shipping because the energy
levels involved are very different. However, it is useful to see how the two compare. The criteria
shown are the Japanese Port Authority grading envelopes, based on the uniformity co-efficient (Uc)
for engineering structures typically used in earthquake engineering. The psds inside the envelopes
are considered potentially susceptible to liquefaction while those outside the envelopes or cutting the
envelopes are not susceptible to liquefaction. In earthquake engineering, psds inside the envelope
would then be subjected to further analysis to see if liquefaction could actually occur by considering
the seismic energy (CSR) to the soil resistance. It can be seen in Figure 132 that bauxites are
generally not susceptible to earthquake induced liquefaction as their psd curves cut across the
88
CCC 4/INF.10
envelopes. Also, the criteria specified for D30>1mm and D40>2.5mm delineates bauxite psds that are
outside the envelopes and that are not susceptible to earthquake liquefaction.
The comparison to the Japanese criteria is an approximate independent verification to show that the
proposed criteria are valid and correct from the perspective of seismic engineering, even though the
energy levels involved in shipping are much smaller than those near earthquake causative faults.
Figure 131: GBWG proposed Criteria against the Nominal Bauxite Product PSDs
Figure 132: Nominal Bauxite psds, GBWG Proposed criteria verses Japanese Port Authority Grading
Envelopes
89
CCC 4/INF.10
3.8 Conclusions
Although bauxites span a wide range of particle sizes, the observed range of behaviour can
be explained by the behaviour of a binary soil with increasing fines content gradually filling of
the pore space between the network of coarse particles. This gives a philosophical
background to the proposed screening criterion for Group C and Group A bauxites.
No bauxite tested was found to liquefy in CTT conducted in undrained conditions at worst
case ship motions.
Some bauxite exhibited excessive straining in CTT.
No bauxite tested was found to liquefy in Hexapod tests where extreme vessel motions were
simulated.
No bauxite tested was found to liquefy in DC rolling tests where stresses were appropriately
scaled and extreme vessel motions were simulated.
Physical modelling tests (Hexapod and DC rolling tests) indicated that some bauxites exhibit
instabilities due to moisture where the cargo dynamically separates to form a perched free
slurry surface with an underlying drier, unsaturated and competent solid cargo.
Evidence from real world shipments of bauxites showing instabilities due to moisture cannot
be explained by liquefaction phenomena, but can be under a dynamic separation mechanism
of instability.
Detailed description of the dynamic separation instability due to moisture has been offered.
Based on the bauxites propensity to strain in the CTT (cyclic softening) or undergo dynamic
separation in scaled physical modelling, a criterion to distinguish Group A and Group C
bauxites was developed.
The criterion for separating Bauxites is based on their % passing 1mm and 2.5mm
The criterion proposed is;
o Group C D30>=1mm OR D40>=2.5mm OR BOTH
o Group A D30<1mm AND D40<2.5mm
The criterion offers a safety margin of 7.5% on absolute terms and 19 to 25% on relative
terms
The criterion prevents sizing regions where bauxites have not been investigated for their
behaviour during shipping.
90
CCC 4/INF.10
4 Chapter 4: Influence of Cargo Behaviour on Vessel Stability
4.1 Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to understand the implications of cargo instabilities due to moisture on
vessel stability. In undertaking this task, the empirical evidence from accidents and incidents where
vessels were lost or developed cargo related stability issues requires forensic examination. This
evidence provides real-world data with which calculations and experimental work must match, thereby
validating both theoretical and experimental work. Similarly, the implication of the dynamic separation
mode of cargo instability outlined in Chapter 3 requires examination and correlation with vessel
stability.
Assessing the effects of all cargo instability modes, whether liquefaction, dynamic separation, wet
base formation or free surface effects (FSE), using vessels stability criteria provides valuable insight.
A ships stability, both dynamic and static, is well understood and serve to validate cargo and ship
instability modelling.
Comparing the chronological and physical events reported on vessels with cargo related incidents,
factored with survivor accounts of marine incidents, provides further insight into the cargo-ship
behaviour. The full assessment of this failure process is described, improving the understanding of
potential detriments to the vessels stability and other shipboard related vulnerabilities so that the
enhancement of safety procedures may be developed and implemented in due course.
4.2 Evidence from Vessel Incidents and Accidents

After the tragic accident involving the Bulk Jupiter, an investigation was launched to ascertain the
(30)
cause of the capsizing. The Bahamas Maritime Authority released their report , Bulk Jupiter
Marine Safety Investigation Report in 2015 concluding that either cargo liquefaction or a FSE induced
an unrecoverable list causing the vessel to capsize quickly with minimal warning. Evidence from the
only survivor from the Bulk Jupiter accident suggests the vessels motions became a-typical and a list
developed rapidly.
Evidence from the Chief Officer of the MV Orchid Island, a vessel that loaded after the Bulk Jupiter,
indicated that a free surface of slurry had already formed within 5 days of sailing. The Officer
describes a dynamic separation of the cargo; surface of the cargo was now flat and moving to port
and starboard in a jelly-like fashion. There were also pools of water in each corner or the surface of
the cargo.
Other incident reports and accident investigations have been looked at and many refer to irregular
motions of the vessel before the development of a list to either port or starboard. These include
vessels carrying bauxite, but also other commodity carrying vessels. For example, the Chief Officer of
the Harita Bauxite(31), carrying Nickel ore, reported that the usual movement of the vessel had become
abnormal with listing to port by three degrees. 40 minutes later the general alarm was sounded and
approximately 10 minutes after that the vessel capsized.
Incident and casualty reports from vessels carrying iron ore fines, nickel ore and bauxite surmise a
commonality with cargo failure and ship stability, with two distinct phases of ship instability appearing,
involving aspects of both static and dynamic stability. The first phase involves the atypical motion and
list development. The second phase involves a catastrophic roll and capsizing event.
(32)
One incident that warrants mentioning is that of the Pandang Hawk . In 1999, this vessel carrying
Nickel ore developed a list, but the corrective actions taken by the Master (water ballast added to the
double bottom tanks) likely assisted in her making it to port safety as the list was reduced from 15 to 5
degrees. The subsequent investigation of the cargo provides excellent empirical evidence for the
process of both cargo behaviour due to moisture and the influence it has on the vessels stability.
91
CCC 4/INF.10
The Pandang Hawk reported that the vessel had suddenly developed a 15 degree list, where the
cargo in holds 1 4 appeared to be semi-liquid while the cargo in hold 5 remained as loaded. The
report states that the surface of the ore showed a portion had become a glutinous slurry, and in some
holds, water had pooled on the surface of a level ore, and other holds had a central mound of
unaffected cargo surrounded by liquid. When the cargo was excavated they found the cargo remained
in bulk solid form with some water or slurry running from the surface but the cargo underneath the
slurry maintained its shape and did not slump. Upon discharge samples were taken at different cargo
depths and analysed for moisture content. The results showed that the surface layer was wet with the
cargo significantly drier below the surface.
These reports suggest that dynamic separation of the cargo, with expression of water, may not be
limited to bauxite cargoes but may also occur in other granular bulk commodities that are shipped with
significant moisture contents.
A good deal of empirical evidence has been collected comparing cargo states as loaded with that
as discharged. Empirical observations were obtained from a variety of granular bulk cargoes such
as bauxites, iron ore fines, and nickel ores. Common to all observations was cargo with elevated
moistures. In all cases, the cargo for the most part was still intact with some showing the start of
some measure of slumping. Water can be seen expressed to the boundaries of the cargo hold,
although in most observed cases, only limited amounts of expressed water and slurry became evident
though in a few cases, the amounts could cause for concern. Expressed water was generally
contained to the corners and ends of the cargo holds in all observed cargoes the cargo peaks as
loaded were still largely intact. Once a cross-cut of the stow could be seen at discharge port, it
became evident the cargo beneath surface slurry remained rather competent and intact.
4.2.1 Summary of Vessel Incidents and Accidents
Based on the accidents and incidents of vessels carrying various bulk solid cargoes where the cargo
was deemed to be the cause of the vessels loss, the following summary of observations is made;
1. Moderate wind and sea conditions (BF4/5) are sufficient to initiate cargo instabilities in certain
cargoes, if the moisture content is sufficiently high.
2. First sign of vessel instability is unusual or atypical rolling motions in waves being noticed by
some crew. Captains are known to be on the bridge at times they would typically not be
surmising that the ships roll or irregular motion (wobble) first alerts ships command.
3. A small list of 3 to 5 degrees develops after a relatively short period of moderate rolling and
pitching. (Phase 1)
4. The initial small list increases gradually up to 10 to 20 degree list or more (Phase 1)
5. Survivor accounts of looking back and no longer seeing the ship hints at a second major
catastrophic rolling event (Phase 2). This distinct second phase is thought to be caused by
the undercutting of the intact cargo beneath [hard pack] by the slurry itself and/or the
avalanche of cargo beyond its angle of repose or shear angle.
6. The time taken from first list to sinking varied from 20 minutes to hours.
7. In many cases there was no opportunity for the Master to take any action that could have
saved the ship or prolonged its survival.
8. The ability to recognise early warnings may be very subtle.
9. Where time and circumstances allowed, proper actions by the Master to remedy the situation
by course and speed corrections along with correcting the list by proper ballasting may be
helpful.
10. Ship Stability Information booklets / software do not appear to provide readily available
information and guidance to the Master to enable rapid assessment of the loss of stability in
the event of a FSE situation arising in a cargo hold.
11. Survival of crew depend on:
a) Immediate recognition of danger signs subtle as they may be.
b) Vigilance and regular observations of cargo in holds.
c) General awareness of intact stability criteria as loaded.
d) Immediate preparation to abandon ship, should it become necessary.
92
CCC 4/INF.10
e) Awareness of limitations imposed with Life Saving Appliances (LSA) most notably
the launching of lifeboats with list.
f) Abandoning ship so as to avoid the dangers arising from the ship suddenly rolling to
one side with/without the immediate capsizing, and the understanding as to the
effects of suction upon crew in the water from either a rolling or sinking scenario.
4.2.2 Summary of the Vessel Behaviour Leading to Capsizing
These accident reports contain and imply some details of the events leading up to the capsizing and
these details appear common to all reports in that there are two distinct phases the vessel undergoes.
A chronological summary of these events are outlined below;
1. Vessel develops atypical roll motions (a wobbling, less harmonic roll response) (First subtle
sign off an issue).
2. Vessel starts to develop a list (Phase 1 starts).
3. The list progressively increases but over minutes or hours (Phase 1 continues).
4. A violent and catastrophic roll occurs within seconds and the vessel comes to rest at 90 or
180 degrees and later eventually flounders or sinks (Phase 2).
Based on this summary of events, a rigorous scientific explanation of what cargo behaviour is
required to explain and quantify the vessel behaviour in a manner that each of the four points above
can be adequately explained.
4.3 Impact of Fluid Cargo Components on Vessel Stability

The impact of fluids upon the vessel stability is typically addressed on board ships for fuel and ballast
tanks. For these tanks, the free surface inertia, causing a destabilising effect is well defined and
enables calculation of the virtual rise in the centre of gravity along with the subsequent reduction in
the vessels intact static stability.
In the case of a free moving slurry surface above a more compact flattened cargo mass, occurring as
a result of cargo instability due to moisture, the consequences are much more dramatic. Not only is
the cargo hold larger than other liquid compartments on vessels, but the volume and weight of the
slurry liquid (i.e its density) may be much larger. The properties of the free slurry surface not only
influences the vessels intact static stability, it also affects the motion of the slurry, and it can fall out of
phase with the natural rolling period of the vessel as it becomes denser and more viscous, further
exacerbating the stability criterion that governs list.
The following sections outline the results of schematic calculations and observations from a physical
model and links these back to the observations and empirical evidence from real vessels previously
outlined.
4.3.1 Free Surface Effect (FSE)
The IMOs Intact Stability Code requires every ship to meet and maintain minimum stability criteria.
The Intact Stability Code requires an initial metacentric height (GM) of not less than 0.15 metres.
Figure 133 outlines a vessel metacentre (M), centre of gravity (G), centre of buoyancy (B), keel (K) of
the upright vessel and centre of buoyancy (B) as the vessel heels. For small heel angles () the
buoyancy vector intersects the ships centre plane at a fixed point, the metacentre (M). The righting
moment is represented by the lever arm GZ. The product of the ships displacement weight () and
the lever arm GZ provide the righting moment GZ.=GM...
A Handymax bulk carrier will have a GM of some 6 metres when departing a load port with a full
cargo of bauxite utilising all holds. This will cause the ship to be stiff i.e. having a relatively large
positive GM with strong righting moments that causes a short rolling period, inherently quick to return
upright when heeled. A ship that has a small GM will tend to be tender with a slower, longer rolling
motion.
93
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 133: Schematic of vessel under upright and rolling conditions
The investigations into the behaviour of the bauxite indicate that a free slurry surface develops
because of the expression of water as the cargo dynamically separates, induced by ship motions and
vibrations, as outlined in Chapter 3. As this free slurry surface develops within the cargo holds, two
potential scenarios may result, governed by the cargo and ship criteria;
Scenario 1 - Angle of Loll

o Occurs in scenarios where cargo holds undergo dynamic separation at nearly the
same rate.
o Rolling energy, rather than pounding and pitching in the case of sea state ahead,
sees four or more holds (typically greater than 60% total cargo hold length)
developing a surface slurry simultaneously.
o Results in negative stability (-GM) with the ship developing an Angle of Loll with the
ship heeling until regaining renewed positive stability (+GM) at a new equilibrium
position, generally at lists in the 25-40 degree range.
o The resulting Righting Arm in this new equilibrium position will be significantly
diminished.
Scenario 2 - Reduction of Intact Stability
o Occurs in scenarios where cargo holds undergo progressive dynamic separation at
different rates (generally).
o In this scenario, we could typically see dynamic separation affecting the forward-
most cargo holds under pitching and pounding sea states.
o The effect can be seen in varying states of dynamic separation between holds
forward to aft.
o The ships static stability (+GM) becomes diminished under the influence of FSE but
still remains positive only reduced, with the equilibrium position remaining the
upright position.
o The reduction in GM coupled with the effects of a dense viscous slurry, falling out of
phase with the sea state (rolling motion of the ship), results in a shift of cargo laterally
with resulting list.
o Furthermore, as the boundary of the surface slurry is now restricted to one side on
account of the list, it no longer has the full breadth of the cargo hold that influences
FSE.
o In essence, with FSE now reduced, the ship regains back some of its lost stability,
though now having a permanent cargo offset and list. It should be noted that only the
surface slurry layer moves and redefines the physical cargo outline in the hold. The
intact mass cargo remaining in its original position.
As scenario 2 involves dynamic vessel responses and stability calculations that are complex, the
calculations outlined further here focuses on Scenario 1, which is based around static stability which
is more readily analysed.
The fact that the centre of gravity of a fluid cargo component will move transversely in the case of
heel angle implies a de-stabilising moment. A traditional way to quantify this effect is to acknowledge
94
CCC 4/INF.10
the fact that with the shift of the fluid cargo the centre of gravity (CoG) of ship + cargo moves
transversely as well. The reduction of the lever arm GZ of the righting moment can be expressed as a
virtual rise of the centre of gravity of ship + cargo (or a reduction in GM). This reduction is proportional
to the density and the transverse inertia of the free slurry surface.
With an increasing free surface the destabilising moment from the fluid part of the cargo (slurry) can
become larger than the stabilising moment of the hull with the solid cargo. In this case the ship will
develop a steady heel angle. This heel angle is not determined by the free surface inertia but by the
weight of the fluid part of the cargo (slurry) that is shifting.
Assuming that the steady heel develops relatively slowly, the slurry ends up in a relatively small
triangular pocket. Because the natural periods of the contents of these pockets become rather high,
the effect of sloshing dynamics on the ship behaviour will not be very large, but still may be felt by
the crew. The natural frequency of the slurry is not in resonance with the ships motions so the
sloshing inertia is minimal.
As long as the solid part of the cargo remains rigid the ship is quite stable in this situation. The
progressive heel observed beyond this point and the eventual capsize must be related to an increase
in the slurry volume and/or its density and/or catastrophic shift of the solid cargo induced by the
combination of the steady heel and the ship behaviour in waves.
4.3.2 Assessment of Reduction in Stability due Free Surface Effect
For the purpose of this research, the stability information from a typical Handymax (50kDWT) has
been used to calculate the effect of a fluid cargo component in the holds.
The Handymax has a GM of about 6m when it departs the load port with a full cargo of bauxite. The
calculation of the ships KG has to take account of the center of gravity of the cargo pile in each hold.
In this case it was assumed that the ship has been loaded homogeneously i.e. with cargo in all five
holds. The effects of the cargo piles slumping to become flat reduce the height of KG by about 0.8m.
If a situation arises where the cargo separates to form a surface layer of slurry of density (1.5t/m3) on
the flat cargo surface which is free to flow from side to side across the hold, the resultant reduction in
(33,34)
GM, or virtual rise in KG, may be determined for small angles of heel by either :
1. Calculation using the following formula (where L & B = hold length & breadth and N = the
number of holds:
N x L x B3/12 __ X Density of slurry fluid

Displacement (m3) Density of sea water
2. Using the free surface moment data provided in the ships Stability Booklet, the ships
displacement and the density of the free slurry surface i.e.
4
Sum of Moment of Inertia of Surface Area (m ) x Density of slurry fluid
Displacement of ship (tonnes)
The free slurry surface effect on the character of the vessels roll motions depends on the size of the
pools with slurry. In small, deep pools the free surface will follow the roll motions, implying that the
only effect is a small reduction of the effective stability. Once the pools become wider and shallower
the rolling motions will induce a non-linear wave which travels back and forth on the free slurry
surface. The dynamic forces will induce small irregularities on top of the normal fairly regular roll
motions of the vessel (i.e. wobbling) which will be quite noticeable for a free standing human being.
95
CCC 4/INF.10
The total reduction in GM as the FSE occurs from No.1 hold through to No.5 hold is given in Table 11.
3
The results are based on a slurry of 1m deep with a density of 1.5t/m forming at free surface in the
hold and include the new GM and the resulting vessel behaviour.
Table 11: Reduction of GM and vessel behaviour due to FSE alone
No. of Holds with FSE Loss of GM (m) GM (m) Vessel Behaviour
None 0 6.86 Stable and stiff
1 2.08 4.78 Stable and soft
2 4.16 2.70 Stable and softer
3 6.23 0.63 Stable wobbling
4 8.31 -1.45 List develops
5 10.39 -3.53 List progresses
In the case where more than 3 holds are affected by a free surface, the vessel has a negative initial
stability and will develop a steady heel at a new equilibrium position.
4.3.3 Magnitude of the steady heel (Phase 1)
To address the effect of cargo dynamic separation on vessel stability, two alternative bauxite/slurry
configurations are assumed. The first one follows the full dynamic separation pathway: slumping of
the peaked cargo pile into a solid and competent flat cargo with a perched free slurry surface over the
full width of the hold (Figure 134 a)). The density of the solid material rises from the original 1.5-
3 3
1.8t/m to 1.8-2.0t/m . Also the slurry on top of the solid material is relatively dense (assumed up to
3
2t/m ).
The second configuration assumes dynamic separation occurs only partially and that the peaked
cargo pile remains essentially intact about its central core having an angle of repose of 35 degree,
with considerable expressed water (slurry) aggregating around its base (Figure 134 b)). The fact that
the slurry volumes on either side of the pile are connected at the fore and aft ends of the holds is
crucial in the resulting free surface effect. If the slurry volumes on either side of the pile were not
connected at the fore and aft ends, the FSE length would be minimal and the effect on the vessels
CoG and stability also minimal.
96
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 134: Schematic illustrations of the two free surface cargo geometry cases a) Flat Cargo and,
b) Peaked Cargo Pile
The present work assesses, with the above assumptions on the bauxite configuration, the location of
the centre of gravity of the bauxite and the effect of the slurry (and its density) on the transverse
3
stability of the vessel. For the case shown in Figure 134 a), a density of 1.9t/m was assumed for the
3
solid and competent flat cargo case with the perched free slurry surface having a density of 1.5t/m .
3
For the case shown in Figure 134 b), a density of 1.75t/m was assumed for the peaked cargo pile
3
and 1.1t/m for the slurry surrounding the peaked cargo pile. The sensitivity of the results was
investigated by varying these assumptions. Regarding the volume of slurry formed, a depth of 1m was
assumed for the flat cargo arrangement. The same volume was adopted for the peaked cargo pile
arrangement.
The loss in GM for each case assuming all five holds of the Handymax are affected and the resulting
GM are given in Table 12.
Table 12: Loss of GM and resulting GM for Handymax vessel under Flat Cargo and Cargo Pile Cases
Free Slurry Surface in all 5 Holds Flat Cargo Case Cargo Pile Case
Vessel Initial GM 6.86 6.06
Loss of GM from Slurry 10.39 6.35
Vessel Final GM -3.53 -0.29
Considering the differences between both cargoes geometric configurations, it is clear that the
peaked cargo pile arrangement yields a higher CoG and consequently a lower initial GM. Because of
the lower transverse inertia of the free surface surrounding the peaked cargo pile the configuration
with the flat cargo surface still shows the lowest effective stability. However, the fact that both result in
negative GMs indicates that both configurations will develop a steady heel.
97
CCC 4/INF.10
4.3.3.1 Effect of the expressed fluid on the ship stability
The numbers used for the free slurry surface height and density are based on empirical observations
and also measurements from DC and Hexapod tests. These values have been used as indicative
parameters to understand the vessel behaviour, however a parametric study has also been
undertaken. Slurry depths from 0.2 to 3m and slurry densities from 1 to 2t/m3 have been used to
show the effect of these on the de-stabilising moment and the development of a steady heel. Any part
of the cargo which can move will have an effect on the de-stabilising moment. This can be a slurry
with properties of water through to a slurry that is more like a jelly. There can be a gradient in the
slurry properties from a water surface to a viscous solid (jelly) at the solid cargo boundary. The
range of heights and densities can vary and depend upon many things, such as cargo sizing,
moisture content, vessel motions, compaction degree, slumping degree, sloshing and solids
entrainment. The idea is to give a semi quantitative feel for the magnitude of the effects as exactly
quantifying them is difficult.
The fluidity of the free slurry surface implies a change in the vertical and transverse position of the
CoG of the slurry if the vessel rolls. If the de-stabilising moment from this change in slurry CoG is
larger than the righting moment of the hull, the vessel will develop a steady heel. The effect of the
slurry motion on the stability was visualized by comparing its de-stabilising moment with the righting
moment of the hull.
The stabilising moments (or actually the transverse displacement of the Centre of Buoyancy) as a
function of the heel was calculated with the ship at constant displacement and in equilibrium in trim.
The calculations account for:
The hull form

The height of the deck (or its immergence beyond a certain heel angle)
The position of the CoG (which is fixed).
Because the observed proportionality of the restoring moment is maintained up to quite large heel
angles a linear approximation is used.
3
The results assume that the free slurry surface has a density of 2t/m and extends over the full length
of the cargo hold. Figure 135 outlines the influence of slurry height on the destabilising moment of the
vessel. The results show that the stabilising moment of the ship (righting or restoring moment) is
equal to the free surface destabilising moment where they intersect, implying that the stability GM is
almost zero. For a slurry height of 2m, a steady heel of about 20 degrees results. For a slurry height
of 1m, the steady heel reduces to 10 degrees and for a half metre slurry depth, the steady heel is
about 5 degrees. The results also indicate that even when a small depth of slurry is present in all 5
holds, a small steady heel is possible.
Figure 135: Stabilising Destabilising Moment Effect of Slurry height on Heel Angle Flat Cargo
Case, 5 holds
98
CCC 4/INF.10
The effect of slurry density was also investigated. The results for the free slurry surface on top of the
flat cargo in all 5 holds are given in Figure 136 and show that, for an assumed density of 1.5t/m3 the
vessel develops a steady heel of around 5 degrees. At a slurry density of 2t/m3 this increases to
about 10 degrees.
Figure 136: Stabilising Destabilising Moment Effect of Slurry density on Heel Angle Flat Cargo
Case, FSE in 5 Holds
The results for the slurry free surface surrounding a peaked cargo pile in all 5 holds are given in
Figure 137 and show that, for an assumed density of 1.5t/m3 the vessel also develops a steady heel
of around 5 degrees. However, at a slurry density of 2t/m3 this increases only to about 7 degrees.
Figure 137: Stabilising Destabilising Moment Effect of Slurry Density on Heel Angle Peaked
Cargo Pile Case, FSE in 5 Holds
99
CCC 4/INF.10
The effect of the number of holds with FSE on steady heel development was also investigated for
both cargo geometry cases and is shown in Figure 138 and Figure 139 for the flat cargo and peaked
3
cargo pile respectively. For these results a slurry density of 1.5t/m and a slurry depth of 1m were
assumed. The results show that the flat cargo pile develops a steady heel once the length of free
surface exceeds 2.5 holds. In contrast, the peaked cargo pile case requires all five holds to develop
free surfaces before reaching a steady heel condition.
Figure 138: Stabilising - Destabilising Moment Effect of No. of Holds with Free Surface for Flat
Cargo Case
Figure 139: Stabilising - Destabilising Moment Effect of No. of Holds with Free Surface for Peaked
Cargo Pile Case
There are examples of the vessel listing or forming a steady heel due to the dynamic separation of the
cargo to form a free slurry surface and flat, solid and competent cargo underneath. Figure 140 depicts
one such example that was recently published, showing clearly the vessel listing at about 15 degrees,
with the cargo in a hold shown to contain a free slurry surface with a flat competent cargo surface
underneath.
100
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 140: Real-World example showing Phase 1: vessel listing due to free slurry surface(35)
4.3.4 Effect of Wind and Waves on the Heel Angle
In calm water the vessel remains upright in conditions with an increasing free slurry surface. At the
moment when the effective stability becomes zero the vessel develops a steady heel angle.
In real life, the vessel experiences, for instance when sailing in wind and waves from oblique or
transverse directions, a mean heeling moment. The moment is the balance of the wind forces, which
apply above the water, and the wave drift forces, which apply around the waterline, opposed by the
lift experienced by the hull when sailing at a small drift angle (Figure 141).
Figure 141: Schematic of the Effect of Wind and Waves on Heel Angle
The transverse forces were calculated for a speed of 8knots for BF7 and BF9 conditions from the bow
quarter and from abeam. It was assumed that the wind force acts 10m above the lift of the hull; the
wave drift forces were assumed to act at 5m above this level. The resulting moments in beam seas
amount to 10,000kNm in BF7 and 17,500kNm in BF9. In conditions from the bow quarter the
moments are about 30% lower.
In the case without free surfaces in the holds the high metacentric height implies that the heel from
wind and waves is rather small, in beam on conditions it amounts to about 0.16 and 0.30 degree.
101
CCC 4/INF.10
Adding the constant value of the wind-wave induced heeling moment to the de-stabilising moment
from the shift in the CoG of a 1m deep free slurry surface and re-calculating the equilibrium moment
shows that the external forces (wind and waves) yield a much more gradual increase of the heel as a
function of free surface length as showing in Figure 142. It also shows that the effect on the final value
is quite small. As such it does not explain the final stage of the process (phase 2), the actually
observed capsizing of the vessels.
Figure 142: Heel as a function of Fluid Hold Length (No of Holds) and free slurry surface density
4.3.5 Capsizing (Phase 2)
The depth of the hull of a 32.26m beam Handymax with 12.57m draft that was adopted in the present
calculations was about 18m. The results indicate that the immersion of the deck edge at 5.43m above
calm water, which immerses at a heel angle of 18.6 degrees, does not play a role in the equilibrium
heel angle. This means that further increases in heel and eventual catastrophic capsize must be
related to further changes in the cargo. Erosive processes due to sloshing of the slurry might create
an under cut that de-stabilises the solid and competent underlying cargo material on the upper side
of the hold. The sloshing can also increase the slurry density as more particles are entrained and the
slurry becomes thicker and denser. In addition, the sloshing can erode material from the compact
cargo and deposit it in the corner formed due to the vessels heel. Furthermore, a significant roll to
the already heeled vessel may cause the cargos angle of repose to be exceeded or the eroded cargo
to fail and a sudden avalanche occurs to the lower side resulting in cargo shift causing capsizing. The
key outcome is that from the initial heeled position several potential mechanisms can occur and each
can lead to or contribute to eventual capsizing of the vessel.
4.3.5.1 Summary on steady heel
The peaked cargo pile arrangement yields a higher centre of gravity but smaller free surface
effects

3
With a density of the slurry of 1.5t/m the peaked cargo pile arrangement requires a large
longitudinal extent of the fluid cargo for a steady heel to develop.
For the flat cargo arrangement, a steady heel develops when the longitudinal extent of the
fluid is 3-4 of the 5 holds.
An external moment from wind and waves leads to a more smooth development of the steady
heel. The magnitude of the heel from wind and waves at large free surface lengths is quite
limited.
Real- life examples confirm the vessel behaviour due to the formation of a free slurry surface
as the cargo dynamically separates.
Steady heel development can explain the Phase 1 of the two motions seen in real life
incidents and accidents but does not explain the 2nd phase sudden capsizing event.
From the initial heeled position, several potential mechanisms can occur and each can lead to
or contribute to the eventual capsizing and sinking of the vessel (Phase 2).
102
CCC 4/INF.10
4.3.6 Mechanistic Evaluation
Leading on from Chapter 3 Figure 126(provided again here as Figure 143), where the cargo had
dynamically separated to form a flat, solid and competent cargo with a perched free surface slurry
layer on top, the ramifications of this scenario are explored further.
Figure 143: Schematic of the final state of cargo after dynamic separation
Full ships beam free slurry surface causes the vessel to lose initial stability. The vessel develops a
list to regain stability (Phase 1). The free slurry surface is now less than ships beam. The bulk of the
cargo underneath the slurry layer remains competent and intact (Figure 144).
Figure 144: Schematic of the free slurry surface causes vessel to develop list or heel (Phase 1)
The vessel list now gradually increases as the slurry increases in its solid fraction and density as
more particles are entrained in the liquid and solids are deposited to the lower end of the hold (Figure
145).
Figure 145: Schematic of the free slurry surface causes vessel list or heel to increase
Vessel motions make the slurry slosh and erode the flat competent solid cargo until it becomes
undercut. Sloshing of the slurry also increases the solids content and hence density of the slurry, so
the vessel list progresses (Figure 146).
103
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 146: Schematic of the free slurry surface eroding the flattened cargo
The competent solid cargo in the upper end of the hold suddenly shifts (avalanches) to the lower end
causing a catastrophic roll and capsizing (Phase 2). This sudden avalanche may occur as the angle
of repose of the cargo is exceeded due to the vessels rolling about the heel position and/ or by
erosion by the sloshing slurry as the compact cargo is undercut and the denser slurry increases the
heel angle. Figure 147 shows the end result that started with cargo undergoing dynamic separation.
Figure 147: Schematic of the final state of cargo and vessel after catastrophic roll and capsizing
(Phase 2)
4.3.7 Small scale model confirmation
To further understand the ship behaviour when cargo in holds experience dynamic separation to form
free surface slurry and to attempt to mimic the vessels behaviour when the phenomena first arises, a
small scale model of a vessel was constructed. The model is a 1:180 scale of a typical Handymax
(50kDWT) vessel as shown in Figure 148.
104
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 148: 1:180 scale model
The vessel is loaded with fixed weights to achieve a draft and stability condition that simulates the
loaded condition. The vessel has 4 blue ramps each with a ball bearing that is free to move across
each ramp to simulate the calculated FSE and the horizontal and vertical movement of the CoG of the
free slurry. Each blue ramp represents a cargo hold that has developed a free slurry surface having a
3
density of 1.5t/m with a height of 1m.
The photograph sequences outlined in Figure 149, Figure 150 and Figure 151 show motions of the
vessel for 2 holds, 3 holds and 4 holds respectively with a free surface of slurry occurring on a
flattened solid bulk cargo.
In Figure 149 sequence, two holds have had the cargo separate to form free slurry surfaces. These
free surfaces oscillate out of phase with the vessels rolling motion, as can be seen by the fact that the
ball bearings are on different sides of the vessel in the first frame. As the vessel continues to roll the
ball bearings cross paths and then transverse back in the direction they came from. This out of phase
motion between the two free slurry surfaces causes the vessels rolling motion to become irregular as
the feedback interaction between the free slurry surfaces motion and the vessel motion results in the
vessel having a wobble type motion. Note that the vessel is still upright and rolling about the upright
position. This demonstration matches the real-world observations and is the first sign that warns the
vessel crew that something is not right.
Figure 149: Model vessel behaviour due to FSE with 2 holds with free slurry surface
In Figure 150 sequence, three holds have now had the cargo separate to form free slurry surfaces.
These free surfaces oscillate out of phase with the vessels rolling motion, although not as extreme as
with the two hold free surface example shown previously. As the vessel continues to roll the ball
105
CCC 4/INF.10
bearings cross paths and then transverse back in the direction they came from. With three free slurry
surfaces, the vessel now has developed a small list (Phase 1) of about 5 degrees, as shown by the
ball bearing tending to move closer to the lower side and less to the edge on the higher side. The out
of phase motion between the three free slurry surfaces, causes the vessels rolling motion to still be
irregular. So now the vessel is rolling in a reduced wobbling motion but is not upright and is rolling
about a 5 degrees heel angle. This demonstration matches the real-world observations and is the
most obvious sign noticed by the vessel crew that something is definitely not right.
In Figure 151 sequence, four holds have now had the cargo separate to form free slurry surfaces.
These free surfaces oscillate almost in phase with the vessels rolling motion. As the vessel continues
to roll, the ball bearings no longer cross path and the vessel now has developed a significant list of
about 25 degrees, as shown by the ball bearing tending to stay on the lower side and to not make it
past the vessels centreline. So now the vessel is rolling without any significant wobbling motion but is
not upright and is rolling about a 25 degree heel angle. This demonstration matches the real-world
observations and is typically the point at which the Master orders the crew to evacuate the vessel.
The following photographs in Figure 152, give examples of vessels with significant lists and the
corresponding model vessel result with four holds experiencing the result of cargo dynamic separation
and the formation of a flat solid cargo with an overlying free surface slurry layer.
106
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 152: Comparison of real vessel and model vessel behaviour
4.3.8 Summary of Sequence of Events leading to the Capsize of a Handymax ship

Ship loads a cargo with high moisture content and with a significant amount of fines, generally
as a peaked cargo pile.
Sea states cause the vessel to roll, pitch and pound (etc.) imparting energy into the cargo.
Cargo in the holds may undergo dynamic separation (cargo flattens and expels moisture) due
to motion of the ship.
Water is expressed to the surface and starts to collect in the port and starboard wings of the
cargo holds, forming a slurry.
The pile of cargo still remaining in the centre of the hold effectively subdivides it into 3
compartments (2 pools of slurry and cargo pile). The reduction in GM due to the free surface
moments caused by the two separate pools of slurry is small and will have no noticeable
effect on the ships GM
As the cargo continues to dynamically separate, the pile flattens further and is eroded by the
sloshing slurry until the pile becomes flat, solid and competent with an overlying or perched
free slurry surface that is now free to flow from side to side across the hold over the surface of
the cargo.
Depending upon the initial stability of the vessel and the amount and density of the free slurry
surface, if two holds or more have had the cargo fully separated, forming a slurry layer, then
the vessel can lose its initial stability and the ships roll motion becomes irregular and a small
list may develop.
If the rolling motions continue, the slurry sloshing in the holds can entrain more material within
the free liquid and can also erode and transport further solid material to the low side - the list
progresses.
If other holds cargoes dynamically separate and form free slurry surfaces, the list will
progress.
If a shift of cargo occurs from the high side to the low side in any or all of the holds then a
negative GM capable of capsizing and sinking the ship can occur quickly.
107
CCC 4/INF.10
4.4 Conclusions
The present analysis is based on the reported incidents and calculations on the effect of a free slurry
surface on the behaviour of a Handymax bulk carrier. Based on the analysis, the conclusions drawn
are that:
The pathway to capsizing based on cargo instability due to moisture being the dynamic
separation process, occurs in two phases;
Phase 1;
o Dynamic separation of the cargo occurring in 2.5 holds of more, resulting in a free
slurry surface that is sufficient for the vessel to develop a steady heel.
o The development of a steady heel becomes relatively sudden as the free surface
occurs in more cargo holds; however the presence of an external heeling moment
from wind and waves results in a more gradual growth of the heel angle.
o The development of a steady heel due to the free slurry surface as well as the
external moment from wind and waves and immersion of the deck edge do not
explain Phase 2.
Phase 2;
o A sudden shift of the intact cargo due to avalanching.
o Avalanching of the competent cargo occurs due to it being eroded by the sloshing
slurry and/or exceeding its angle of repose.
The first sign of a FSE from the cargo on the vessel may be a noticeable wobbling motion of
the vessel
Increasing the vessels stability by increasing its GM through appropriate ballasting can
reduce the steady heel
108
CCC 4/INF.10
5 Chapter 5 Bauxite TML Test Development
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 outlines work conducted to address the terms of reference of the GBWG: consider the
adequacy of the current methods for determining the transportable moisture limit (TML) for BAUXITE
and develop, as necessary, new and/or amended existing methods to be included in appendix 2 of
the IMSBC Code. Accordingly, Chapter 5 begins with a background geotechnical explanation of the
compaction of particulate assemblies such as bauxite and builds on this to explain what test is most
suitable for avoiding the various moisture controlled instabilities that have been identified. The
limitations of the various existing TML methods in the IMSBC Code when applied to bauxite ores are
also discussed. Finally the Chapter ends with a recommended TML test method for bauxite that
considers all the moisture-controlled instability mechanisms discussed in this report. The test method
and its interpretation are discussed and verified, including quantification of experimental repeatability
and discussion of experimental techniques necessary to obtain correct and consistent results.
5.2 Background to geotechnical behaviour of compacted granular material

such as bauxites
The behaviour of compacted granular assemblages at different water contents is well understood in
geotechnical science (e.g. Leroueil & Hight(36), Fagerberg & Stavang(37), and others(38,39,40)) and is
readily defined by their compaction behaviour. The compaction behaviour as a function of moisture
(41,42)
content is typically measured using a Proctor compaction test or some modification of it . Figure
153 shows conceptually the typical compaction curve for a granular material such as bauxite or soil,
for a given compaction effort/energy level. Figure 154 and Figure 155 shows the same information for
a fine bauxite for comparison. In these figures, data is presented as a plot of water content versus
void ratio. The bauxite is a three phase material comprising solids, water and air. When the bauxite is
dry, or at very low water contents, the air phase is continuous and the water is limited to very small
volumes existing as menisci at some of the contacts between the solid particles. If this granular
material is loaded, air is easily expelled and significant pore water pressures cannot be generated,
even if the loading induces large reductions in the volume of the pore space between the solid
particles.
At higher water contents, suction produced by surface tension effects at the curved water menisci
creates competent clumps of the granular material. These clumps inhibit dense packing of the solid
particles and a relatively high void ratio is achieved (Figure 153 to Figure 155). As the water content
increases, the suctions reduce and the clumps become weaker. There is also an increased lubricating
effect with more water. For these two reasons, more effective packing of the solid particles and lower
void ratios are attained, with the void ratio decreasing with increasing water content. The air phase is
continuous, but so too is the water phase, which exists at particle contacts and as a film around the
solid particles. On loading such an assemblage, the air, which is continuous and connected to the
atmosphere along numerous paths, is easily expelled. Significant high pore water pressures cannot
be induced even if the loading causes large volume reductions of the pore space.
At the optimum moisture content (OMC), enough water has been added that the air phase is occluded
and now exists as individual bubbles within the water phase. The air is therefore discontinuous while
the water phase is continuous. The pore volume is now full of a relatively incompressible water-air
mixture comprising mostly water with some air. The packing of the solid particles is at a maximum for
the applied compactive effort, as the incompressible pore fluid means that further more efficient
packing is not possible if the water content is further increased. The void ratio-water content curve is
therefore at a minimum and this is the OMC for the compactive effort used. Loading of this
assemblage will generate positive pore water pressures because the pore fluid is relatively
incompressible as the air is discontinuous and cannot easily be expelled. However, as the pore water
pressures generate they gradually dissipate with time as water and the occluded air bubbles are
expelled. This process of gradual expulsion of pore water is called consolidation. The speeds at which
the pore fluid is expelled and pore pressures dissipate depend on the combination of the materials
permeability and its compressibility (see Figure 156). If the permeability is high and the
109
CCC 4/INF.10
compressibility low, the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) is high and pore pressures dissipate rapidly
(i.e. loading only squeezes the pore volume by a low amount and the squeezed water can flow
through the material rapidly). On the other hand, if the permeability is low and the compressibility
high, then Cv is low and dissipation of pore pressures will be slow - i.e. loading will compress the pore
space a lot and any squeezed water can only flow through the soil skeleton slowly.
Figure 153: Compaction curve at a given compaction energy - configuration of the solid, water and air
phases in various parts of the compaction curve
Figure 154: Compaction curve for a fine bauxite illustrating the granular fabric depicted in Figure 153
110
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 155: Compaction curve for a fine bauxite and the associated behaviour in the hexapod
At conditions wetter than the OMC, the pore fluid is almost all water with little or no air as the granular
material approaches full saturation. Loading of such a material generates significant pore pressures
that gradually dissipate by a process of consolidation, as previously described.
If the cargo cannot generate pore water pressures, dynamic separation would not occur as the driving
force to expel moisture would not develop. Similarly, liquefaction also requires pore water pressure
generation, but to larger pressures than dynamic separation, so any measure that inhibits pore water
pressure generation from occurring will prevent both liquefaction and dynamic separation from
occurring. The fundamental property of a material based on its compaction curve is the OMC, and
drier than the OMC prevents pore water pressure increase as the air in the granular matrix remains
continuous and prevents water pressure generation. This is a well-known geotechnical principal.
The results from hexapod tests show that dynamic separation only occurs at saturations above OMC.
The exact saturation for dynamic separation to commence is different for each bauxite, but all are
above OMC saturations and close to 100% saturation.
Figure 156: Illustration of the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) the parameter that controls the rate at
which, (i) pore water pressures dissipate and (ii) water is expelled from a saturated or nearly
saturated material ( w in the equation for Cv is the bulk unit weight)
111
CCC 4/INF.10
Clear conclusions from Figure 153 and the photos of bauxite in Figure 154 and Figure 155 are;
On the dry side of the OMC (i.e left side at lower moisture contents), the air phase is
continuous and loading a granular material in that zone will not generate significant pore
water pressures. Instead, air is easily squeezed out.
On the dry side of the OMC, the mechanism of water expulsion associated with dynamic
separation will not occur.
On the dry side of the OMC, the mechanism of liquefaction will not occur.
The compaction curve is an appropriate way for determining a materials fundamental
behaviour due to moisture and loading
Setting moisture limit that is drier than the OMC by a given buffer provides a margin of safety
with regards to the generation of significant pore pressures by monotonic or cyclic loading.
This is a margin of safety for both liquefaction risk and dynamic separation risk.
Setting a moisture limit that is drier than the OMC by the buffer also reduces the risk of
moisture migration. It does this by limiting the water content to values at which much of the
water (if not all) is held by capillarity as pendular water (see Figure 153).
When there is downward moisture migration due to gravity with pooling of some water at the
base of stow, the studies reported in Chapter 3 indicate that liquefaction will not occur in the
saturated base as the bauxite is free draining.
5.3 Limitations of Existing IMSBC TML Test Methods for Bauxite Ores
The GBWG has conducted research on methodologies to assess the TML of potentially Group A
Bauxites. As shown in Chapter 1, bauxites shipped worldwide exhibit a wide range of particle size
distributions and there are bauxites that contain particles larger than 100mm. The top size (D95) of
some bauxites tested is 3 inches (76mm). Due to such a wide range of PSDs and coarse bauxites,
none of the tests in Appendix 2 of IMSBC Code(13) allow for the appropriate TML testing of the full
range of seaborne traded bauxites. All existing TML test methodologies present apparatus limitations
regarding the particle size of the as shipped samples. It should also be noted that none of the TML
tests inact the same confining stresses experienced by the actual cargo when in a ships hold.
The Flow Table test is suitable for mineral concentrates with a maximum grain size of 7mm, while the
Penetration test is suitable for materials with a top size up to 25mm and the Proctor-Fagerberg test
(PFT) is suitable for materials with a top size of 5mm. The implications to some of the bauxites based
on these size limitations in the current IMSBC Code TML tests is that less than 50% of the as shipped
material is being tested for its TML. In these cases the TML result does not represent a safe limit as
the TML conducted on a sample that is not representative of the cargo.
Furthermore, the PFT is the least subjective and most precise of the 3 methods in the IMSBC Code. It
is also the only test based on solid fundamentals in geotechnical science, which allows calculation of
key geotechnical parameters such as bulk density, moisture content, dry density, specific gravity
and voids ratio to assess the TML of the material.
The work conducted by the GBWG on the development of a TML test appropriate for the wide range
(14) (43)
of seaborne traded bauxites builds on the results from the IOF TWG and Coal research findings,
and also on the geotechnical behaviour of granular material outlined previously. This work involves
the calibration of the PFT to in-hold condition of the bauxites as measured and outlined in Chapter 2,
and the modification of the PFT methodology to ensure the PSD of the tested material is
representative of the as-shipped cargo. This chapter outlines the development of a PFT to adequately
determine the TML of a wide range of bauxites and the validity of the results to ensure the safe
shipping of bauxites.
112
CCC 4/INF.10
5.4 Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test Development

(14) (43)
In both the IOF TWG research and the coal research work , the existing PFT outlined in the
IMSBC Code, which was originally developed for mineral concentrates, was modified and calibrated
for the bulk cargo being studied. Modifications included sample preparation and procedural changes
in determining the compaction curve, as well as equipment modifications. Calibration involved
ensuring that the compaction energy matched that of the cargo conditions found in the ships holds.
In the IOF example, the C hammer (350g weight) utilised in the existing test was found to heavily
overestimate the cargo bulk density and thus the hammer weight of the PFT test needed calibrating to
the real cargo density occurring in the vessel. The IOF work found that the D hammer (150g weight)
still overestimated the cargo bulk density but was closer to it and hence provided conservative
compaction energy. Also as IOF have top sizes around 10mm, the 100mm diameter mould of the
existing test was found to be suitable. Other modifications included sample preparation techniques
including drying, mixing, and moisture equilibration.
Similarly, in the coal TML research, the D hammer was found to better match the in-hold density of
the shipped coals, although it was still overestimated but this provided for an additional safety margin.
Also, the coal TML research found that the top sizes occurring in coal are too large for the PFT test
mould and that scalping the material in order for the tested sample to fit the mould (i.e. scalping at
5mm) resulted in the concentrating of the materials fines content, thereby leading to a higher TML
than what could possibly be obtained if the full as shipped sizing was utilised. The remedy outlined in
the coal research was twofold. Firstly, a larger mould size was employed (150mm diameter instead of
100mm). Secondly, scalping at 25mm and reconstituting the sample by adding a weight fraction the
same as the removed material but with a sizing of +16mm and -25mm, thereby diluting the fines back
to the same levels as the as shipped material, was undertaken.
Furthermore the coal D hammer was modified to have a larger base than the standard D hammer to
allow it to fit the larger mould and still have the same tamping procedure as the IMSBC code PFT,
hence the weight of the coal D hammer was increased to ensure the same compactive energy.
These two methodologies outlined above for IOF and Coal were utilised in the development of the
bauxite PFT, namely the most appropriate equipment selection. Both the mould size and hammer
weight require selection to determine the appropriate calibration and modifications to the test
methodology which include scalping, size reconstitution and sample preparation techniques.
5.4.1 PFT Mould Size Selection
In order to allow testing of coarser particles, the GBWG also needed to use a larger mould and
applied the one prescribed by the British Standard Methods of test for Soils for civil engineering
(44)
purposes - Part 4. Compaction (BS1377: Part 4:1990) , American Standard Test Method for CBR
(California Bearing Ratio) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils (ASTM D1883-99)(45), and ASTM D698-
2007(46). The mould described in these methods is referred to as the CBR mould and it presents
roughly 1.5 times the diameter and more than 2 times the volume of the standard 100mm PFT 1 Litre
mould. The dimensions of each are provided for comparison in the Table 13 below. The benefit of
utilising the CBR mould is that it is inexpensive, off-the-shelf equipment readily available through
geotechnical equipment suppliers and has a widely practiced standard procedure for its use that the
bauxite PFT in development could be based on.
Table 13: Existing IMSBC PFT mould and CBR adopted for bauxite mould dimensions
Dimension IMSBC PFT Mould Bauxite PFT (CBR) Mould

Diameter (mm) 100.0 152.0
Height (mm) 127.3 127.0
Volume (cm3) 1000.0 2304.5
113
CCC 4/INF.10
5.4.2 PFT Hammer Selection

To produce the compaction effort necessary for testing, certain size hammers (weight and
dimensions) need to be employed and these depend upon the mould size and tamping details. The
Proctor-Fagerberg hammer sizes (A to E) are outlined elsewhere(14,43,47,48). As the compaction energy
per unit volume required to better suit the in-hold densities for both IOF and coal was around 27 to
29kJ/m3, both from utilising a Proctor- Fagerberg D hammer, the test work conducted by the GBWG
focused on the PFT D hammer compaction. This seemed appropriate given that bauxite is loaded and
stockpiled using similar equipment and conditions (load rates, drop heights) as IOF and coal.
However, as the D hammer applied to Coal PFT had been modified to suit the highly crushable nature
of coal particles, whereas bauxites are not susceptible to grain crushing at the compaction levels
associated with shipping, the standard D hammer was therefore preferred, utilised and
recommended. Figure 157 gives a comparison of the standard D hammer and the modified coal D
hammer. Figure 158 and Figure 159 show the compaction patterns when using the standard D
hammer in a 100mm mould and the modified coal D hammer in the larger 150mm coal PFT mould.
The added benefit of using the standard hammer in the CBR mould is the required number of drops
per layer must increase as the hammer foot diameter is small, and hence the tamping undertaken is
more uniform over the material volume being compacted.
Table 14 outlines the PFT equipment details (i.e. mould size, tamping details and hammer details)
and resulting energy per unit volume requirements for the existing IMSBC code PFT C, Modified IOF
PFT D, Modified Coal PFT D and the Bauxite PFT D under investigation. The proposed bauxite PFT
using the standard D hammer in the CBR mould gives a compaction effort almost the same as when
using the standard mould size of 100mm (IOF and Coal PFTD).
Table 14: PFT equipment details and resulting compaction compactive effort
No. of No. of Drop Hammer Hammer Mould Mould Mould Compaction

TEST layers drops Height Foot Weight Inner Height Volume Effort
3 3
per (mm) Diameter (g) Diameter (mm) (cm ) (kJ/m )
layer (mm) (mm)
IMSBC
5 25 200.0 50.0 350.0 100.0 127.3 1000.0 85.8
PFT-C
IOF
5 25 150.0 50.0 150.0 100.0 127.3 1000.0 27.6
PFT-D
Coal
5 25 150.0 75.0 337.5 150.0 120.0 2120.6 29.3
PFT-D
Bauxite
5 58 150.0 50.0 150.0 152.0 127.0 2304.5 27.8
PFT-D
Figure 157: Standard D hammer (left) and Coal Modified D hammer for comparison (right)
114
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 158: Sample marked by standard D hammer compaction pattern in the 150mm CBR mould
Figure 159: Sample marked by modified D hammer compaction pattern in the 150mm mould
5.4.3 Specific Gravity (SG) Determination
To develop the PFT compaction curves, samples at various moisture contents and bulk densities are
measured for the given compaction energy. Knowing the moisture content and the bulk density allows
the calculation of dry density. To convert dry density into a void ratio, the specific gravity (SG) of the
material must be measured. The techniques utilised in the GBWG work included water placement
methods, glass pycnometers and helium pycnometers that are readily employed in the minerals
industry. All determinations of SG were done with recognised international or national
standards(10,11,12,49).
5.4.4 Sample Preparation for Testing
Representative samples should be obtained following ISO standards for sampling and sample
preparation as listed in Chapter 1. It should also be noted that any material tested should not be fully
dried as bauxite is not readily rewetted from a fully dried state and this will give erroneous results.
This is because for many bauxites, the particles have micro-pore that are saturated in their natural
stated. Strong drying de-saturates these pores. Re-saturation of these fine pores on rewetting is very
difficult and may need, for example, the sustained application of a vacuum. This means that for the
115
CCC 4/INF.10
Proctor Fagerberg test, one data point is obtained by testing at the as-received water content and
further data points at higher water contents are obtained by wetting up sub-samples. For data points
drier than the as-received condition, sub-samples are dried gently (at room temperature).
Depending on the particle size of the bauxite to be tested it may be necessary to screen and
reconstitute the bauxite sample for testing, depending on the amount of particles larger than the
coarsest particles that can be accommodated in the test apparatus. Reconstitution is a process
whereby the coarse particles that are too large to fit into the test apparatus are scalped of and
discarded, but the remaining sample is enhanced in the coarser fraction that can fit the apparatus, so
that the tested psd gives as close an approximation as possible to the full psd of the original material
before scalping.
For proposed Bauxite PFT, a 25mm limit has been placed on the maximum particle size for the test
apparatus. This is consistent with the Coal modified PF Test procedures which used a similar sized
mould and covers materials with large particles. Reconstitution would be required for bauxites if the
amount of material in the representative sample that is coarser than 25mm is significant.
The first step in sample preparation was to sieve the sample at 25mm to determine the amount of dry
weight that is larger than 25mm. All material retained on the 25mm sieve was discarded, while
material passing 25mm was to be tested.
If the sample contains more than 10% in dry weight of particles larger than 25mm, then the sample
was reconstituted with a fraction between 25mm and 6.3mm (i.e. screened as-received material that
passes a 25mm screen and is retained on a 6.3mm screen). This -25mm +6.3mm fraction, was then
added to as received material scalped at 25mm, thereby enhancing the coarse fraction and diluting
the fine fraction of the tested sample such that the fines fraction is comparable to the as-received
material. The amount of <25mm to >6.3mm fraction to be added and well mixed into the 25mm
scalped sample shall be equal, in weight, to the amount of >25mm that was discarded.
Figure 160 shows an example of a bauxite which less than 10% by weight of material is larger than
25mm and, therefore, no reconstitution would be necessary. Figure 161 provides an example of a
bauxite in which more than 10% by weight of the material is larger than 25mm particle size and,
therefore, reconstitution would be required. It can be seen visually from these two figures that the
10% reconstitution threshold is adequate. When the scalped material is less than 10% of the total, it
can be seen that if the scalped material had been distributed uniformly within the whole mass, the
scalped fraction would be in isolation within the mass and would not interact with each other. Hence
they would not contribute to a change in the compaction response. On the other hand, when the
scalped mass is greater than 10%, then it can be seen visually that they could begin to interact when
distributed uniformly in the whole mass.
This reconstitution procedure allows testing a psd that is more representative of the shipped psd. The
use of a fraction between 25mm and 6.3mm to replace the material that was greater than 25mm
ensures that the psd curve has a more similar shape to the original as received material. Figure 162
provides an example of the change in psd of a bauxite, from its as shipped psd to the reconstituted
psd. Also, the 6.3mm particle size is a well-known differentiator between fines and coarse materials
in the mining industry.
116
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 160: Example where no reconstitution was necessary (weight % fraction > 25mm ~ 1%)
Figure 161: Example where Bauxite sample requires reconstitution (weight % fraction > 25mm ~
28%)
Figure 162: Example of Particle Size Distributions of as shipped, 25mm scalped (-25mm),
reconstitution coarse fraction (-25mm +6.3mm) and the final reconstituted bauxite sample for testing
The sample in Figure 161 has an as shipped coarse fraction of 78%, and hence scalping increases
the fines fraction considerably. For a bauxite at 10% or less >25mm, scalping at 25mm only changes
the fines fraction (- 2.5mm) by less than 3% as shown in Figure 163. Making the reconstitution for all
samples with a +25mm fraction is difficult to justify, especially for some sample that have 1 or 2%
117
CCC 4/INF.10
greater than 25mm and would amount to the whole sample needing screening just to remove a few
particles (Figure 160) and achieve no different result.
Figure 163: Effect of Scalping when 10% or less of material is greater than 25mm
The proposed Bauxite PFT requires 40 - 50kg of sample passing 25mm to provide enough material to
test to be able to construct the full compaction curve. A schematic diagram outlining the procedure to
prepare the samples is provided in Figure 164.
Figure 164: Schematic diagram of reconstitution sample procedure
118
CCC 4/INF.10
5.4.5 Bauxite PFT Procedure
Screening and reconstitution: Screen about 50 kg of bauxite through the 25mm sieve. Discard
the retained portion and keep the fraction passing through the sieve for further testing.
If the proportion that is retained on the sieve is 10% or less of the whole mass (by dry weight)
no reconstitution is needed.
If the coarse than 25mm portion is greater than 10% of the whole mass, reconstitution is
needed.
Reconstitution is achieved as described in Figure 164. The 6.3mm to 25mm fraction is fully
mixed into the 25mm screened fraction.
Mixing at different water contents: Compaction tests are executed for five to ten different
moisture contents (i.e. five to ten separate tests, but typically seven tests are undertaken.
The number of tests should be sufficient to fully define the compaction curve, including
accurately determining the optimum moisture content and conditions near to or at full
saturation.
A total of about 50kg to 100kg of unscreened bauxite is typically needed for one series of
tests, depending on whether reconstitution is required or not.
Divide the screened bauxite into five to ten sub-samples and place each in a sealed plastic
buckets that allow any fines stuck to be scraped off. The water content of the sub-samples
are adjusted by adding a suitable amount of water into each bucket to obtained water
contents ranging from the as-received water content to almost saturated sub-samples.
Typically one test is carried out at the as-received water content. Five to eight tests are
carried out at higher water contents.
Depending on the as-received water content, one or two tests are carried out at lower water
contents than the as-received water content. These lower water content tests are obtained by
partially drying the bauxite sub-sample at room temperature. Drying and then re-wetting of
bauxite before carrying out a compaction test is not permitted. This is because some bauxites
have particles with micro-pores. These fine pores are usually saturated in their natural
condition. Substantial drying of the bauxite de-saturates these micro-pores and they do not
re-saturate on rewetting. Rewetting to the previous water content leaves more free water in
the fine matrix or in the pore space between the coarse particles. The bauxite could therefore
behave differently. Note that some bauxites are not sensitive to pre-drying, but unless this is
demonstrated for the bauxite being tested, pre-drying is not permitted.
The sub-samples are mixed at the target water contents and then allowed to rest and
equilibrate in the sealed plastic buckets.
The plastic buckets are remixed immediately before compaction to ensure that a
homogeneous sample is tested.
A compaction test is carried out on each sub-sample. For each subsample, the CBR mould is
filled in five layers, each being uniformly compacted with the standard Proctor-Fagerberg D
hammer (150g). The hammer is dropped 58 times for each layer by a distance of 0.15 m each
time.
The aim is to produce a uniformly compacted sample in which the specified energy has been
put into the bauxite that occupies the mould volume.
The guide tube is positioned so that it is just touching with the surface of the bauxite, but is
not resting on it so the hammer falls the full specified height and compact the material, without
additional (and excessive) compaction from the guide tube, itself, compressing the bauxite.
The performance is repeated for all five layers so that the last layer only just overfills the
mould-extension piece junction. The aim is to fill the mould by compacting in five nearly equal
layers in order to produce a uniformly compacted sample in which the specified energy has
been put into bauxite that occupies the mould volume.
If the bauxite extends more than 1cm above the mould, then the sample has been under
compacted and needs retesting. The final height of the tamper bauxite must be less than 1cm
above the mould to ensure the correct compaction energy for the volume has been applied.
When the fifth layer has been tamped the extension piece is removed and the sample is
carefully levelled off.
The levelling process should be a horizontal cutting action, not a pushing action as that would
compress more material into the mould volume than had been compacted by the specified
energy input.
119
CCC 4/INF.10
Then the weight of the cylinder with the tamped sample is determined, the cylinder is emptied,
the full sample is dried and the weight is again determined. The test then is then repeated for
the other samples with different moisture contents.
For each compaction test the void ratio, water content and degree of saturation are plotted as
shown in Figure 165.
If the bauxite compaction curve gives a well-defined optimum moisture content (OMC) a
saturation greater than 90%, the TML is determined as the critical water content at 80%
saturation (see Figure 165). This leaves a buffer of 10% or more in saturation between the
OMC and the TML. This is consistent with the work already carried out for the IOF.
If the bauxite compaction curve gives an OMC that is less than 90%, the TML is determined
as the critical water content at 70% saturation (Figure 165).
It is important to define the OMC clearly in the Proctor-Fagerberg test for bauxite. Where the
OMC is not clearly defined by carrying out a sufficient number of tests at water contents close
to and either side of the OMC, then a TML based on S = 80% cannot be adopted. The TML
shall be based on S = 70%.This is to guard against the erroneous adoption of a high OMC
due to insufficient definition of the compaction curve.
Where moisture very freely drains from the sample at moisture content such that the test
sample compaction curve cannot extend to or beyond 70% saturation, the test is taken to
indicate a cargo where water passes freely through the spaces between particles. Therefore,
the cargo is not liable to experience moisture instabilities including dynamic separation or
liquefaction.
Gross Moisture Content (wt%) Gross Moisture Content (wt%)
(a) (b)
Figure 165: Proctor-Fagerberg compaction curves. Part (a) shows a curve with OMC at 95%
saturation. The TML is determined for a saturation of 80%. Part (b) shows a curve with OMC less than
90% saturation. The TML is determined for a saturation of 70%.
5.5 Bauxite PFT Results
Using the Bauxite PFT apparatus and sample procedure previously described tests were conducted
on the various bauxites being investigated in the GBWG research. Figure 166 to Figure 179 show the
compaction curves of the bauxites tested using the bauxite PFT with the D hammer and CBR 152mm
diameter mould with sample reconstitution if the percentage by weight retained on a 25mm screen
was more than 10%. Also, in-hold density measurements, from before and after measurements for a
voyage are plotted with the compaction curves, where available. Where in-hold density
measurements were unavailable, measured bauxite stockpiles densities have been used as an
estimate of the in-hold densities, for cases where the stockpiles have been constructed in exactly the
same manner as loaded vessels using the same conveyors with the similar drop heights and
discharge rates. In other cases, the possible in-hold densities have been bounded using ISO bulk
(18,50,51)
density and compacted bulk density measurements measured at a specific moisture content
which have been shown to bracket the in-hold measurements (e.g. see Figure 166 to Figure 169 and
Figure 179). Figure 180 summarises the bulk density results.
In all results, the compaction by the D hammer overestimates the bauxite density occurring in the
cargo hold. Given these measurements and following the arguments of Fagerberg and Stavang(37),
120
CCC 4/INF.10
use of the D hammer is, therefore, a consistent and conservative procedure to assess the TML of
Group A bauxites.
In tests on Bauxite 2, 3 and 4 (Figure 167, Figure 168 and Figure 169 respectively), the bauxites
presented such high permeability that they could not retain enough moisture to reach 70% degree of
saturation and, therefore, a TML could not be found. (Before the 70% saturation was reached, the
particles and the water had separated out with water pooling at the bottom of the container under
gravity, even before the sample could be placed in the mould and immediately after mixing.
Therefore, when carrying out the bauxite PFT method, when adding water to the sample, if it is
observed that water pours straight through the sample to the base such that the sample cannot retain
enough water to reach 70% saturation as the material is so free draining, it can be concluded that it
exhibits Group C properties and shall be classified accordingly.)
Figure 166: Modified PFT Result Bauxite 1
121
CCC 4/INF.10
122
CCC 4/INF.10
123
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 172: Modified PFT Results Bauxite 7
124
CCC 4/INF.10
125
CCC 4/INF.10
126
CCC 4/INF.10
127
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 180: In-hold bulk density versus Bauxite PFT bulk density
All bauxites tested using the bauxite PFT method present OMCs consistently between 80% and 95%
saturation. For those bauxites that present OMC between degrees of saturation of 80% and 90%, if
the TML is read at 70% saturation, a safety margin of at least 10% in the degree of saturation is
ensured in the TML assessment. For those bauxites that present OMC at degrees of saturation higher
than 90%, if the TML is read at a degree of saturation of 80% saturation, a safety margin of at least
10% in saturation at TML is again ensured. In both cases, the Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg
methodology is assuring a safety margin higher than the 5% used in Fagerbergs original work, in
which the considered safety margin was 5% between the degree of saturation at the OMC and the the
degree of saturation specified for TML determination.
Figure 181 illustrates the bauxites OMC range and shows that the OMC for bauxites occurs between
80% and 95% saturation. Therefore, the Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg methodology may return a TML at
70% (known as PFT-D70) or at 80% saturation (PFT-D80), depending on the materials OMC, and in
both cases assuring a safety margin of at least 10% in degree of saturation is applied. In the GBWG
Bauxite PFT method, the OMC should be reported and the TML determined based on the position of
the OMC, using PFT-D70 for OMCs less than 90% saturation, or PFT-D80 for OMCs greater than
90% saturation. Clearly, it is important that the test is conducted to define the OMC accurately,
particularly if PFT-D80 is to be utilised.
128
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 181: Examples of OMCs between 80% - 90% saturation and OMCs above 90% saturation
To summarise, the Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg methodology applied has proven valid for all 14 tested
bauxites. It may be noted that 3 bauxites exhibited such high free draining behaviour that they could
not reach 70% saturation, being the lowest saturation degree for a TML to be determined. Such free
draining bauxites should be classified as Group C on the basis of the Bauxite PFT results. For all
other bauxites, a TML could be determined with a minimum of 10% safety margin on saturation based
on the position of the OMC. The results of the TML determined using the proposed Bauxite PFT
methodology is provided in Figure 182.
129
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 182: Overall results for bauxites tested according to Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg methodology
Tests were done by scalping at a larger size (37.5mm) without reconstitution. This is effectively
(44)
following the British Standards . Figure 183 and Figure 184 show examples comparing the BS1377
PFT method compared to the GBWG proposed method. It can be seen in the two figures that the
obtained compaction curves are almost identical. Similar tests and comparisons to the British
Standards were carried out for a number of ores with similar results. It is concluded that the proposed
GBWG PFT-D compaction method is validated.
Figure 183: BS1377 method with 37.5mm scalp verses GBWG method sample 1
130
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 184: BS1377 method with 37.5mm scalp verses GBWG method sample 2
5.6 Experimental Repeatability and Reproducibility

For checking repeatability and reproducibility of the Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg methodology, 6
bauxites were tested at 2 different laboratories and 3 samples were tested twice at the same
laboratory, with the sample preparation method and reconstitution procedure undertaken for each
compaction curve determination. Figure 185 shows images for 5 of the as tested bauxites after
reconstitution.
Figure 185: Example of bauxites after reconstitution (except for V no reconstitution necessary)
The TML results for the 6 bauxites tested for repeatability and reproducibility are given in Figure 186.
Three of the bauxites had the bauxite PFT conducted on them twice at the same laboratories and
these tests yielded similar results, with an average variation of 0.13% in the TML result. These results
show the repeatability of the test was excellent. The repeatability of the proposed bauxite PFT
method compares well with the current PFT C method in the IMSBC code which yields repeatability
results for bauxite of around 0.18% in average variation. The six bauxites tested underwent bauxite
PFT testing by different laboratories. The TML results suggest good reproducibility, with an average
variation of 0.3% in TML result.
131
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 186: TML Results of tests done for 6 different bauxites at different labs
5.7 Conclusions
Dry of the OMC, the air phase is continuous. Loading a granular material in that zone will not
generate pore water pressures. Instead, air is easily squeezed out.
The PFT is an appropriate test for determining a TML for all the identified moisture-controlled
instability mechanisms including liquefaction risk and dynamic separation.
Setting a TML that is drier than the OMC by a given buffer provides a margin of safety with
regards to the generation of pore pressures, whether by monotonic or cyclic loading.
Setting a TML that is drier than the OMC by the said buffer also reduces the risk of moisture
migration.
Even if there is downward moisture migration due to gravity, the studies reported in Chapter 3
have shown that liquefaction will not occur in the saturated base.
Use of a CBR mould and the recommended reconstitution method allow proper testing of
bauxites containing large particles.
The compaction energy with the D hammer produces dry densities and void ratios that are
consistent with those measured for bauxite cargoes in vessel holds before and after voyages.
OMC of the bauxites tested consistently occurs between 80-95% saturation.
The proposed Bauxite PFT method provides good repeatability and reproducibility in TML
results.
It is recommended that the TML of tested bauxites is read at 70% or 80% saturation,
depending on the OMC found, but always applying a minimum safety margin in the degree of
saturation that is greater than 10% between TML saturation and OMC saturation.
132
CCC 4/INF.10
6 Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusions
Chapter 1 of this report summarised the general properties of bauxites and then focused on the
seaborne traded bauxites. Chapter 2 built on this to present vessel sea state motions and real-life
cargo observations, thereby defining the stresses and forces on bauxite cargoes subject to storm
loading and the initial conditions of such cargoes. Chapter 3 used a range of laboratory test methods
and scale models, based on these storm forces and initial cargo conditions, to investigate the risk of
liquefaction of bauxite cargoes. It was found that liquefaction did not occur in the wide range of
bauxites tested, but that another moisture controlled mechanism could occur in finer grained bauxites
if the cargo was placed very wet and then subject to sufficient dynamic loading. Under these
conditions, a process of slumping and dynamic separation could occur in very wet fine grained
bauxites, with the upward expulsion of water/ slurry. The chapter then proceeded to define a
screening criterion based on the percentage of ore finer than 1mm and 2.5mm, for identifying bauxite
ores that are Group C and those ores that could be Group A. Chapter 3 also indicated that the
process of dynamic separation was underpinned by the upward expulsion of pore water and that this
could not occur when the pore air in the particle assembly is continuous. Chapter 4 then explored the
implications of the range of identified moisture-controlled mechanisms on vessel stability, showing
that the dynamic separation mechanism was consistent with and fully explained real-world
observations, particularly survivors accounts from marine vessel incidents that involved cargo
instability. Chapter 5 showed that the PFT is the most appropriate test to determine the TML of
bauxites as it can be ready calibrated to match the in-hold conditions of bauxites, and modified to
allow for a better representation of the as shipped PSD but still posing top size restrictions. The PFT
also provides a safe moisture limit to prevent a cargo undergoing moisture instabilities, whether
dynamic separation or liquefaction. The conclusions drawn from the GBWG research outlined in
Chapters 1 to 5 to ensure the safe shipping of globally seaborne traded bauxites are;
Chapter 1
o Bauxites come from various locations globally
o Bauxites investigated by the GBWG include those from Australia, Brazil, India,
Indonesia, Guinea, Guyana, Jamacia and Malaysia and represent over 90% of the
seaborne traded bauxites
o Bauxites are, within limits, composed of similar minerals, namely gibbsite, boehmite,
kaolinite, quartz and hematite
o Bauxites have large differences in particle size distribution depending upon the
deposit and processing
o Geotechnically, the bauxites studied can be described as ranging from silt with much
gravel to silty gravel with sand and cobbles. Particle shape ranges from spherical and
round to angular.
o All bauxites tested have a consistent particle size relationship between the % passing
1mm and % passing 2.5mm. This provides a suitable presentation platform for
defining the criteria for screening Group C bauxites from possible Group A ones.
Chapter 2
o Accelerations and motions in Handymax vessels are significantly greater than those
of Capesize vessels, with Panamax sized vessels sitting in between
o Maximum acceleration experienced on the routes of Australia, Malaysia, Brazil and
Guinea to China are similar and are governed by encounters with tropical revolving
storms
o All vessels have a natural roll period of about 10 seconds or 0.1 Hz
o Hold 1 (forward hold) experiences the largest accelerations.
o The vessel accelerations are less than 1G, typically 0.1G.
o Cargo observations show that the bauxite cargo mass did not move significantly
within a hold during the voyages undertaken, even though severe weather was
encountered on some voyages.
o Cargo volume compaction varies from 0-15%, but is typically around 3%.
o Laser scanning/photogrammetry allows for precise determination (+/-0.5%
volumetric) of cargo bulk density.
133
CCC 4/INF.10
o Volumes of pumped bilge water indicate up to 0.5% reduction in the bauxites

moisture content during a voyage.
o Bilge pumping data as well as discharge inspections and observations show some
bauxites are free draining.
Chapter 3
o Although bauxites span a wide range of particle sizes, the observed range of
behaviour can be explained by the behaviour of a binary soil with increasing fines
content gradually filling of the pore space between the network of coarse particles.
This gives a philosophical background to the proposed screening criterion for Group
C and Group A bauxites.
o No bauxite tested was found to liquefy in CTT conducted in undrained conditions at
worst case ship motions.
o Some bauxite exhibited excessive straining in CTT.
o No bauxite tested was found to liquefy in Hexapod tests where extreme vessel
motions were simulated.
o No bauxite tested was found to liquefy in DC rolling tests where stresses were
appropriately scaled and extreme vessel motions were simulated.
o Physical modelling tests (Hexapod and DC rolling tests) indicated that some bauxites
exhibit instabilities due to moisture where the cargo dynamically separates to form a
perched free slurry surface with an underlying drier, unsaturated and competent solid
cargo.
o Evidence from real world shipments of bauxites showing instabilities due to moisture
cannot be explained by liquefaction phenomena, but can be explained by a dynamic
separation mechanism of instability.
o Detailed description of the dynamic separation instability due to moisture has been
offered.
o Based on the bauxites propensity to strain in the CTT (cyclic softening) or undergo
dynamic separation in scaled physical modelling, a criterion to distinguish Group A
and Group C bauxites was developed.
o The criterion for separating Bauxites is based on their % passing 1mm and 2.5mm
o The criterion proposed is;
Group C D301mm OR D402.5mm OR BOTH
Group A D30<1mm AND D40<2.5mm
o The criterion offers a safety margin of 7.5% on absolute terms and 19 to 25% on
relative terms.
o The criterion prevents sizing regions where bauxites have not been investigated for
their behaviour during shipping.
Chapter 4
o The pathway to capsizing based on cargo instability due to moisture being the
dynamic separation process, occurs in two phases;
o Instability Phase 1;
Dynamic separation of the cargo occurring in 2.5 holds of more, resulting in a
free slurry surface that is sufficient for the vessel to develop a steady heel.
The development of a steady heel becomes relatively sudden as the free
surface occurs in more cargo holds; however the presence of an external
heeling moment from wind and waves results in a more gradual growth of the
heel angle.
The development of a steady heel due to the free slurry surface as well as
the external moment from wind and waves and immersion of the deck edge
do not explain Phase 2.
o Instability Phase 2;
A sudden shift of the intact cargo due to avalanching.
Avalanching of the competent cargo occurs due to it being eroded by the
sloshing slurry and/or exceeding its angle of repose.
The first sign of a FSE from the cargo on the vessel may be a noticeable
wobbling motion of the vessel
134
CCC 4/INF.10
Increasing the vessels stability by increasing its GM through appropriate

ballasting can reduce the steady heel
Chapter 5
o Dry of the OMC, the air phase is continuous. Loading a granular material in that zone
will not generate pore water pressures. Instead, air is easily squeezed out.
o The PFT is an appropriate test for determining a TML for all the identified moisture-
controlled instability mechanisms including liquefaction risk and dynamic separation.
o Setting a TML that is drier than the OMC by a given buffer provides a margin of safety
with regards to the generation of pore pressures, whether by monotonic or cyclic
loading.
o Setting a TML that is drier than the OMC by the said buffer also reduces the risk of
moisture migration.
o Even if there is downward moisture migration due to gravity, the studies reported in
Chapter 3 have shown that liquefaction will not occur in the saturated base.
o Use of a CBR mould and the recommended reconstitution method allow proper
testing of bauxites containing large particles.
o The compaction energy with the D hammer produces dry densities and void ratios
that are consistent with those measured for bauxite cargoes in vessel holds before
and after voyages.
o OMC of the bauxites tested consistently occurs between 80-95% saturation.
o The proposed Bauxite PFT method provides good repeatability and reproducibility in
TML results.
o It is recommended that the TML of tested bauxites is read at 70% or 80% saturation,
depending on the OMC found, but always applying a minimum safety margin in the
degree of saturation that is greater than 10% between TML saturation and OMC
saturation.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on the GBWG research into the safe shipping of globally traded seaborne bauxite,
recommendations are provided as proposed draft schedules for bauxite fines and bauxites for
consideration for inclusion in the IMSBC code. Also, the proposed bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test
methodology developed as part of the research is outlined for consideration of inclusion in Appendix 2
of the IMSBC code. The proposed draft schedules and TML test are provided in the following pages.
The GBWG also recommend further consideration be given to the classification category of Group A
liable to liquefy cargoes as other cargo instabilities due to moisture also need to be considered. As
described in the GBWG research on bauxite behaviours, liquefaction of bauxites was not found,
however another type of instability, that of a dynamic separation process, could result in significant
formation of a free surface which could result in vessel capsizing. As such, it is important to note that
Group A classification should be for cargoes which may have hazards arising from the cargoes
moisture. This would be analogous to a Group B classified cargoes, which may have chemical
hazards, but is not limited to one type of chemical hazard such as fire or explosion.
135
CCC 4/INF.10
6.2.1 Proposed Bauxite Fines Schedule
BSCN
BAUXITE FINES
The provisions of this schedule shall apply to bauxite cargoes containing both:
.1 more than 30% of fine particles less than 1 mm (D30 < 1 mm); and
.2 more than 40% of particles less than 2.5 mm (D40 < 2.5 mm).
Notwithstanding the above provisions, bauxite cargoes where the moisture drains freely and there is
no increase in pore water pressure or which do not exhibit a flow moisture point (FMP) are not liable
to liquefy, shall be shipped as a Group C cargo under the provisions of the BAUXITE individual
schedule. The shipper shall provide the ships master or his representative with the appropriate
certificates of test, consistent with subsection 4.5.1.
This schedule applies to bauxite cargoes which may liquefy. For bauxite cargoes not liable to liquefy
see the BAUXITE individual schedule.
Description
A reddish-brown to brownish-yellow clay-like and earthy mineral. Insoluble in water.
Characteristics
3 3
Angle of repose Bulk density (kg/m ) Stowage factor (m /t)
Not applicable 1,100 to 2,000 0.50 to 0.91
Size Class Group
more than 30% of fine particles
less than 1mm and more than Not applicable A
40% of particles less than 2.5mm
Hazard
This cargo may exhibit instabilities due to moisture if shipped at a moisture content in excess of its
Transportable Moisture Limit (TML). See sections 7 and 8 of this Code.
This cargo is non-combustible or has a low fire-risk.
Stowage & segregation
No special requirements.
Hold cleanliness
136
CCC 4/INF.10
Weather precautions
When a cargo is carried in a ship other than a ship complying with the requirements in
subsection 7.3.2 of this Code, the following provisions shall be complied with:
.1 the moisture content of the cargo shall be kept less than its TML during loading
operations and the voyage;
.2 unless expressly provided otherwise in this individual schedule, the cargo shall not
be handled during precipitation;
.3 unless expressly provided otherwise in this individual schedule, during handling of

the cargo, all non-working hatches of the cargo spaces into which the cargo is
loaded or to be loaded shall be closed;
.4 the cargo may be handled during precipitation under the conditions stated in the
procedures required in subsection 4.3.3 of this Code; and
.5 the cargo in a cargo space may be discharged during precipitation provided that
the total amount of the cargo in the cargo space is to be discharged in the port.
Loading
Load to the bulkhead and sidewalls of the hold. Trim in accordance with the relevant provisions
required under sections 4 and 5 of this Code.
When the stowage factor of this cargo is equal to or less than 0.56 m3/t, the tank top may be
overstressed unless the cargo is evenly spread across the tank top to equalize the weight distribution.
Due consideration shall be given to ensure that the tank top is not overstressed during the voyage
and during loading by a pile of the cargo.
Precautions
Bilge wells shall be clean, dry and covered as appropriate, to prevent ingress of the cargo. The bilge
system of a cargo space to which this cargo is to be loaded shall be tested to ensure it is working.
Ventilation
Carriage
The appearance of the surface of this cargo shall be checked regularly during voyage. If free water
above the cargo or fluid state of the cargo is observed during voyage, the master shall take
appropriate actions to prevent cargo shifting and potential capsize of the ship, and give consideration
to seeking emergency entry into a place of refuge.
Cargo hold bilges shall be sounded at regular intervals and pumped out, as necessary.
Discharge
Clean-up
137
CCC 4/INF.10
6.2.2 Proposed Bauxite Schedule
BSCN
BAUXITE
The provisions of this schedule shall apply to bauxite cargoes:
.1 containing either
.1 30% or less of fine particles less than 1mm, D30 1mm; or
.2 40% or less of fine particles less than 2.5mm, D40 2.5mm; or
.3 both
Description
A reddish-brown to brownish, -yellow clay-like and earthy mineral. Insoluble in water.
Characteristics
3 3
Angle of repose Bulk density (kg/m ) Stowage factor (m /t)
Not applicable 1100 to 2000 0.50 to 0.91
Size Class Group
Typically up to 500mm Not applicable C
Hazard
No special hazards.
This cargo is non-combustible or has a low fire-risk.
Stowage & segregation
Hold cleanliness
Weather precautions
Loading
Trim in accordance with the relevant provisions required under sections 4 and 5 of this Code.
138
CCC 4/INF.10
3
When the stowage factor of this cargo is equal to or less than 0.56 m /t, the tank top may be
overstressed unless the cargo is evenly spread across the tank top to equalize the weight distribution.
Due consideration shall be given to ensure that the tank top is not overstressed during the voyage
and during loading by a pile of the cargo.
Precautions
Bilge wells shall be clean, dry and covered as appropriate, to prevent ingress of the cargo.
Ventilation
Carriage
Discharge
Clean-up
139
CCC 4/INF.10
6.2.3 Proposed Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test Method
1.6 Bauxite Proctor/Fagerberg test procedure
1.6.1 Scope
.1 Proctor/Fagerberg specific to Bauxite, does not exclude existing TML tests in the Code.
.2 Test method for Bauxite materials with more than 30% of fine particles less than 1mm, and more
than 40% of particles less than 2.5mm.
.3 The transportable moisture limit (TML) of a cargo is taken as equal to the critical moisture content
at 80% degree of saturation according to the Bauxite Proctor/Fagerberg method test where the
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) of the Bauxite tested occur at saturation levels greater than or
equal to 90 %.
.4 The transportable moisture limit (TML) of a cargo is taken as equal to the critical moisture content
at 70% degree of saturation according to the Bauxite Proctor/Fagerberg method test where the
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) of the Bauxite tested occur at saturation levels less than 90 %.
.5 Where moisture very freely drains from the sample such that the test sample compaction curve
cannot extend to or beyond 70% saturation, the test is taken to indicate a cargo where water passes
very easily through the spaces between particles. Therefore, the cargo is not liable to liquefy.
1.6.2 Bauxite Proctor/Fagerberg test equipment
.1 The Proctor apparatus (see Figure 1.6.1) consists of a cylindrical iron mould (the CBR mould) with
a removable extension piece that screws on the top and a compaction tool guided by a pipe open at
its lower end (the compaction hammer).
.2 The weighing balance should be capable of weighing the sample and the container, as received,
with an accuracy of better than 1 g. For suitable sample containers (see Section 3.2 of Annex 12 of
the IMSBC Code).
.3 A drying oven with a controlled temperature interval from 100C to maximum 105C.
.4 A container for hand mixing. Care should be taken to ensure that the mixing process does not
reduce the particle size by breakage or increase the particle size by agglomeration.
.5 A gas or water pycnometry equipment to determine the density of the solid material as per a
recognised standard (i.e. ASTM D5550, AS1289, BS1377 Part 2)
1.6.3 Temperature and humidity (see Section 1.1.3 of Annex 12 of the IMSBC Code)
140
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 1.6.1 Equipment and definitions
1.6.4 Procedure
.1 Establishment of a complete compaction curve. A representative sample according to a relevant

standard (see section 4.7 of the IMSBC Code) of the test material is utilised.
.2 Sample homogenization and division. Divide the as-received sample into individual sub-samples
using a sample dividing apparatus as specified in ISO 6140:1991 Aluminium ores -- Preparation of
samples. Place these subsamples into plastic buckets that can be sealed to preserve water content.
.3 Reconstituted sample preparation procedure. Reconstitution is required for bauxites if the amount
of material in the representative sample that is coarser than 25mm is greater than 10% of the total
mass (by dry weight). In this case the reconstitution process below should be applied (see also Figure
1.6.2). In this process, particles above 25 mm are removed from the sample and replaced by an
equivalent mass of particles in the range 6.3 mm to 25 mm. Note that 6.3mm is a standard sieve size.
If it is not available, a 6mm sieve may be used instead. Through reconstitution, a final reconstituted
sample of sufficient mass for TML testing is generated which contains a maximum particle size of 25
mm, but which better reproduces the compaction characteristics of the full as-received psd with
particles greater than 25mm.
141
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 1.6.2: Schematic diagram of reconstitution sample procedure
Step 1: The first step in sample preparation is to sieve the sample at 25mm to determine the amount
of dry weight that is larger than 25mm. All material retained on the 25mm sieve is to be discarded,
while material passing 25mm was to be tested (see Figure 1.6.2). Screen about 40kg of bauxite for
one Proctor-Fagerberg compaction curve if reconstitution is required.
If the amount (by dry weight) that is larger than 25mm is 10% or less, then no reconstitution is
required. A total of about 50kg of 25mm screened bauxite is needed for one Proctor-Fagerberg
compaction curve. Obtain this and proceed to Step 4 if no reconstitution is required.
Step 2: If reconstitution is required, then from a separate representative sub-sample of the same ore
screen at 25mm and 6.3mm and retain the portion between these two sieve sizes. Produce about 15
kg of screened bauxite between these two sizes for one Proctor-Fagerberg compaction curve (see
Figure 1.6.2).
Step 3: Add the 6.3 to 25mm fraction from Step 2 to the <25mm fraction from Step 1. The amount of
6.3mm to 25mm fraction added must be equal to the mass of >25mm bauxite removed and discarded
in Step 1.
Step 4: Fully mix the reconstituted or scalped sample.
.4 Compaction. Compaction tests are executed for five to ten (but typically seven) different moisture
contents (i.e. typically seven but five to ten separate tests). The number of tests should fully define the
compaction curve, including accurately determining the optimum moisture content and conditions
142
CCC 4/INF.10
near to or at full saturation. A total of about 40kg to 100kg of unscreened bauxite is typically needed
for one series of tests, depending on whether reconstitution is required or not.
Divide the screened bauxite into five to ten sub-samples and place each in a sealed plastic buckets.
The water content of the sub-samples are adjusted by adding a suitable amount of water into each
bucket in order to obtained water contents ranging from the as-received water content to almost
saturated sub-samples.
Typically one test is carried out at the as-received water content. Four to eight tests are carried out at
higher water contents. Depending on the as-received water content, one or two tests are carried out
at lower water contents than the as-received water content. These lower water content tests are
obtained by partially drying the bauxite sub-sample at room temperature. Note that full drying of the
bauxite samples is not to be carried out. Note that some bauxites are not sensitive to pre-drying, but
unless this is comprehensively demonstrated for the bauxite being tested, pre-drying is not permitted.
The sub-samples are mixed at the target water contents before being allowed to rest and equilibrate
overnight in the sealed plastic buckets. The plastic bucket contents are remixed immediately before
compaction to ensure that a homogeneous sample is tested.
The required quantity of prepared bauxite per compaction test is about 5kg, so this is the target
amount for each sub-sample. The sub-samples will be compacted at the prepared water contents to
define a full compaction curve.
Approximately one fifth of the sub-sample in a plastic bucket is filled into the mould with the extension
piece attached (Figure 1.6.1) and levelled to form the first layer increment. Bauxites that display
plasticity may tend to stick together into clumps at the wetter water contents. It is important to gently
disaggregate the clumps by hand into the small particles when loading the mould.
The bauxite is then tamped uniformly over the surface of the layer. Tamping is executed as per the
Proctor Fagerberg method D, by dropping a 150g hammer 58 times through the guide pipe, 0.15 m
each time. The guide tube is held by hand and positioned so that it is just touching with the surface of
the ore, but is not resting on it. This allows the hammer to fall the full specified height and compact the
bauxite, while avoiding additional (and excessive) compaction arising from the weight of the guide
tube, itself, which should not be compressing the bauxite.
The performance is repeated for all five layers so that the last layer only just overfills the mould-
extension piece junction. The aim is to fill the mould by compacting in five nearly equal layers in order
to produce a uniformly compacted sample in which the specified energy has been put into bauxite that
occupies the mould volume.
Bauxite should not extend more than 1cm in height above the mould into the extension piece. If more
a height of more than 1cm of bauxite is found, the sample has been under compacted and the test
should be redone.
When the last layer has been tamped the extension piece is removed and the sample is levelled off
along the brim of the mould with care, ensuring to remove any large particles that may hinder levelling
of the sample, replacing them with material contained in the extension piece and re-levelling.
The levelling process should be a horizontal cutting action, not a pushing action as that would
compress more material into the mould volume than had been compacted by the specified energy
input.
After the weight of the cylinder with the tamped sample has been determined, the cylinder is emptied,
the full sample is dried at 105C as per ISO moisture determination standard for bauxite (ISO 9033)
and the weight is determined. The test is then repeated for the other samples with different moisture
contents.
143
CCC 4/INF.10
.5 Definitions and data for calculations (see figure 1.6.1)
- empty cylinder, mass in grams: A
- cylinder with tamped sample, mass in grams: B
- wet sample, mass in grams: C
C=BA
- dry sample, mass in grams: D
3
- water, mass in grams (equivalent to volume in cm ): E
E=CD
3
Volume of cylinder: 2304 cm
.3 Calculation of main characteristics
3 3
- density of solid material, g/cm (t/m ): d
3 3
- dry bulk density, g/cm (t/m ):
= D/2304
- net water content, volume %: ev
ev = E/D x 100 x d
- void ratio: e (volume of voids divided by volume of solids)
e = d/ 1
- degree of saturation, percentage by volume: S
S = ev/e
- gross water content, percentage by mass: W1
W1 = E/C x 100
- net water content, percentage by mass: W
W = E/D x 100
.6 Presentation of the compaction tests
For each compaction test the calculated void ratio (e) value is plotted as the ordinate in a diagram
with net water content (ev) and degree of saturation (S) as the respective abscissa parameters.
144
CCC 4/INF.10
Figure 1.6.3
Form of Bauxite compaction curve when the optimum moisture occurs at a saturation greater than
90%. TML is determined as the critical water content at 80% saturation.
Figure 1.6.4
Form of Bauxite compaction curve when the optimum moisture occurs at a saturation less than 90%.
TML is determined as the critical water content at 70% saturation.
145
CCC 4/INF.10
.7 Compaction curve
The test sequence results in a specific compaction curve (see Figure 1.6.3 and figure 1.6.4).
Should the optimum moisture content (OMC) of Bauxite occur at or above 90% saturation, the critical
moisture content is indicated by the intersection of the compaction curve and the line S = 80% degree
of saturation (Figure 1.6.3). The transportable moisture limit (TML) is the critical moisture content.
Should the optimum moisture content (OMC) of Bauxite occur below 90% saturation, the critical
moisture content is indicated by the intersection of the compaction curve and the line S = 70% degree
of saturation (Figure 1.6.4). The transportable moisture limit (TML) is the critical moisture content.
Where the OMC is not clearly defined by carrying out a sufficient number of tests at water contents
close to and either side of the OMC, then a TML based on S = 80% cannot be adopted. The TML
shall be based on S = 70%. This is to guard against the erroneous adoption of a high OMC due to
insufficient definition of the compaction curve.
Where moisture very freely drains from the sample at moisture content such that the test sample
compaction curve does not extend to or beyond 70% saturation, the test is taken to indicate a cargo
where water passes freely through the spaces between particles. Therefore, the cargo is not liable to
liquefy. (See subsection 7.2.2 of the IMSBC Code)
146
CCC 4/INF.10
7 REFERENCES
1. ISO 8685 1992, Aluminium ores -- Sampling procedures.

2. AS 2806 1994, Aluminium Ores Sampling.
3. ISO 10381 Part 8 - 2006, Soil quality - Sampling Part 8: Guidance on sampling of stockpiles.
4. ISO 6140 1991, Aluminium ores -- Preparation of samples.
5. ISO 9033 1989, Aluminium ores -- Determination of the moisture
6. AS 2564 1982, Aluminium ores - Determination of aluminium, silicon, iron, titanium and
phosphorous contents.
7. ISO 4701 1999, Iron ores and direct reduced iron -- Determination of distributions by sieving
of iron ore and direct reduced iron.
8. Geospec 3 2001, Model specification for soil testing.
9. AS 3638 1990, Test sieving procedures.
10. AS 1289 2006, Method of testing soils for engineering purposes.
11. BS1377 Part 2 1990, Methods of test for soils for civil engineering.
12. ASTM D5550 2000, Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils Solids by Gas
Pycnometer.
13. IMSBC code.
14. IMO, 2013, DSC18/INF.10 to DSC 18/INF.13 - IOF TWG Reports 1 to 5.
15. Hogben, N., Dacuhna, N.M.C. and Oliver, G.F. 1986, Global Wave Statistics, BMT, London.
16. BMT, 1986 - PC Global Wave Statistics - User Manual.
17. Storhaug, G., 2007, Experimental investigation of wave induced vibrations and their effect on
the fatigue loading of ships, Thesis Dept. of Mar. Techn., Norwegian University of Science
and Technology.
18. ISO 3852 2007, Iron ores for blast furnace and direct reduction feedstocks Determination
of bulk density. International Organization for Standardization ISO. Third edition 2007.
19. Oda, M. and Konishi, J., 1974a, "Microscopic deformation mechanism of granular materials in
simple shear", Soils and Foundations, 14, No.4, pp 2538.
20. Oda, M., 1972, "The mechanism of fabric charges during the compressional deformation of
sand", Soils and Foundations, Vol. 12, No.2, pp 1-18.
21. Oda, M., 1981, "Anisotropic strength of cohesionless sands", Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering Division A.S.C.E., Vol. 107, No. GT9, pp 1219-1231.
22. Oda, M., Nemat-Nasser, S. and Konishi, J., 1985, "Stress induced anisotropy in granular
masses", Soils and Foundations, Vol. 25, No.3, pp 85-97.
23. Sharma, Y. K., 1976, "Particulate mechanics of granular soils", PhD Thesis, University of
London.
24. Cundall, P. A., Drescher, A. and Strack, O. D. L., 1982, "Numerical experiments on granular
assemblies, measurements and observations", IUTAM Symposium, Deformation and failure
of granular materials, Delft, pp 355-370.
147
CCC 4/INF.10
25. Rothenburg, L. and Bathurst, R. J., 1989, "Analytical study of induced anisotropy in idealised
granular materials", Geotechnique, Vol. 39, No.4, pp, 601-614.
26. Rothenburg, L. and Bathurst, R. J., 1992, "Micromechanical features of granular assemblies
with planar elliptical particles", Geotechnique, Vol. 42, No.1, pp 79-95.
27. ASTM D4318 2010, Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity
Index for Soils
28. Taylor, R. N, Atkinson, J. H, Skinner, A. E., 1998, Instability of Granular Cargo in Bulk Carrier
Ships, Final report on EPSRC Grant No. GR/J92088, October 1998.
29. Atkinson, J. H, Taylor, R. N., 1994, Moisture migration and stability of iron ore concentrate
cargoes, Centrifuge 94, Leung, Lee & Tan (eds) 1994 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN
905410352 3, p417.
30. Bahamas Maritime Authority, 2015, M.V Bulk Jupiter Marine Safety Investigation Report.
31. Panama Maritime Authority, 2013, Investigation Report on the sinking of M/V Harita Bauxite,
R-025-2013 DIAM.
32. Australian Transport Safety Bureau, 2000, Pandang Hawk Report, Marine Safety
Investigation Report 148.
33. The Principles of Naval Architecture Series: Intact Stability, 1938, (ISBN 978-0-939773-74-0)
34. IMO, 2009, International Code on Intact Stability, 2008, CPI Books London.
35. SKULD, 2007, Loss Prevention, 30 November 2007 Issue 06
36. Leroueil S. & Hight D.W., 2013, Compacted soils: from physics to hydraulic and mechanical
behaviour, 1st Pan American Conference on Unsaturated Soils, organised in Cartagena de
Indias, Colombia, Feb 2013.
37. Fagerberg, B. and Stavang, A., 1971, Determination Of Critical Moisture Contents In Ore
Concentrates Carried In Cargo Vessels, In Proceedings of 1st International Symposium on
Transport and Handling of Minerals, Vancouver. (Kirshenbaum, N.W. and Argall, G.O., Eds).
SanFrancisco: Miller Freeman Publications, 1971, 174-85.
38. Puls, J.M., 2008, Compaction Models for Predicting Moisture-density-energy Relationships
for Earth Materials, Master of Science Thesis, Iowa State University, Iowa, 2008, p253.
39. Langfelder L. J., 1968, Air permeability of compacted cohesive soils, Journal Soil Mechanics
Foundation Engineering Division, ASCE, SM4, July 1968.
40. Barden L and Pavlakis, 1971, Air and water permeability of compacted unsaturated cohesive
soil, Journal of Soil Science, Vol 22, No 3, pp 302-318
41. Proctor R. R., 1948b, Laboratory Soil Compaction Methods, Penetration Resistance
Measurements, and the Indicated Saturated Penetration Resistance, Proceedings of the 2nd
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 5, 242-247.
42. Proctor, R. R., 1933, Engineering News Record September 7, ASTM D698 Standard Test
Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort.
43. IMO, 2015, CCC 2/INF.7 and CCC 2/INF.6 - Coal transportable moisture limit project
TML0041 Technical report.
148
CCC 4/INF.10
44. BS1377 Part 4 -1990, British Standard Methods of test for Soils for civil engineering purposes
- Part 4. Compaction.
45. ASTM D1883 1999, American Standard Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of
Laboratory-Compacted Soils.
46. ASTM D698 2007, Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of
Soil Using Standard Effort.
47. Fagerberg, B., 1965a, Hazards of Shipping Granular Ore Concentrates Part I, Canadian
Mining Journal, 856, July, pp 53-57.
48. Fagerberg, B., 1965b, Hazards of Shipping Granular Ore Concentrates -Parts II, Canadian
Mining Journal, 856, Aug, pp 81-86.
49. ASTM D854 1992, Section IV. Specific Gravity of Solids Determination.
50. AS 1141.4 1996, Determination of compacted bulk density.
51. Circular MSC/Circ.908: Uniform method of measurement of the density of bulk cargoes.
International Maritime Organization IMO. London, 4th of June, 1999.
149
ANNEX 3 CCC 4/INF.10
Review of Global Bauxite Working Groups
Report on Research into the Behaviour of Bauxite during Shipping
Final Document
by
Prof. S. Neethling & Prof. V. Vesovic

Imperial College London,
London SW7 2AZ, UK
E-mails: s.neethling@imperial.ac.uk; v.vesovic@imperial.ac.uk
May 2017
CCC 4/INF.10
Review of Final Report
A review of the document entitled Report on Research into the Behaviour of Bauxite during
Shipping based on the research undertaken by the Global Bauxite Working Group has been
carried out. The review is based only on the document received from the International
Aluminium Institute and no other data were taken into consideration.
The current review was preceded by our preliminary review of the draft documents that
resulted in a preliminary report (dated 26st April 2017) and a technical review meeting with
members of the GBWG team in early May.
The GBWG team has undertaken a very comprehensive study of the behaviour of bauxite
during shipping using both experimental and modelling tools. The work reported is based on
a sound scientific foundation and it addresses a wide range of practical issues of interest to
the shipping industry. The research carried out not only built upon the recent studies on
shipping of iron ore fines and coal, but has sufficient novelty that some aspects of it can be
classified as leading edge. The reported innovative developments have advanced our
understanding of the behaviour of bauxite and have demonstrated that dynamic separation is
the governing phenomena that leads to bauxite cargo vessel instabilities. This finding will have
important repercussions for the transport of other wet, granular material that contains fines.
Overall, in our opinion the report has succeeded in fulfilling the two specific aims highlighted
in the Executive Summary, namely to:
1. Provide a science based, peer reviewed, globally valid criterion for distinguishing
Group C and Group A bauxites.
2. Develop a globally applicable Transportable Moisture Limit (TML) test for Group A
bauxites, which can be used to develop a schedule for Bauxite Fines and amend the
schedule for Bauxite.
The following are the key points from our assessment of the research carried out:
We agree that based on the evidence provided in the report it is justifiable to classify
bauxite cargos as either group A and C. We further agree with the use of the particle
size distribution as the basis of this classification. Notwithstanding a strong correlation,
the use of percentage passing 1 mm and 2.5 mm particle size as the denominator of
the class is a sensible and practical approach, taking into account the diversity of
particle size distributions observed in bauxite, correct assignment of the free draining
bauxite and the need to reduce the sizing regions where no bauxites have been tested.
The safety margins provided by the chosen sizing criteria are adequate.
The provided evidence, based on monitored voyages as part of this research, indicates
good cargo stability, even when the ships encountered severe weather in TRS areas.
As all the voyages conform to moisture content defined in the standards, this provides
further validation of the proposed standards.
The CTT results presented in Chapter 3 clearly and convincingly show that bauxite will
not liquefy under the tested conditions which encompass the extremes of conditions
likely to be encountered during bauxite transport. This is an important result.
Although no liquefaction was observed, the authors have demonstrated that bauxite
cargoes can undergo other potential instabilities associated with excessive moisture
content, in particular dynamic separation. These instabilities are potentially as
CCC 4/INF.10
dangerous to ships as true liquefaction and thus the need for moisture testing is not
diminished.
The hexapod tests clearly indicate that the dynamic separation, although requiring
lower pore pressures than liquefaction, is governed by the OMC. Hence, setting the
TML based on the OMC of the sample is justified. It is unfortunate that the figure
provided to us in response to our Preliminary report, that shows that the dynamic
separation only occurs at saturations above OMC, was not included in the final Report,
as it convincingly demonstrates the role of OMC.
The use of the Dynamic Centrifuge Rolling Table is a very welcome re-introduction of
this test to the shipping industry. The results presented further elucidated the
circumstances under which the dynamic separation occurs.
Sufficient evidence was provided in the report to justify the statement that real world
shipments of bauxites showing instabilities due to moisture cannot be explained by
liquefaction phenomena, but can be under a dynamic separation mechanism of
instability.
The analysis of the influence of the free surface slurry, formed during the dynamic
separation on vessel stability, provides a reasonable rationale to explain the
development of the heel. The performed parametric study provides a valuable semi-
quantitative estimate of the vessel behaviour, while the development of the physical
model indicates that the authors have gone the extra mile to ensure a good
understanding of the proposed mechanism. This is to be welcomed.
We feel that the choice of the Proctor/Fagerberg test as the basis for a TML test is
justified. In particular the choice of D hammer was demonstrated to be appropriate in
order to obtain the compaction conditions broadly equivalent to those experienced by
the cargo during sea transport. A number of PF tests carried out demonstrate good
repeatability and reproducibility.
The use of a reconstituted sample is a sensible compromise between the large sample
that would be required in a cylinder large enough to accommodate a top size and the
need to maintain the important aspects of the size distribution.
We broadly agree that setting the TML of tested bauxites at either 70% or 80%
saturation, depending on the OMC found, is supported by the evidence provided in the
report and that the in-built safety margin is adequate. However, we note that
establishing the OMC in practice is not always straightforward and that it might be more
practical to simply set a saturation intercept that is lower than all the OMC values
measured for bauxite.
The main conclusions and the conclusions after each chapter correctly summarize the
main points. The Executive Summary is succinct and concise.
The GBWG team has responded in writing to all the points raised in our Preliminary
report. We are satisfied that they have either modified the text in the Final Report
accordingly or have provided sufficient additional evidence to address our concerns.
Overall we agree that classifying bauxite cargoes as group A or C based on their
particle size distribution and using the Proctor/Fagerberg test provides a good basis
for testing bauxite cargos in order to establish their TML.
Recommendations for further actions
One of the essential features of all successful criteria is the ability to verify and validate
with new data. We propose that a database should be maintained, under the auspices
of an international body, that contains information relevant to the proposed code in
terms of group A/C classification, as well as TML determination for group A bauxites.
The data should be used on a regular basis to check and further validate the proposed
standard and the in-built safety margins. In this context data from vessels in which free
water surface was observed would be invaluable. Furthermore, one should ensure by
performing further tests (CTT, Hexapod, DCRT, PFT), that any new bauxite that has
not been tested as part of the present program is investigated to confirm that its
shipping is adequately covered by the present criteria.
In our opinion the results of this work should be disseminated and shared
internationally. The practice of dissemination only through the IMO subcommittee
meetings and, in some cases, only within a company is rather different to that adopted
by other communities that have an interest in understanding potential instabilities of
granular material with excessive moisture content. For instance, researchers
interested in earthquakes and soil mechanics, publish in open literature in highly rated
scientific journals. This has resulted in a rather large body of data and know-how that
has led to a much better understanding of potential soil instabilities in the context of
earthquakes. We thus recommend that some of the results of this work should be
published in open literature and hence be available for scrutiny by the scientific
community.
We also recommend that based on the work carried out a number of research themes
have been established where further research would be beneficial. One such area
could be to establish if dynamic separation rather than liquefaction is responsible for
observed vessel instabilities when transporting other granular wet cargos that contain
fines.
___________

Global Bauxite WG Report CCC 4-InF.10-Annexes

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Global Bauxite WG Report CCC 4-InF.10-Annexes

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ANNEX 2 CCC 4/INF.

Global Bauxite Working Group

Report on Research into the Behaviour of

o Group C D301mm OR D402.5mm OR BOTH

o Phase 1: - development of a list or steady heel due to free surface effects

3.7 Criteria of Classification of Bauxite ................................................................................... 85

6.2.3 Proposed Bauxite Proctor-Fagerberg Test Method ..................................................... 140

Figure 119: Example 2 of bauxite cargo dynamic separation ............................................................ 81

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS

ASTM American Standards and Test Methods

CBR California Bearing ratio ( a standard mould size)

DSC Dangerous Goods and Solid Cargoes

DSS Direct Simple Shear Test

DWT Dead Weight Tonnes

FEM Finite Element Modelling

GCG Geotechnical Consulting Group

GM Distance from vessels Centre of Gravity to its Metacentre (m)

Group B Cargoes which may have chemical hazards

Group C Cargoes which have no hazards

GWS Global Wave Statistics

IMO International Maritime Organization

IMSBC Code International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes code

ISO International Standards Organisation

MPV Most Probable Voyage

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

PFT Proctor-Fagerberg Test

PWP Pore Water Pressure

RAO Response Amplitude Operator

SAFETRANS Simulation software for vessel motion modelling

SDA Significant Double Amplitude

SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea convention

TML Transportable Moisture Limit

TRS Tropical Revolving Storm

VPR Vessel Performance Report

Table 1: GBWG Members and details

Company Company Email GBWG Role

Company Company Email GBWG Role

Chapter 1 of the GBWG report outlines the following:

general characteristic of bauxites,

1.2 General Characteristics of Bauxite

Figure 1: Global Bauxite Deposits

Brazil, 2600 India, 590

ROW, 2700 Ghana, 400

Australia, 6200 Greece, 130

Figure 2: Global Bauxite resources by country (2016) (ROW = Rest of World)

1.2.3 Seaborne volume

Figure 3: Global Bauxite Seaborne Trade, Mtpa by country (2016)

2. Beneficiated ore: ore is crushed, screened and washed to remove fines.

3. Dried for handleability.

1.3 IMSBC Code Bauxite Schedule History

1.4 Characteristics of Bauxites studied by GBWG

1.4.1.1 Particle Size Distributions (PSD)

A Australia (Exporter of Bauxite)

With the subsequent numbering representing different nominal products.

Figure 6: Particle Size Distribution of Nominal Bauxite Products

Figure 7: D50 versus D10 of Bauxite Nominal Products

Figure 8: % Passing 0.063mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Bauxite Nominal Products

Figure 9: % Passing 0.1mm versus % Passing 2.5mm of Nominal Bauxite Products

1.4.1.2 Photographs of Bauxites

Figure 13: Photograph of A1 bauxite

Figure 14: Photograph of A2 bauxite

Figure 15: Photograph of A3 bauxite

Figure 16: Photograph of A4 bauxite

Figure 17: Photograph of B1 bauxite