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Abstract: The paper presents an overview of the bond graph models of advanced automotive
transmission and driveline systems. This includes one-mode and two-mode series-parallel hybrid electric
vehicle transmissions, a continuous variable transmission, active-limited slip and torque vectoring
differentials in 2WD and 4WD configurations, and electromechanical actuator-based wet and dry clutch
actuation systems. It is illustrated that the bond graph method can be effectively used to gain valuable
insights about the system dynamics structure and behavior.
Keywords: Transmissions, drivelines, hybrid vehicles, clutches, bond graph modeling, analysis.
(1 2) / 2. Thus, for e.g. 2 < 1, the clutch takes the Fig. 8 shows the kinematic scheme and corresponding bond
torque f > 0 from the rotating case (or effectively from the graph for an active differential wet clutch electromechanical
faster wheel 1) and bring it to the slower wheel 2. If 1 < 2, actuator (Ivanovi et al, 2012a). A geared permanent magnet
f < 0 holds, the torque is again transferred from the faster dc motor is used to engage the clutch through the ball-ramp
wheel (this time W2) to the slower wheel (W1). Based on the mechanism that converts the motor torque Mm1 into the clutch
model in Fig. 6c, in both cases the faster-to-slower wheel normal force Fn by squeezing out the oil and compressing the
torque transfer is given by (2 1) / 2 = f / 2. clutch plates. The ball-ramp mechanism consists of the input
and output disk with oppositely arranged grooves with
The TVD (Fig. 6b) includes two clutches, F1 and F2, and defined slope (ramp), and balls placed in the grooves. The
additional gearing with effective gear ratios h1<1 and h2>1, input disk is driven by the motor. The output disk is
respectively. The model (Fig. 6d) includes two torque connected to the pressure plate and its rotation is constrained
transfer paths over the two clutches. Clutch F2 always by a spring-damper system fixed to the differential housing
transfers the torque to W2, and this can be done even if 2 >
1, provided that f2 > 0 f2 > 0, which gives 2 <
h2(2h2)11, i.e. 2 < 1.286 1 for h 2 = 1.125. Similarly,
clutch F1 always transfers the torque to W1, provided that
f1 > 0 f1 > 0, which yields 1 < h11(2h1)2 = 1.286 2
for h1 = 0.875. Based on the model in Fig. 6d, the torque
transfer is found to be (2 1) / 2 = (f2 f1) / 2. Bond graph
modeling of several other TVD configurations is presented in
(Deur et al., 2008a) and (Milutinovi and Deur, 2009).
Fig. 7b shows the bond graph model of a 4WD TVD vehicle,
which combines the passive front differential and a rear TVD
shown by the kinematic scheme in Fig. 7a. When operating in
the FWD+TVD configuration, the central coupling device
speed ratio is somewhat larger than one (g > 1), thus speeding
up the rear axle and allowing for the torque transfer to W1 by
engaging clutch F1 and to W2 by engaging clutch F2. In the
4WD configuration, the central coupling gear ratio is
switched to g = 1 (by appropriate clutches, not shown in Fig.
7), and both rear TVD clutches are locked (rear TVD
operates in a similar manner as a locked ALSD).
The model in Fig. 7b includes the dynamic effects of wheel
and gear inertia. The causality rules show that for the
common torque input causality the model is of fourth order,
with the state variables associated with the wheel speeds.
Similar dynamic models can be developed for the active
differentials in Fig. 6 (second-order models), and they can be
extended with halfshaft compliance effects (Hrovat et al.,
2000). These dynamic models are given, in both bond graph
and mathematical forms, in (Deur et al., 2008b) and (Deur et
al., 2010).
Fig. 7. Kinematic scheme of rear TVD (a) and bond graph
5. ELECTROMECHANICAL CLUTCH ACTUATOR
model of related 4WD driveline (b).
allowing for linear and small rotational motion during the dynamics (ccl, kcl). It can be effectively simplified by
clutch disengagement. A preloaded coned-disk return spring experimentally determined effective damping ccl.e and
krs provides passive clutch opening and proper mechanism nonlinear compliance kcl.e with included clutch freeplay zone.
operation. In the bond graph model (Fig. 8b), the geared
Fig. 8 also shows how the actuator dynamics can be coupled
motor model is standard. The ball-ramp system is modeled by
with the rotational and thermal dynamics submodels resulting
the transformer TF:ibr-1, associated with transformation of the
in the full clutch model. The rotational model is given in its
input disk torque Mbr to the ball-ramp force Fbr, the elastic
simplified form and can be easily extended, as shown in
element kbr reflecting the ball axial compliance, the friction
(Ivanovi, 2012a). The thermal model has a lumped-
due to ball deformation Rf.br and bearings Rf.nb., the nonlinear
parameter form that describes the thermal power flows/heat
return spring krs, and the limiter klim. Note that the bearing
transfers between the clutch plates Tc, the differential case
friction is cross-influenced by clutch rotational dynamics
Tdc, and the oil Toil.
through the differential case speed dc through the friction in
the needle bearings R:Rf.nb.1,2. The fluid film dynamics and As an alternative to the ball-ramp system, the clutches can be
the clutch axial compliance define the pressure plate force actuated by electromechanical lever-based actuators. Fig. 9
Fpp. The first principal model includes the fluid squeeze shows the kinematic scheme and corresponding bond graph
dynamics (cfluid, kroughness) and the clutch compression of such an actuator for a dry dual clutch application (Ivanovi
et al, 2011). The lever is constrained by the fulcrum roller
and the leaf spring allowing for linear displacement (xlf) and
rotation around the fulcrum l. As such it balances torques
Fig. 8. Kinematic scheme of ALSD electromechanical Fig. 9. Kinematic scheme of dual clutch lever-based
actuator (a) and corresponding bond graph model (b). actuator (a) and corresponding bond graph model (b).
associated with the engagement bearing force Fb and the 2005. http://www.vehicledynamicsexpo.com/05vdx_conf/pres
force of initially preloaded linear energy source spring Fs. /day2/honda.pdf
The force Fb corresponds to the reactive clutch force related Cipek, M., Deur, J., Petri, J. (in press). Bond Graph Modeling and
to the clutch normal force, as explained in (Ivanovi et al., Power Flow Analysis of Series-Parallel HEV Transmissions.
Int. Journal of Power Trains.
2012b). This force is controlled by simultaneously varying Cipek, M., Deur, J., Petri, J. (2010). Bond Graph Analysis of
the lever arms (lb vs. ls) and pushing the lever relative to the Power Flow in Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle
clutch by means of the fulcrum roller driven by a brushless dc Transmissions. CD Proc. of UKACC Int. Conf. on Control
motor ball-screw actuator. The required motor torque Mm is 2010, Coventry, UK.
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reactive force Fx, and the friction in the screw-drive and the Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle Power Train
fulcrum rollers referred to the motor shaft Rfm.e. In the model, Dynamics. Proc. of 9th ICBGM, Orlando, FL.
the fulcrum roller speed vx and the lever lift speed vlf are Deur, J., Hancock, M., Assadian, F. (2008a). Modeling and Analysis
coupled through the modulated transformer MTF in the of Active Differential Kinematics. 2008 ASME Dynamic
Systems and Control Conference, Ann Arbor, MI.
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advantages in modeling and analysis of automotive power Hrovat, D., Asgari, D., Fodor, M. (2000). Automotive mechatronic
trains. They include: (i) direct representation of a complex systems. Mechatronic Systems, Techniques and Applications,
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interfaced into a more complex system model; (iii) derivation Ivanovi, V., Deur, J., Herold, Z., Hancock, M., Assadian, F.
of minimum-realization dynamic models for computationally (2012a). Modelling of electromechanically actuated active
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straightforward causality rules that "eliminate" dependent Automobile Engineering, Vol. 226, No. 4, pp. 433-456.
variables which often appear in transmission mechanical Ivanovi, V., Deur, J., Milutinovi, M., Tseng, H.E. (2011).
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differential model describing the mechanical, electrical, fluid, Ivanovi, V., Deur, J., Tseng, H.E. (2012b). Bond Graph Model of
and thermal effects; and (v) a unique and illustrative way of Electromechanical Actuation System for Dry Dual Clutch.
conducting graphical power flow analyses including relations Proc. of. 10th ICBGM, July 8-11, 2012, Genoa, Italy.
between effort (torque) and flow (speed) variables, which Kuang, M.L. and Hrovat, D. (2003). Hybrid Electric Vehicle
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT Matthes, B. (2005). Dual Clutch Transmissions Lessons Learned
and Future Potential. SAE paper #2005-01-1021.
The first two authors would like to gratefully acknowledge Miller, J.M. (2006). Hybrid Electric Vehicle Propulsion System
that parts of the presented work have been supported by Architectures of the e-CVT Type. IEEE Trans. on Power
Jaguar Cars Ltd. and Ford Motor Company. Their Electronic, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 756-767.
appreciation also goes to Dr. Matthew Hancock from Jaguar Milutinovi, M. and Deur, J. (2009). Modeling and analysis of
Cars for constructive discussions and technical support torque vectoring differential kinematics. Proc. of the 6th Int.
related to the active differential activity. Congress of CSM, Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Sawase, K. and Sano, Y. (1999). Application of Active Yaw Control
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