THE GEOSPHERE, MINERALS AND ROCKS

1. Layers of the geosphere

-Geosphere surface + interior of Earth + rocks + minerals + landforms.

-Home of other systems of the Earth atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere.
-Layers of the Geosphere:
Crust: outer layer, least dense, solid, varied in composition. Types:
Continental crust Oceanic crust
Characteristics thick and rigid thinner and more flexible
Main component granite + other rocks basalt
Depth 70 km 10 km
Forms the continents the ocean floors

Mantle: below the crust, solid and homogeneous. Component: peridotite (rich in olivine).
Core: below the mantle to the centre of the Earth. Component: iron (80%) nickel (20%).
Parts: - Outer core liquid magma (currents) - Inner core solid, consists of iron.

3. Layers of the geosphere

Minerals - solids composed of one or more chemical elements. Ex: halite, quartz, pyrite.
- have impurities which affect characteristics like their colour.
- have varieties.
Rocks - can consist of only one mineral monomineralic. Ex: marble, table salt.
- most rocks consist of several minerals.
- conglomerates: rocks formed of fragments of minerals + fragments of rocks.

Elements in nature
Iron Silicon
Iron + oxygen= hematite Usually combined with oxygen.
iron + sulphur= pyrite Used in: -microchips
Iron + carbon= steel -solar panels
Magnesium Calcium
Found in olivine and talc. Component of calcite
Used in fireworks. limestone.
Found in eggshells, bones, teeth
and coral
Chlorine
Chlorine + sodium = salt
Main component of halite (table
salt)
Aluminium
Found in mica.
Combined with copper or zinc
produces strong light metals.

4. Properties of minerals

Minerals are naturally occurring (not made by human), inorganic (do not come from living things solid
substances. They have a definite chemical composition. Properties:

-Lustre (the way minerals reflect light):

-Colour (under bright, white light)
Metallic, like metal, opaque or dull.
-Hardness (reaction to be scratched)
Non-metallic: waxy like oil, vitreous like glass.
-Cleavage (how it breaks up or cleaves)
-Streak (colour off mineral in powder form)

Crystalline and amorphous minerals

Crystalline minerals with flat faces or sides. Faces have geometric shapes. Regular geometric
phases are called crystals.
Amorphous minerals that do not have naturally occurring faces. They have irregular shapes.
 Silicates
5. Classification of Quartz (oxygen + silicates)
minerals Others contain Na, Al and H.
Clay minerals: complex, usually found together.
Produce a rock called clay.
Micas and feldspars: part of many rocks such
as granite and schist.
Non-silicates (no silicon)
Less abundant and less diverse. Groups:
oxides, chlorides, carbonates, sulphates and
sulphides.
Native elements: minerals that consist of a
single element.

6. Rocks unique combinations of minerals. Can be classified by origin:

Sedimentary rocks: consist of layers formed when very deep sediments accumulate and compacted
and cemented by pressure.
Metamorphic rocks: formed by heat and pressure that changes minerals chemically but does not melt
the rock.
Igneous rocks are magmatic (formed from magma which is mixture of melted rocks).

7. Uses of minerals and rocks

Uses of minerals Use of rocks

-In chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries. -Limestone cements
-Iron and lead metals. -Clay bricks, ceramics, tiles.
-Quartz glass, electrical components -Stones construction
-Calcite lime and cement -Sand and gravel concrete used in building
-Clay ceramics. -Marble and granite construction, tombstones,
-Gypsum plaster sculptures.

Jewelery industry makes use of: Use of coal and oil

-Gems (diamonds, rubies, emeralds) -Coal and oil fuel. Consist of organic matter.
-Semi-precious stones (onyx, amber, turquoise) -Oil fertilizers, plastics, solvents and synthetic
-Native metals (gold, platinum, silver) fibres.

8. Extraction of minerals and rocks

Surface mines used when minerals are close to the surface/above the ground.
Underground mines when minerals are deep in the crust.
Quarries above-ground surface mine where blocks of rock such as marble/granite are mined.
Gravel pits above-ground mines where sand and gravel are extracted.

Environmental impacts caused by mining

Preventive measures Mitigation measures Corrective measures

Storing and treating sludge,
soft wet soil.
Preparing landfills and dumps.
Removing and storing topsoil
to preserve it.
Using fences and signs in the
mining area.
Controlling noise emissions.
Creating vegetation barriers to
conceal mining areas.
Installing filters on vents.
Creating protected areas of
displaced wildlife.
Covering and concealing
excavations, including shafts
and pits.
Replacing topsoil.
Reforesting with native, local
trees.
Filling pits