Ewfsm n5

N 5 / September-December 2016
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2
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation
The official journal of the European Weightlifting Federation - N 5/ September-December 2016
The pull is one of the most

SUMMARY
important movement-phases
in weightlifting for a good and
successful lift. It plays a central
role in lifting heavy weights. The
technical execution depends on
the distribution of the acceleration
along the distance of propulsion
and also on the amount of the
acceleration
04
2 EDITORIAL: TRAINING AND COMPETING: TWO SIDES
OF TWO DIFFERENT COINS?
by Antonio Urso
4 SNATCH TECHNIQUE OF MALE INTERNATIONAL
WEIGHTLIFTERS: A LONG-TERM ANALYSIS
by Ingo Sandau, Jrgen Lippmann, Ilka Seidel
14 REVERSE ENGINEERING INJURY MECHANISM
by Andrew Charniga
24 THE PHYSICS OF THE SQUAT
Paolo Evangelista, Giampietro Alberti
38 ANTICIPATING THE TIMES.
FROM THE THEORY OF IDEAS TO EXERCISING MOVEMENTS
by Alberto Andorlini
40
We talked about a Body that moves 24
56 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR POWER TRAINING
by Jay R. Hoffman
66 ISOMETRIC STRENGTH ASSESSMENT IN WEIGHTLIFTING
by Carlo Varalda
hours a day, that performs a pirouette,
that carries an oval ball over a line, 72 COMPLEXITY.
that jumps long, high and sometimes HOW TO STUDY IT AND OBTAIN USEFUL INFORMATION
low; a body which, in moving, exerts a by Luciano Pietronero
function; and that, by working, changes
80 ABSTRACTS
its Shape and the shape of the world
around it. Nothing more. But also,
nothing, absolutely nothing, less.
4
EDITORIAL
T raining and
competing: two sides
of two different coins?
In this issue I would like to take into 4) Time zones, weather con- An illustrious Italian dictionary,
consideration two fundamental ditions, diet. Treccani, refers to the definition
aspects of sport: training and com- of training given by Prof. Pasqua-
petition. Two elements of a much 5) Spectators. le Bellotti as follows: training is a
larger complex, the human machi- physical and mental commitment,
ne, often unknown or little known 6) The expectations of the in various working and intellectual
to those actually involved in sport, athlete, trainer and Fede- activities, training allows the hu-
often ignorant of well-known facts, ration. man being to acquire ability skill
but thats another story. and dexterity through regular and
The answer to these six points planned exercise. More specifical-
Training seen as a function of com- leads to a consideration of the ly in the world of sport, training
petition, and competition seen two complex phenomena within is a methodic activity of physical,
as the cause for which one trains, a further complex phenomenon psychological and tactical prepa-
but is that really so? I train, so can that contains them. It is rather ration, aimed at achieving maxi-
I compete? That would seem to be simplistic to say that an athlete mum efficiency in competitions,
the case: I train, I prepare, so I am in trains to compete, or is it really so? or keeping in good shape. The or-
the condition to compete. Lets take Or have we standardized the two ganisms adaptations, which are
some points into consideration: things, making one become a con- the purpose of sports training,
sequence of the other? are caused by the physical load, or
1) What is the margin of si-
workload, in other words the se-
milarity between training As always, lets start from the
ries of exercises whose intensity
and competition? etymology of the word. Compete:
and specificity varies depending
dictionaries define this term as a
2) The psychophysical diffe- on the athletes abilities.
word deriving from the Latin com-
rences with which you ap- petre, composed of com - and We could simply define training as
proach training and com- petre to ask, to head towards, to the functional preamble to compe-
petitions. go, to ask together. tition. I train, I prepare, I adapt so
that I can compete. This flowing of
3) The logistics of one and Competition is therefore going
acquisitions from one process to
the other. towards something or someone.
another is taken for granted, but
5
in reality, the form and substance different training and com- Michele Pellerey, Full Professor of
of the two are not that easily tran- petition equipment; General Education at the Salesian
sferrable. University of Rome, defines compe-
high numbers of specta- tence as follows: an integrated set
The conditions in which one trains, tors or total absence.
particularly in weightlifting, are di- of knowledge, ability and attitudes,
ctated by the repetition of the mo- So, what do training and competi- all necessary to carry out a task ef-
vements used in a competition and tion have in common? We can say fectively and efficiently. Compe-
may include the following: that both require the development tence and Ability to carry out a task
of a certain quality - competence. or a set of tasks, being capable of
different logistics to a
Because to train and compete, one activating and orchestrating ones
competition venue; must be competent. own inner, cognitive, emotional
the addition of exercises Competence also derives from the and volatile resources and using
not performed in a compe- Latin term cum petere, which the available external resources in
tition; generally indicates an individuals a coherent and productive manner.
ability to combine, in an autono-
the volume of work in trai- mous, implicit or explicit way, and Rosario Drago: Competence is es-
ning is not reproduced in a in a particular context which is not sentially what an individual shows
competition; always reproducible, the various he is able to do (physically and in-
elements of the skills and abilities tellectually) effectively, in relation
variations of intensity that they possess. to a specific goal, task or activity
differ from that in a com- in a certain disciplinary or profes-
petition; Another etymological take on the
word suggests that a competent sional field. The conclusive and ob-
training session times individual is one who has authority servable result of this competent
often much longer than in a certain field. Somebody who behaviour is performance.
competition times; is competent therefore, is consi-
dered suitable, with legitimate ju- To transfer the training process
no spectators, judges or risdiction and the power to judge into the competition process the-
opponents; something. refore, the head must work. A head
that knows how to transform lear-
different clothing used du- Guy Le Boterf, Associate Profes- ning and experience into solutions.
ring training; sor and Advisor at the University of And once again, this process must
Sherbrooke (Canada 2004) defines start from the coaches, who have
competition times often competence as a set recognised already understood and put these
different to training times. and tried by representations, know- elements into practice in their pro-
In addition, competitions are often ledge, capacity and behaviours mo- fession.
held in different continents or latitu- bilised and combined pertinently in
des: a given context. Representations, If they lack this competence, then
knowledge, capacity and beha- the risk is that training and compe-
different food in terms of viours can be summarised with the ting are actually two sides of two
quality and quantity; term resources, leading us to af- different coins.
jet lag without enough firm that competence is a specific
time to recover from it; quality of an individual: knowing
how to combine different resour-
ces in order to manage and face
Antonio Urso
time taken in moving to
and from competition and situations effectively in a given EWF President
training venues; context.
6
SNATCH
TECHNIQUE
OF MALE
INTERNATIONAL
WEIGHTLIFTERS:
A LONG-TERM
ANALYSIS
BY INGO SANDAU, JRGEN LIPPMANN, ILKA SEIDEL
7
8 SNATCH TECHNIQUE OF MALE INTERNATIONAL WEIGHTLIFTERS: A LONG-TERM ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to The pull is one of the most impor- error, e.g., a drop in velocity in the
explore changes in snatch techni- tant movement-phases in weight- transition, can be objectified by
que from 2004 to 2014 based on lifting for a good and successful measuring the vertical barbell
kinematics of the barbell. For this lift. It plays a central role in lifting velocity. Typical kinematic para-
purpose the first six male athle- heavy weights. The technical exe- meters for rating the lifters tech-
tes in all eight weight categories cution depends on the distribu- nique through the analysis of the
in four international weightlifting tion of the acceleration along the barbells motion are the (vertical)
championships were examined. To distance of propulsion and also linear velocities at the end of the
assess long-term changes, snatch on the amount of the acceleration first pull as well as in the transition
technique were analyzed using (10)
. Both characteristics contribu- and at the end of the second pull.
two-dimensional videometry of te to the velocity of the barbell at The vertical velocity of the barbell
the barbell. The results of the long- the end of the acceleration phase. is a key parameter in weightlifting
term analyses show a clear shift in With respect to the process of ac- (1)
. The underlying acceleration of
velocity production from the first celeration, velocity and the move- the velocity is at a first peak in the
pull to the second pull over time ment of the lifters body, the pull first pull (after lift-off), has its mi-
with a decrease in maximal veloci- in weightlifting can be further di- nimum in the transition and has
ty in the first pull and an increase vided into three separate phases: a second peak in the second pull.
in the maximal vertical velocity in (b1) first pull, (b2) transition and Few data exist in the literature
the second pull. Consistent with (b3) second pull (4,5,7,16). Execution regarding vertical barbell acce-
the overemphasis of the second of the acceleration phase without leration, although information
pull, there is a worse execution of any drop in velocity in the transi- regarding the acceleration is very
the turnover and catch phases. By tion is considered to be the better important when rating lifting tech-
changing the way the barbell is and more efficient technique (9,16). niques (22). Drop-under time, drop
accelerated to achieve the neces- The loss of vertical barbell velocity distance and drop velocity of the
sary velocity for a maximum lift, in the transition phase results in a barbell are commonly used for ra-
the propulsion can theoretically large knee extension at the end of ting the turnover and catch phase.
be improved because of preven- the first pull or an excessive barbell Until now, no scientific investiga-
ting a velocity dip in the transition. velocity at the end of the first pull tions regarding possible technical
However, this lifting technique (2,4)
. The high velocity of the barbell changes to separate phases of the
change in the acceleration phase leads to a velocity drop, even when snatch over time have been publi-
is accompanied by drawbacks in the knees are not very extended, shed. The aim of this study was to
succeeding movement phases. As because the athlete cannot realign investigate if there were changes
a result, there was no increase in his body in the transition quickly in snatch technique, specifically
the maximum weight lifted in the enough to produce an active force the way the acceleration phase is
competitions from 2004 to 2014. on the barbell. The lifter and bar- executed by elite male internatio-
Weightlifting coaches should be bell are a fixed mechanical system nal athletes with respect to time.
aware of an overemphasis of the in the lifting movement (bar- Additionally, this approach is ba-
second pull and the accompanied bell-lifter-system) (20,22). Hence, sed on the great importance of the
negative effects on the turnover the lifters body motion is widely acceleration phase in scientific
and catch phase. reflected in the barbell movement, studies (4,14,15). We hypothesized
and the lifting technique can, the- that technical changes occurred
INTRODUCTION refore, be analyzed through quan- over time and that these changes
Every weightlifting exercise can titative parameters of the barbell. would be reflected in the kine-
be described based on four main The assessment of lifting techni- matics of the barbell in the pull,
movement phases (16): (a) start, ques by analyzing the movement turnover and catch phases of the
(b) pull (acceleration), (c) turno- of the barbell alone is a standard snatch. Additionally, in cases of te-
ver, and (d) catch and stand up. procedure (5,8,11,12,18). A technical chnical changes, we also expected
SNATCH TECHNIQUE OF MALE INTERNATIONAL WEIGHTLIFTERS: A LONG-TERM ANALYSIS 9
changes in maximal weights lifted ses. The first group (group 1) re- lifters body motion by visual in-
in the competition. presented the four lighter weight spection of the video recordings
classes (-56 kg, -62 kg, -69 kg, -77 The following kinematic parame-
METHODS kg), and the second group (group ters of the barbell were selected
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH 2) represented the four heavier for the long-term comparisons in
TO THE PROBLEM weight classes (-85 kg, -94 kg, -105 this study (fig. 1):
This study is a descriptive analysis. kg, +105 kg) (table I).
The main concern was to evalua- F1 = maximal vertical Force of
te kinetics of the barbell of elite PROCEDURES the barbell in the first pull (% of
male athletes over several years The competitions were analyzed barbell load)
and to check for changes in snatch using Realanalyzer (IAT, Leipzig, F2 = minimal vertical Force of
technique in context to the snatch Germany) two-dimensional vi- the barbell in the transition (%
performance. The outcome of this deo software to study the lateral of barbell load)
study will help to further specify movement from one side of the F3 = maximal vertical Force of
the technical model of snatch te- barbell. This software is a cu- the barbell in the second pull (%
chnique and to give scientific ba- stom-built system for analyzing of barbell load)
sed recommendations for coaches techniques in weightlifting by au- v1 = maximal vertical velocity of
to teach and correct snatch techni- tomatically tracking the barbell the barbell at the end of the first
que for a maximal performance. while it travels through the lift. The pull (m s-1)
video sequences were captured v2 = maximal vertical velocity
SUBJECTS with a dv-camcorder (Panasonic of the barbell at the end of the
For our analysis, we selected the NV-GS500) that operates at a fre- transition (m s-1)
first six ranks in male weightlifting quency of 50 fields per second. For vmax = maximal vertical velocity
in all eight weight categories in more information regarding the of the barbell at the end of the
the 2004 Olympic Games (OG) and software and hardware, see Jent- second pull (m s-1)
the 2007, 2011 and 2014 World sch (13). The reliability of the system sdown = drop distance from the
Championships (WC). Because the was confirmed for distance para- highest point of the barbell to
biomechanical characteristics in meters (ICC = 1.000), velocity para- the sit position (m)
weightlifting depend on body wei- meters (ICC = 0.994) and accelera- vmin = maximal drop velocity
ght (3,4), the total sample for every tion parameters (ICC > 0.994) (17). after the turning point of the
year (N = 48 athletes) was divided The classification of the pull was barbell (m s-1)
into two weight category groups realized by barbell vertical barbell tdrop = drop-under time (time
(n = 24) for a differentiated analy- kinematics and matched with the from vmax to vmin, ms)
SNATCH RESULTS AND AGE
OG 2004 WC 2007 WC 2011 WC 2014

Weight
Subjects Snatch (kg) Age (y) Snatch (kg) Age (y) Snatch (kg) Age (y) Snatch (kg) Age (y)
Category
Group 1
n = 24 147.4 6.5 27.1 1.8 142.5 5.9 24.7 1.5 145.75.9 23.6 1.4 145.5 6.5 23.9 1.4
(light weight)
Group 2
n = 24 186.0 5.1 26.4 1.5 182.24.9 26.1 1.8 184.7 4.7 24.21.3 183.9 4.7 24.8 1.1
(heavy weight)
Note: OG = Olympic Games, WC = World Championship
Table n0. 1 Snatch results and ages of athletes in 2004, 2007, 2011 and 2014 (M 95%-CI)
Figure No. 1 Example of force (acceleration) and velocity of the barbell in snatch
Additionally we looked for diffe- dium effect and > 0.14/d > 0.80 v1 (F(3,92) = 3.417, p = 0.021, =
rences in ages (years) of the athle- corresponds to a large effect. Only 0.105) and vmax (F(3,92) = 5.126, p
tes and snatch results (kg). medium and large effect sizes will = 0.003, = 0.150). The v1 decre-
be reported for pairwise compari- ases from 2004 to 2011 (d = 0.52),
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS sons. The criterion for statistical from 2004 to 2014 (p = 0.042, d =
The statistical analyses were cal- significance (STS) was set at an al- 0.92) and from 2007 to 2014 (d =
culated using IBM SPSS 19 (IBM pha-level of 5 %. 0.76). In contrast to v1 the vmax
Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descripti- increases from 2004 to 2007 (d
ve data are reported as mean (M) RESULTS = 0.54), from 2004 to 2011 (p =
plus/minus 95% confidence inter- Descriptive data of the snatch re- 0.008, d = 1.03) and from 2004 to
val (95%-CI). The statistical signi- sults, ages and the kinematic pa- 2014 (p = 0.005, d = 1.02). Despite
ficance of global differences over rameters are presented in table 1 not being statistically significant
time (year-effect) of the lifting and 2, respectively. in the ANOVA, there is a trend of
technique was tested using a one- For group 1 there is a statistical decrease of v2 from 2004 to 2014
way analysis of variance (ANOVA). significant time effect for the ac- (d = 0.89) and from 2007 to 2011
Eta-squared () was used as ef- celeration peak in the second pull (d = 0.68). There are no statistical
fect size for ANOVA. Post hoc tests (F3) (F(3,92) = 4.791, p = 0.004, significant effects for time of d-
were performed using t-tests with = 0.142). Longitudinally, there is an own, vmin and tdrop. Visually ba-
Bonferroni corrections. Cohens d increase in F3 from 2004 to 2011 sed comparisons exhibit an overall
was used as effect size (ES) for the (d = 0.68), from 2004 to 2014 (p = systematic tendency for an increa-
t-tests. According to the conven- 0.003, d = 0.68) and from 2007 to se of vmin from 2004 to 2014 (d =
tion of Cohen (6), > 0.01/d > 0.20 2014 (d = 0.72). For upward velo- 0.51). With respect to the competi-
corresponds to a small effect, > city parameters, we found a stati- tion results in snatch for group 1,
0.06/d > 0.50 corresponds to a me- stically significant time effect for there is no time effect and, there-
fore, no dependence of any of the to 2011 (d = 0.76) and from 2007 DISCUSSION
measured changes on the weights to 2014 (p = 0.018, d = 0.92). As The results have identified a sy-
lifted in the competitions. Further- previously reported for group 1 stematic change in the way the
more there is a statistical signifi- there is also a systematic increa- acceleration phase is performed
cant time effect for age (F(3,92) = se of vmax from 2004 to 2007 (p in both groups.
4.546, p = 0.005, = 0.132) with = 0.029, d = 0.91), from 2004 to Over the course of ten years, the
younger athletes in 2007, 2011 2011 (p = 0.038, d = 0.86) and from athletes changed the acceleration
and 2014 compared to 2004 (2004 2004 to 2014 (p = 0.013, d = 0.91) to a greater extent in the second
to 2007 (d = 0.58), 2004 to 2011 (p for group 2. Further statistically pull, which is evidenced by a higher
= 0.007, d = 0.88), 2004 to 2014 (p = changes exists over time for d- F3 in the second pull in connection
0.017, d = 0.88)). own (F(3,92) = 3.881, p = 0.012, with a faster velocity in the second
For group 2 there is a statistical = 0.113) and vmin (F(3,92) = 4.734, pull (lesser v2 and higher vmax).
significant time effect for the ac- p = 0.004, = 0.135). There is an The measured acceleration para-
celeration peak in the second pull increase of down from 2004 to meters show only a small change
(F(3,92) = 2.849, p = 0.042, = 2011 (p = 0.034, d = 0.88) and from in the first pull and the transition,
0.086). There is a trend for an in- 2007 to 2011 (d = 0.52). From 2011 but do show a significant incre-
crease in F3 from 2004 to 2011 to 2014 down starts to decrease ase in the maximal acceleration
(d = 0.51), from 2004 to 2014 (d = (d = 0.71). An identical trend exists in the second pull. In contrast
0.62), from 2007 to 2011 (d = 0.58) for vmin with increases from 2004 to the acceleration parameters,
and from 2007 to 2014 (d = 0.82) to 2011 (d = 0.52) and from 2007 the velocity parameters show di-
over time. For upward velocity pa- to 2011 (d = 0.67) and decreases stinct changes over the studied
rameters, we found a statistical si- from 2011 to 2014 (p = 0.004, d = years in every aspect: v1 and v2
gnificant time effect for v1 (F(3,92) 0.91). Despite not being statisti- decreased while vmax increa-
= 5.307, p = 0.002, = 0.149), v2 cally significant in the ANOVA, the- sed. Finally these changes do not
(F(3,92) = 3.696, p = 0.015, = re is the same trend also for tdrop lead to higher results in snatch.
0.109) and vmax (F(3,92) = 4.340, with increased times from 2004 to This phenomenon is paradoxical.
p = 0.007, = 0.125). There is a 2011 (d = 0.68) and decreased ti- On one hand, the acceleration
decrease in v1 from 2004 to 2014 mes from 2011 to 2014 (d = 0.53). impulse in the first pull shows a
(d = 0.53), from 2007 to 2014 (p = Snatch results and age show no si- decrease (lower v1), which theo-
0.004, d = 0.97) and from 2007 to gnificant time effect. The average retically improves the execution
2011 (p = 0.013, d = 1.04). Also for maximal weight lifted in the com- of the transition because of the
v2 there is a decrease from 2007 petition was steady over time. lower initial velocity at the end of
Year F1 F2 F3 v1 v2 vmax sdown vmin tdrop
Weight
(%) (%) (%) (m s-1) (m s-1) (m s-1) (m) (m s-1) (ms)
Category
Group 1 2004 136.4 2.9 105.94.0 134.6 5.7 1.24 0.09 1.29 0.07 1.74 0.05 -0.14 0.02 -0.74 0.05 368.5 7.5
(light 2007 136.92.7 108.5 3.7 140.3 4.4 1.22 0.10 1.27 0.08 1.80 0.05 -0.15 0.01 -0.75 0.05 378.5 6.1
weight) 2011 136.5 3.5 107.6 2.5 143.8 5.0 1.12 0.10 1.21 0.08 1.84 0.03 -0.150.02 -0.77 0.05 375.6 6.0
2014 132.6 2.3 107.8 2.7 147.4 3.5 1.06 0.07 1.16 0.05 1.84 0.04 -0.16 0.02 -0.79 0.04 376.3 5.5
Group 2 2004 139.3 2.6 92.0 4.5 137.7 5.9 1.43 0.06 1.31 0.07 1.79 0.04 -0.16 0.01 -0.78 0.05 382.5 4.7
(heavy 2007 139.0 2.5 95.7 4.4 137.3 3.8 1.50 0.05. 1.42 0.06 1.89 0.04 -0.17 0.01 -0.78 0.03 387.1 7.5
weight) 2011 140.7 3.7 95.5 6.2 145.8 7.4 1.35 0.07 1.29 0.07 1.88 0.05 -0.19 0.02 -0.87 0.04 395.8 10.0
2014 139.4 2.6 97.6 5.5 146.0 4.6 1.33 0.09 1.27 0.07 1.90 0.05 -0.16 0.02 -0.75 0.07 381.8 11.1
Table n0. 2 Kinematic parameters of the barbell in 2004, 2007, 2011 and 2014 (M 95%-C)
the first pull and the smaller ver- vorable for dropping under the bar. in lifting technique are not suitable
tical distance the bar is traveling The increased vmax can be rated as for lifting higher weights during
(2,4,9)
. Concurrently with this type of a way to counteract the worse tur- competition.
execution, a lower start of the se- nover phase. The negative effect
cond pull on the thighs could result of an overemphasized second pull PRACTICAL
in a longer propulsion path for the (high F3) for the turnover phase APPLICATIONS
second pull. is proven by increases in down, The presented results show a chan-
Additionally, the lower initial velo- vmin and tdrop. This is in agree- ge in the way the pull is executed.
city at the beginning of the second ment with findings from Kipp and At the present time, based on our
pull enables the lifter to produce Harris (15) who showed that higher understanding of effective lifting
more acceleration impulse to the weight snatch lifts not only depend techniques in snatch, the change
barbell due to the force-velocity on small decreases of acceleration in the pull is assessed rather nega-
relationship, which is also impor- in the transition but also depend tively because of the deterioration
tant in preventing a velocity drop on smaller peak acceleration in the of the turnover and catch phase.
in the transition. From this per- second pull. Additionally, the trend toward an
spective, a lower initial velocity at We found a possible explanation increase in drop velocity by time
the beginning of the second pull is for the worse execution of the tur- contains considerable dangers for
beneficial for an enhanced perfor- nover phase in the work of Weide injuries, such as to the elbow joint,
mance output. On the other hand, (19)
and Zahran (21). They concluded during the catch phase. Our opi-
the analysis shows that this type that a forceful acceleration of the nion is supported by the fact that
of propulsion distribution over the barbell in the second pull can be there is no increase in the compe-
entire acceleration phase consi- associated with a large vertical ac- tition load from 2004 to 2014. The
derably increases the vmax. The celeration and velocity of the ath- different manners of accelerating
maximal velocity at the end of the letes center of mass (COM). This the barbell are most likely two dif-
second pull is essentially responsi- vertical acceleration of the COM re- ferent ways of solving the lifting
ble for the distance the bar travels sults in a disadvantageous position task. The supposed benefits of a
after the end of acceleration to for reversing the movement of the low vertical velocity of the barbell
the maximal height as well as for COM to move under the barbell. Ad- at the end of the first pull (longer
the flight time of the barbell. Thus, ditionally, for identical barbell wei- propulsion phase, no dip in the bar-
with respect to the same muscular ghts, the athletes with faster ma- bell velocity in the transition) will
requirements (strength abilities) ximal velocities also need greater not compensate for the worsened
of two athletes, the one who needs speed strengths (power), which is impact on the turnover and catch
a lower maximal vertical velocity a limiting quality in weightlifting (8). phase. In the end, a better perfor-
for a complete lift can, theoretical- mance is not achieved. Based on
ly, lift a greater barbell weight and Because of the limitation of our these findings it is not rational to
consequently is the better lifter. study to two-dimensional analyses knowingly slow down the velocity
The presence of a high vmax at the of the barbell, we can only give an in the first pull in order to prevent a
end of the second pull makes it an implicit answer to the question of dip in velocity in the transition. The
ineffective technical solution for li- changes in barbell kinematics by amount of velocity at the end of the
fting the heaviest weights possible a changed body posture. It is pos- first pull has an optimal peculiari-
(4,12)
. In agreement with results from sible that a lower v1 is a result of ty that is slow enough to execute
Baumann et al. (3), better lifters a changed starting position. Btt- the transition without any drop in
perform with lower barbell hei- cher & Deutscher (4) showed that velocity and is high enough to pre-
ghts and lower maximum barbell the vertical acceleration of the vent excessive acceleration in the
velocities at the end of the second barbell in the pull is very sensitive second pull. Coaches should bear
pull. Evidently, a high acceleration to changes in body posture at the this in mind when teaching and
impulse in the second pull is unfa- start. Surprisingly, these changes correcting the pull in snatch.
INGO SANDAU
Mr. Sandau is a research assistant at
the Weightlifting Research Group
at the Institute for Applied Training
Science in Leipzig, Germany. He has
a Masters Degree in Sports Science
and is working on the topics of
weightlifting and strength training
since 2010. He is a doctoral candidate
in the field of sports biomechanics
at the University of Leipzig. He is a
level A coach in weightlifting and
strength training, a teacher for
coaches education in weightlifting
and head of education of Lower
Saxony Weightlifting Federation.
ILKA SEIDEL
Dr. Seidel is a Ph.D. in Sports Science
JRGEN LIPPMANN and is head of the department of
Dr. Lippmann has a doctorate degree in Sports Science strength-oriented & technical
and is head of the Weightlifting Research Group at acrobatic sports at the Institute
the Institute for Applied Training Science in Leipzig, for Applied Training Science in
Germany. He is a specialist in sports of weightlifting Leipzig, Germany. She is further a
and is working on topics of weightlifting since 1980. Private Lecturer at the Karlsruhe
He is the former Vice President and head of education Institute of Technology (KIT) and
of the German Weightlifting Federation (2000-2010) Vice President for Elite Sport in the
and also former president of Saxony Weightlifting German Society of Sport Science
Federation (1991-2013). (dvs).
References
1. Akku H. Kinematic analysis of the snatch 6. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the
lift with elite female weightlifters during behavioral sciences. 2 ed. Hillsdale: Erl-
the 2010 world weightlifting championchip. baum; 1988.
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16
ReveRse
EngineEring
Injury
Mechanism
If you find from your own experience that something
is a fact and it contradicts what some authority has
written down, then you must abandon the authority
and base your reasoning on your own findings.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1519)
(quoted from Seeing the Body: The Divergence of Ancient Chi-

nese and Western Medical Illustration, Camillia Matuk, Journal
of Biocommunication, VOl. 32, No. 1, 2006)
BY andrew charniga
17
The considerable research into tion to the academic community, exercise. Which of course begs the
the problem of female ACL injury physical therapy, or personal train- question what are the roles of the
in sports such as volleyball, soc- ing business. Most advocate move- ankle joints, muscles, tendons and
cer, basketball and even softball is ment at the knee and hip as if the ligaments in bending and straight-
terribly flawed. It is based on bias person exercising had no muscles, ening the lower extremities?
stemming from false assumptions: tendons and ligaments situated in Consider the following from a Ki-
calf and foot which would be of any nesiology textbook which has been
the widely accepted bias that use to perform a simple knee bend. widely utilized in American univer-
peculiarities of female bio- And, of course, one is left to assume sities:
mechanics and distinguishing they would not be of any use in take the long tendons cross the ankle
features in gender physiology, off in jumping, landing, changing in a way that makes for lack of bulk-
perceived as biological short- directions, amortizing and dissi- iness and for good leverage but
comings; are principal mech- pating forces on the lower extrem- contributes little to stabilization.
anisms predisposing women ities and so forth. For instance, (Arnheim and Prentice, 1998) cited
to disproportionate rates of consider these instructions to by Luttgens, 2002
injury; perform knee bends from the Na- Consequently, this joint is unusu-
ligaments stretched or other- tional Strength and Conditioning ally susceptible to strains, sprains,
wise stressed by movements Association; an organization which dislocations and fractures. Lutt-
of the lower extremities out- certifies strength and conditioning gens, 2002
side arbitrarily established coaches. This single idea, the human ankle
parameters of motion are to be Avoid bending the knees to initiate joint has evolved over tens of thou-
avoided and controlled by spe- the movement. sands of years in such a way as to
cial exercises and techniques; Allow the hips and knees to slowly make it unusually susceptible to
the focus of research on exer- flexContinue flexing the hips and injury is not a fact based on some
cises and techniques to cor- knees until the thighs are parallel proven functional insufficiency;
rect the female defects, this to the floor. but a conclusion based on obser-
despite the differences in fe- Keep the heels on the floor and the vation of anatomy. The central idea
male biomechanics remain un- knees aligned over the feet en- from the textbook cited, conveys,
changed; sure that the knee does not move tendons contribute little to stabi-
the ultimate confusion, a blur- beyond the toes.. (Brown, L., 2007; lization. And, it is that single word
ring of lines, distinguishing Baechle, T., 2000) stabilization which creates the
science from commerce; cre- Of these instructions of how to backdrop for confusion and ulti-
ated by an infrastructure of perform knee bends, is it oxy- mately misinformation. The perva-
commercial products which moronic, that one should avoid siveness of this term is the foun-
is an inevitable consequence bending the knees to initiate the dation of both an academic and
of academic speculation and movement? The underlying as- commercial infrastructure built
questionable research. sumptions about tight ligaments around a conservative approach
presented in part II that one should to the problem of ankle injuries in
THE ANKLE bend in such a way as to minimize sport. Although not intentional, an
IS FOR BENDING THE KNEE stretching ligaments and maintain idea like this in the context from
A list examples of purportedly a linear stress on the knee joint are where and whence it originates in
safe exercise techniques for knee obvious from these instructions. academia can spawn an entire com-
bends, lunge exercises and so As already noted, the technique in- mercial infrastructure.
forth would be too long to present structions would seem to exclude For instance, the practice of taping
here. Unequivocally, with the over- participation of the foot, ankle ankles to prevent and/or support
whelming majority of these safe joint and musculature of the shin the joints from injury in sports like
techniques one can find a connec- in performing this natural, simple football, basketball, volleyball and
REVERSE ENGINEERING INJURY MECHANISM 19
others is so commonplace the term
athletic trainer and ankle taping
(and knees) are practically synon-
ymous. Annually, thousands upon
thousands of miles of athletic tape
for taping joints are sold in the USA.
Moreover, the US market for ankle
and knee braces is more than $1 bil-
lion annually. It is pretty obvious that
the conservative nature of ankle tap-
ing practitioners and use of braces
to protect the ankle joints from in-
jury is elicited by a fear of stretching
ligaments, a fear of bending; espe-
cially as it pertains to what are per-
ceived to be acceptable movements
of the ankle joint. Consider a position Figure No. 1 Illustrations of training techniques (from upper left)
paper by the National Athletic train- featuring ideas fostered by a fear of stretching of ligaments; of
ers Association: bending too far. In both half squat exercises depicted, feet are in a
straight line, thigh and shin bones are moving linearly, with minimal
In sport, ankle injuries are the most
movement at the ankle joint. Unfortunately, few attempt to make a
common injury, with some estimates connection between these training techniques and a predisposition
attributing upward of 45% of all ath- for injury (post surgery injured knee pictured) under the natural
letic injuries to ankle sprains. conditions an athlete can encounter on the court, athletic field,
In their systematic review, Fong et skiing and so forth. On the other hand, weightlifters (upper right
al2 noted that the incidence rates of and lower right) subject the lower extremities to high speed, massive
ankle injury and sprain are highest in loading with un-choreographed, unrestricted joint movements and
footwear sans artificial support; yet experience low injury rates of
field hockey, followed by volleyball,
lower extremities.
football, basketball, cheerleading,
ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, rugby,
track and field, gymnastics, and soft-
ball Managing these injuries ap-
propriately is clearly problematic for
sports health care professionals.
(T. Kaminski, et al, 2013)
The question that must be asked is
why the high rate of ankle injuries
in sports which do not involve maxi-
mum strain (track and field exclud-
ed)? And, can reverse engineering to
weightlifting shed light on this prob-
lem where stresses on the ankle are
extremely high, prophylactic taping
and bracing non existent, yet in-
jury rates extremely low? Luttgens Figure No. 2 Despite the massive forces on the ankle and foot in
statement that the tendons crossing weightlifting, ankle injuries are rare. The weightlifting shoe
the ankle joint lack bulkiness and provides no support for the ankle; nor are taping and braces used to
for good leverage but contributes lit- support this joint. Charniga photo.
tle to stabilization is a bias which tendons. If it were thicker it would the form of which are in harmony
serves as the foundation for the stretch less and be less effective as with function. The tendons and lig-
entire approach to the ubiquitous a spring. aments of the ankle are biological
ankle injury in American sports. When humans and other mam- springs connected to the biological
This bias stems from a single idea mals run, the bodys complex sys- springs of the foot. All of which, are
that the ankle joint is inherently un- tem of muscle, tendon and liga- connected to spring mechanisms
stable because this joint does not ment springs behaves like a single of the knee, thigh and hip. Hence
have bulky tendons. For example, linear spring (leg spring). (Alexan- the notion that spring mechanisms
the term ankle stability appears der, R. McN., 1992) arranged in series, i.e., muscles,
no less than 48 times in the Na- Now we have contrasting concep- tendons and ligaments connected
tional Athletic Trainers Association tualizations of one and the same by bones and joints can considered
position paper; the title of which thing. On the one hand from the a single spring; a leg spring (Alex-
is Conservative management and viewpoint of Luttgens and ulti- ander, 1992; McMahon, 1990; Far-
prevention of ankle injuries. Clear- mately the athletic training/med- ley, 1996).
ly, this groups approach to care ical disciplines, the ankle tendons It is this idea which explains how
and prevention of ankle injuries is are lacking in bulk which makes the humans and animals adjust to
focused on this idea of ankle stabil- joint unstable. This idea, in its turn, greater stride frequencies in order
ity; regardless of how arbitrary and is the centerpiece of an academic to run faster: the leg spring, con-
vague as to just what would consti- discipline and commercial enter- sisting of the muscles, tendons,
tute ankle instability. In one form prise where the focus is to address and ligaments from hip to foot,
or another, the management and this poorly designed joint. stiffens to abbreviate ground con-
prevention of ankle injuries is fo- These ideas persist, despite the tact time. Consequently, shorten-
cused on taping the joint or bracing fact that the human ankle joints ing a sprinters contact time with
for practice and competitions; and, and of course feet have evolved the track translates into a longer
balance exercises for conditioning over tens of thousands of years, period of time with both feet off
the joint to resist movement out- adapting to walking on two legs, in- the ground, i.e., the sprinter who
side a relatively narrow range of stead of four. is flying down the track spends
motion.Against this backdrop con- However, according zoologist Alex- a longer time, literally, flying (No-
sider the following: ander, there is nothing wrong with vachek, 1998).
The Achilles tendon is much thin- the tendons or other structures of The important idea to be inferred
ner in proportion to the strength the ankle. The bodys tendons and from the concept of a leg spring, is
of its muscles, than most other ligaments are biological springs; this: if the leg spring can stiffen as
Figure No. 3
The photo in upper left
corner illustrates anticipated
consequences of turning the ankle
on a football field, volleyball
court, basketball court etc; while
in many instances with ankle
joints taped or even wearing ankle
braces. The female weightlifters
twisting ankles, knees and hips;
while holding (from left to right)
130 kg (206% of bdwt) and 127
kg (169% of bdwt); free of injury,
returned to lift the same weight
minutes later.
a single spring it can also release she struggles to balance the
tension as a single spring; and, in barbell and her body as a single
turn function as a reactive pro- unit, called the athlete barbell
tective mechanism. system. This certain injury in the
So, here are two antithetical making was a non event. Ten-
concepts applied to one and the sion released from hip, knee and
same anatomy: ankle joints reflexively, as one;
One, which believes the ankle elastic tendons and ligaments,
joint is poorly constructed stretched and recoiled. Both leg
for stability; joint movement springs having stiffened to raise
needs to be supported (fear the barbell, released tension as
of stretching ligaments) well: muscles from hip to foot
taping and/or bracing; and, relaxed. The release of tension
which is bolstered by a pro- and the lifters, in the words of
fession and commercial in- Moroz, extensibility reserve,
frastructure which has de- redistributed and dissipated the
veloped around the concept force of the falling barbell and
of supporting the joints with body. She simply got up, walked
taping and braces; away; returned 1.5 minutes later
the other, which believes the to successfully lift that weight;
form of the ankle is in har- and, three minutes after that to
mony with its function as a raise 133 kg.
biological spring mechanism Curiously, an antithetical evo-
and of course is intercon- lution in philosophy can be ob-
nected with other springs served between the design of
from hip to toes. footwear for weightlifting and
sports like American football,
The body is filled with springs volleyball, basketball and others;
that are just as good (as the ar- as it relates to problems with the
tificial feet of Oscar Pisitoris). ankle, knee injuries; and, con-
They are called ligaments. They sequently, convoluted solutions
are called tendons. In addition such as taping/bracing ankle
the body has muscles which can joints, and so forth.
do far greater things than just The design of weightlifting shoes
springs. Hugh Herr MIT, NBC eve- have evolved from supporting
ning news 8/6/12 to exposing the ankle joint, i.e.,
Consider the following photos. sans support. The basic idea driv-
The young female lifter in these ing this evolution in philosophy,
photos is lifting a 127 kg bar- reflected in the design of the
bell. She rearranges her feet to footwear was to permit and facil-
scissor her legs in order to drop itate bending the ankle to lift big-
under the weight. The rear (left) ger weights (A. Charniga, Why
foot returns to the platform first weightlifting shoes?). Moreover,
followed by the front foot. Her weightlifting has a relatively low
right ankle proceeds to roll un- injury rate for knees and an al-
Figure No. 4,5,6,7,8 der the pressure of the athletes most non existent injury rate
bodyweight and the weight as for the ankle.
For instance, the footwear of Amer-

ican football, volleyball and basket-

ball, in contrast to weightlifting, at
the very least, preserved the design
of a high top shoe for ankle support;
even though this design has been
discarded by manufacturers of the
shoes for some of these sports. See
figure10. The American philosophy,
reflected in the contrasting evolu-
tion in design of shoes with weight-
lifting, still centers around minimiz-
ing and supporting ankle movement
through taping/bracing of ankle
Figure No. 9 joints. Essentially this philosophy
Soviet made weightlifting shoes of the late 1950s with high top design stipulates support and /or minimal
covering the ankle joint; contrasted with modern weightlifting movement of the ankle joint is safe.
shoe of the female lifter on the right. The evolution of the design
This of course is in stark contrast to
of the shoes conforms to the idea that freedom of movement in the
ankle joint is desirable and most importantly: the ankle joint does the design of the modern weightlift-
not require artificial support under the high loading conditions of ing shoe which pretty much permits
weightlifting. The Russian lifter on the left has laced the shoes only unrestricted, unsupported ankle
half way to permit ankle bend. Also, the lifter has fashioned a tarsal movement. A philosophy of taping
strap by wrapping the laces around the mid foot area of the shoes. In and bracing ankles to play sport re-
contrast, the modern weightlifting shoe with exposed ankle joints and flects a fear of stretching ligaments,
tendons which in this example, sans socks, are clearly visible. (Kono a fear of bending knee and especial-
and Charniga photos)
ly ankle joints while in engaging in
sport. It is a disaster in the making.
Consider the set of photos in fig-
ure 11: Two of the above photos of
a volleyball player with rigid ankle
supports and professional football
player with ankles taped to shoes
illustrate two underlying assump-
tions, unsubstantiated bias: a fear
of stretching ligaments and that the
ankle joint is inherently unstable. On
the other hand, in the weightlifting
community; for the barefoot weight-
lifter pictured, these ideas dont exist.
It is a logical assumption that the
links in the bodys kinetic chain have
Figure No. 10 evolved such they are designed to
Contrast in design between modern low cut with ankle joint exposed,
work together; movements of any
weightlifting shoes; a military boot featuring high ankle lacing,
restricting movement; female volleyball players with similar link inter-conditional with move-
military footwear: low cut shoes with ankle braces similar to the ment of all the rest, and vice versa.
one depicted in far upper right corner and spattaping the shoe to the Consequently, one can logically as-
ankle to play football. sume taping and or bracing one set
REVERSE ENGINEERING
A CONCLUSION
Reverse engineering can help ex-

plain the extremely low rate of
ankle injury in weightlifting and
why weightlifters who have fallen
or otherwise experienced a black
swan event without injury. The fol-
lowing theory appears to fit.
Weightlifters have to switch instan-
taneously from raising a barbell to
receiving it on the chest or over-
head on straight arms. In effect,
Figure No. 11
Three examples of preparing the ankle for sport; relative to radically it is analogous to switching from
differing philosophies of ankle stability. Upper left female volleyball throwing a heavy object to instan-
player on the court wearing low cut volleyball shoes with braces taneously catching it. The weight-
to support ankle joints. Lower left photo of a football player with lifter throws the barbell by force-
ankles heavily taped to shoes forming a unified bond from lower fully straightening the trunk and
portion of shin across the arch of the foot to the heel. Unlike lower extremities; in the process
literature emanating from the American medical and athletic training
stiffening the leg spring, i.e., the
communities, the weightlifting literature is devoid the term ankle
stability (Vorobeyev, 1972; 1988). Hence, photo on lower right of muscles, tendons and ligaments
Olympic champion David Rigert (Kono photo) playing around in the gym from the hip to foot. The weightlift-
snatching 130 kg in bare feet. er has to relax the very same mus-
cles used to straighten up in order
of joints relative to another would cient objective evidence allowed
to switch to dropping down. Ten-
at the very least alter the harmony to emerge; proving taping and
sion is released in the leg spring.
between form and function which or bracing ankles increase the
A lifter can suddenly experience
nature has so tediously crafted. prevalence of knee injuries, what
some problem with balance or co-
Consider the following: then? What of all those graduates
ordination in the process of receiv-
An additional issue that needs to of university athletic training pro-
ing the barbell. The tension which
be evaluated is whether bracing or grams who have acquired ankle
has returned to the leg spring
taping the ankle has any negative taping skills; only to learn how
to cause more harm than good? once the athletes feet return to
effect on other joints in the lower
Likewise, what about the credibil- the platform in the process of de-
extremity, specifically the knee. To
date, bracing or taping the ankle ity of those institutions and the scending can be released (as in the
does not seem to increase prev- staffs? Moreover, further mud- examples shown) such that the me-
alence of knee injuries. However, dying the water is the influence chanical energy of the athletes de-
most studies included a very small of commerce. If ankle taping can scending body and the barbell can
number of people who had sus- cause knee injuries what about the be redistributed and/or otherwise
tained knee injuries, so definitive companies who annually sell thou- dissipated; preventing injury.
conclusions are difficult to make. sands upon thousands of miles For instance, the example of the
(T. Kaminski, et al, 2013) athletic tape purchased to address female lifter twisting her ankle and
From this statement it is obvi- ankle stability? Furthermore, how falling to the floor. In the first two
ous the vagaries of science, bias would more harm than good re- photos she is rearranging her legs
and commerce collide; conspir- search affect the 1 billion dollar a after thrusting the barbell, i.e., the
ing to cloud the issue. Were suffi- year bracing market? leg spring stiffened by a half squat
Figure No. 12
The ability to release tension in the

leg spring extremely fast allows
a highly skilled weightlifters
body to exceed the acceleration
of gravity while dropping into a
low squat. Soviet sport scientist
I. Zhekov (1976), theorized the
possibility of a weightlifter
dropping under a barbell with
an acceleration of 2Gs. However,
it is only possible to outstrip the
acceleration of a free falling body
by holding onto something, which
in this case is the very slow moving
barbell. (Charniga photos).
to thrust the barbell, releases ten- It is unlikely a reactive protective fears are incorporated into the sup-
sion from hip to foot when the lifter mechanism designed to release plementary training of athletes.
switched to scissoring the legs. The tension in the leg spring will work in In all probability the ankles both
athletes leg springs stiffen as the the desired manner if one or more basketball players whom suffered
feet are returned to the platform of the joints in the spring is artifi- shin bone fractures, were taped,
to fix the barbell. Subsequently, the cially stiffened with tape or bracing braced or otherwise artificially
lifter turns her ankle struggling to designed specifically to limit range supported. These athletes typical-
balance the barbell overhead. At of motion. Inhibiting or otherwise ly would not practice large range
one and the same instant, both of tampering with this natural, reac- of motion exercises like deep knee
the athletes legs from foot to hip tive protective mechanism can cre- bends, lunges, vertical jumping
relax, i.e., the stiffening process ate conditions, for a probable out- from a low squat, etc where knee,
is reversed. The high speed relax- come; where taped feet, ankles and hip and ankle joints are subjected
ation of the leg spring, both a skill knees and/or otherwise trained to stretching tendons and liga-
and a special quality cultivated to restrict range of motion, suf- ments through a large amplitude of
by the high class weightlifter, to fer disproportionate injury rates motion. Consequently, reactive pro-
switch from lifting to receiving the in sports with less stress on the tective reflexes, designed to relea-
barbell; in this situation, becomes joints than a maximum strain sport se tension in the entire leg spring
a reactive protective mechanism. like weightlifting. So, to return the upon landing or falling; would at
The release of tension coupled with question as to how a basketball very least be inhibited by taping and
the weightlifters flexibility prevent player suffers a skin protruding the internal resistance of the ath-
injury. Now, consider the following: shin bone fracture, (raised in part letes muscles, tendons and liga-
A 2009 study published in the In- I) from falling on a basketball court. ments, i.e., a general lack of unen-
ternational Journal of Exercise Sci- An explanation with a high degree cumbered freedom of movement.
ence studied 17 subjects during of probability can be deduced when Unlike weightlifting; the knee, hip
warm-ups and 60 minutes of touch several of the factors present- and ankle joints of the basketball
football and found spatting to be ed here are taken into account. players taught to bend a certain
more effective than taping at limit- The general fear of stretching lig- way by conditioning coaches, per-
ing range of motion. A 2011 study aments and fear of bending the sonal trainers, physical therapists
from researchers at Drake University lower extremities only in a cer- and so forth, would likely direct the
published in the same journal found tain way, embraced by the athletic forces acting on the body to go so-
spatting and taping together to be training/physical therapy/personal mewhere other than soft tissues, to
as stable as bracing. R. Axon 2013 training communities means these the shin bones for instance.
AFTERWORD
Andrew Charniga Jr.
Weightlifting sports scientist and trainer
with a degree in Exercise Science from Eastern
Michigan University (USA) and a Masters in
Kinesiotherapy from Toledo University (Spain).
The founder of Sportivny Press in 1980, Mr.
Charniga has also edited 15 books translated
into Russian and dozens of articles on
weightlifting training, biomechanics, recovery,
etc. He regularly publishes specialised
articles and translations on the website: www.
sportivnypress.Sassonia (1991-2013).
Figure No. 13
When weightlifters preform a knee bend to jerk
the barbell a significant portion of the force The ankle bracing and supports market in-
is generated by calf muscles. These muscles cludes rigid ankle braces such as ankle stirrups
straighten the tilting shins in what can be described and trainer braces; and ankle supports includ-
as a reverse origin insertion contraction of the ing semi-rigid supports, lace-ups, and elastic
soleus muscle. and neoprene supports. Growth will be driven
by the increasing use of ankle braces for pro-
The shortening soleus straightens the knee because
shin bones are connected to thigh bones by a phylaxis to treat injuries and for postoperative
coupling called the knee joint. The soleus pulls the support. The increasing prevalence of sports
tilting shin towards the vertical (yellow arrows), injuries and obesity will have a positive effect
which in turn pulls the thigh towards the vertical on this market.
(white arrows) along with the quadriceps muscles,
by a process called inertia coupling . The shin
and thigh bones are interconnected via the knee
joint; so the movement of one affects the another:
References
the movements of the long bones of the lower 1. Kaminski, T., et al, National Athletic Trai-
extremity are interconnected, interdependent and ners Association Position Statement: Con-
inter-conditional. servative Management and Prevention of
Ankle Sprains in Athletes, J. of Athletic
Training, 48(4):528-545:2013
The muscles tendons and ligaments of the thigh, shin 2. Vorobeyev, A.N., Weightlifting, Textbook
and foot arranged in series act as a single spring, for the Institutes of Sport, FiS, Moscow,
sometimes referred to as a leg spring. Consequently, 1988. Translated by: Andrew Charniga, Jr.
the forces generated to raise a barbell are 3. Vorobeyev, A.N., Weightlifting, Textbook
produced from the ground up and the stress is for the Institutes of Sport, FiS, Moscow,
distributed from foot to hip and not concentrated 1972. Translated by: Andrew Charniga, Jr.
in the knee joint, regardless if the knees bow inward 4. Charniga, A., Why Weightlifting Shoes,
or not. Compare this sudden jolt at the instant the www.sportivnypress.com
athlete switches from bending to straightening 5. Axon, R., Ankle tape can be sticky situa-
with such power as to bend the barbell to the tion in college football,
6. http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nca-
forces experienced by American female athletes in af/2013/10/31/spatting-ankle-tape-nike-a-
events with body weight only, such as basketball, didas-under-armour/3331463/
soccer, volleyball where ACL injuries are common.
26
THE
PHYSICS
OF THE
SQUAT
The squat exercise is for many people a natural and
spontaneous movement, but for many others it
represents a real challenge...
By Paolo Evangelista,
Giampietro Alberti
27
INTRODUCTION illustrates some of the factors that ements that determines the length
The squat is used both in athletic determine the qualitatively correct of the levers, therefore the ability to
training and rehabilitation pro- execution of any movement. move. In other words, if the insertion
grammes, therefore - although it is of a muscle is more or less displaced
not an actual contest - the Sports Sci- First and foremost are the anthropo- with respect to the centre of rota-
ence graduate will have to face this metric characteristics, namely our tion, the lever will be more or less dis-
exercise sooner or later. He/she will own size, that naturally cannot but af- advantageous or, if the femoral neck
be surprised to find totally heteroge- fect what we do. For example: a short is angled in a certain way, or the pel-
neous case studies: some individuals person is at a disadvantage when vis has a certain conformation, it will
squat right to the ground, as if they playing basketball, because height be possible to flex the femur on the
were born to make this movement, is not a trainable characteristic and it pelvis to a greater or lesser extent,
whereas others will have to make sig- affects many aspects of a movement. and consequently squat more or less.
nificant effort to achieve a sufficient- Having said that, one may argue that
ly correct movement. this is a reductive vision because, in Next comes joint mobility: the abil-
In fact, when dealing with the squat reality, all the shapes of our body, not ity of a joint to move the articular
problem, it should not be under- only height, are decisive factors: in segments with a greater or lesser
estimated that it is considered a addition to the total length, there is angular excursion depends on the
multifactorial movement. Figure 1 also the shape of the individual el- ligamentous apparatus, the tendons
and the connective tissue bands sur-
rounding the joint. For example, the
lack of ankle dorsiflexion constitutes
an extremely critical element for the
execution of a squat.
In addition, the ability to generate

muscular strength and to stabilise
a joint. In brief: joint stability is the
ability - while performing a given
movement - to lock a joint in a cer-
tain position and not move it.
Lastly, the mental representation of

oneself during the movement, de-
riving from proprioceptive signals,
such as, for example, the informa-
tion on joint opening, muscle and
tendon tension, and from extero-
ceptive signals such as the head
position, vision, etc. All these inputs
result in a perception of movement
and combine to create the executive
motor pattern.
The image in Figure 1 shows that

the final result derives from a series
Figure No. 1 of elements in which it is difficult to
THE POSSIBILITY OF MAKING A MOVEMENT determine which is the most critical.
THE PHYSICS OF THE SQUAT 29
What is certain, however, is that a
movement should be analyzed in its
entirety, including how the individu-
al elements contribute to the reali-
sation of the whole.
In literature, there is a multitude of
test protocols on the squat move-
ment that highlight not only the
individuals ability to perform the
movement effectively and safely,
but also to identify critical elements
(1), (2) ( 3), (4). It is precisely because
movement depends on some charac-
teristics which are fixed and on oth-
ers that are highly adaptable, that Figure No.2
these tests can be used not only for A CLOSED KINETIC CHAIN
an initial assessment at the start of
the movement training programme,
but also during the programme, in
order to monitor improvements and
any other points worthy of attention.
In this article, we will attempt to ex-
plain how anthropometric measure-
ments may influence movement,
creating, in fact, facilitating or lim-
iting conditions for the success of
the same. We will present some con-
cepts that are considered difficult, Figure No.3
often rightly so, and also unneces- THE CENTRE OF MASS
sary, often wrongly so: such as kinet-
ic chains and the centre of mass. when performing a floor exercise: on the tracks, so the foot cannot
Understanding these two concepts in this case, the kinetic chain of the move freely.
will allow us to critically discuss two upper limbs, trunk and lower limbs The squat is called a closed kinetic
of the many myths of the squat: the is fully open since no extreme is chain exercise, a definition that is of-
child squat and the knees behind resting on the ground. Or, imagine ten repeated, but, we regret to say, is
the toes squat. a baseball player throwing a ball. accepted without a real understand-
The kinetic chain of the lower limbs, ing of the movement: the feet are
KINETIC CHAINS AND trunk and throwing arm has one on the ground, bound by the floor
THE COMCONCEPT extreme, the foot, on the ground and by the friction with it, but the
A kinetic chain is a set of segments and the other free to move in any trunk, that is, the terminal segment,
in which the end of each one is con- direction. A kinetic chain is defined can actually move where it wants.
nected to the end of another via a as closed when its two extremes Why, then, is this chain considered
joint. In biomechanics, the simplest are bound, that is, are not able to closed? We will try to explain it in
kinetic chains are made up of the move freely. Imagine a person who the following lines.
limbs and the trunk. A kinetic chain performs the leg press at 45: the Figure 2 schematically illustrates
is said to open if at least one end of trunk rests on the back support, the what would happen if the trunk
it is free. Think of a gymnast in flight, feet rest on the platform that runs were to move freely during a par-
allel squat: even when there are no the athlete+barbell, but two COPs, position of the trunk, from very in-
locks or tracks preventing this ... no one for each foot), however, as this clined to erect: the pelvis shifts the
one would try something like that article is not intended to be an in- femur forward, which in turn moves
because the barbell would fall. depth analysis, here we will discuss the shin, which rotates around the
Figure 3 the centre of mass only the COM. ankle. Therefore, it is not possible
The sensation is as if the entire The fundamental point is that, if to move the trunk without moving
mass of the body and the barbell the ground projection of the COM is the other elements, and vice versa.
was concentrated on a point that moved too far forward or backward This means that a variation of any
presses on the ground. By mov- from the centre of the foot, the in- point of the chain causes repercus-
ing the trunk, and therefore also dividual would fall: therefore, there sions at other points.
the barbell, forward and backward, is a restriction, albeit not as rigid as The consequence of all this is the
this pressure moves, making the the platform of a leg press at 45. impossibility to observe the squat
individual feel like he is losing his For this reason the squat is a closed movement focusing only on details
balance. The stability of movement kinetic chain exercise: the barbell such as the knees, hips, the posi-
is when this pressure is approxi- cannot go wherever it wants to ... tion of the barbell and so on, with-
mately at the centre of the foot. The characteristic of a closed kinet- out observing the movement as a
This hypothetical point on which ic chain is that the movement of whole.
the entire mass of the athlete-bar- one segment affects that of all the
bell system is concentrated is others. On the left in Figure 4, is the THE COM
called the COM, the centre of mass, position of a parallel squat seen on OF THE SQUAT
COM. Figure 3 shows the COM with the sagittal plane: macroscopically, The concept of COM is crucial to un-
its projection on the ground. The the kinetic chain is composed of the derstanding many features of the
pressure felt under ones feet when trunk, the femur and the shin; it is squat movement, so it is essential
performing a squat is not given by assumed that the barbell is immo- to know how it is formed. Imagine
the projection on the ground of the bile, the trunk can rotate around (Figure 5) wanting to balance a fe-
COM, but rather from what is called the convex circumference centred mur on a fulcrum.
the centre of pressure, the COP. on the mid-point of the barbell, and On the left, we can see the position
COP and COM are two completely the shin rotates around the con- that does not allow the femur to
different, but related concepts (for cave circle centred on the ankle. rotate, so it is as if the entire mass
example there is a single COM for To the right, the variation of the of the femur was concentrated in
Figure No. 4
IN A CLOSED
KINETIC CHAIN,
THE MOVEMENT
OF ONE SEGMENT
AFFECTS THAT OF
ALL THE OTHERS
Figure No. 5
THE COM
OF THE FEMUR
that point. In fact, by positioning the fulcrum at anoth- one as these examples show.
er point, as we see on the right, the femur would rotate In biomechanics, numerous studies have classified the
and fall. That first point, therefore, is the COM of the fe- COM of all the parts of the human body, according to
mur. The position of the COM depends on the distribu- processes that use live individuals or cadavers, as in (1)
tion of the masses, therefore, it tends to move towards Figure 7 and Figure 8.
the parts with greater mass. As there are tables that allow to estimate the COM po-
The position of the COM depends on the geometry of the sition for each body part, the COM total of a subject can
femur and on how the masses are distributed. The dis- be calculated during any movement.
tribution of the masses takes place on the basis of fem- On the left in Figure 9, an individual performs a squat
oral geometry: in Figure 6, there are three femurs of with a natural load: on the COM of each body part is
different shape and so three different positions of the possible to hang a mass equivalent to that of the
COM of the same, closer to the parts with greater mass. part itself: the individual basically becomes a structure
The COM concept is very useful because it allows to without weight, with the masses attached at certain
treat the femur as if it were a weightless rod in which points. On the right, the total COM, which represents a
the entire mass is placed in a single point of the femur middle point in which all the masses of the individual
itself. Each body system with a mass has a COM, which parts can be concentrated. Important: the COM is an
is a three-dimensional point, not a two-dimensional unreal, abstract point, therefore it can position itself
Figure No. 6 Figure No. 7 Figure No. 8

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CALCULATION OF COM (1), THE CALCULATION OF COM (1),
DIFFERENT MASSES, FROM PROPERTIES OF BODY FROM PROPERTIES OF BODY
DIFFERENT COM SEGMENTS SEGMENTS
POSITIONS. BASED ON SIZE AND WEIGHT BY BASED ON SIZE AND WEIGHT BY
DEMPSTER AND GAUGHRAN DEMPSTER AND GAUGHRAN
during movement at a point even outside

the athletes body.

In Figure 10, however, the individual has
a barbell on his shoulders that is equal to
his actual weight. The COM of the barbell
is at the centre of the barbell itself, on
the sagittal plane, because the weights
are symmetrical with respect to this
point, and we assume that the entire
mass of the plates is concentrated in the
centre. The COM can be recalculated for
the athlete plus the barbell, the result is
on the right: note how the COM is moved
higher and further to the right than in
Figure No. 09
the case of just the athlete. In fact, the
COM OF AN INDIVIDUAL
COM, depending on the distribution of
the masses, positions itself towards the
areas with greater mass and the more
the barbell is loaded, the more the COM
will move towards the centre of the bar-
bell.
THE CHILD SQUAT

UP TO NOW
There is an actual school of thought that
considers a childs ability to squat, an
example of how the squat should be per-
formed (Figure 11), and how this ability
is lost as adults. In fact, the squat move-
ment comes naturally to a small child
Figure No. 10 thanks to his body shapes that place his
COM OF AN INDIVIDUAL WITH THE BARBELL COM in an extremely convenient position.
In Figure 12, the heights of the individ-
uals have been equalised, normalised in
order to highlight the different propor-
tions of the various body parts during the
stages of growth. The weight of a babys
head is about 25% of the total weight,
in adults it drops to 5-6% and so we can
simplify this by saying that young chil-
dren are all head and trunk, with short
arms and legs.
Figure 13 illustrates: on the left, the COM
of a 1.75 m adult weighing 80 kg, in a par-
allel squat position; on the right, the COM
Figure No. 11 of an individual with the same height
The ideal squatter? and weight, but with the proportions of
a child. In the comparative simulation, in
A there has simply been a change in the
relationship between the legs and trunk,
shortening the former and lengthening
the latter: to maintain the same position
of the centre of mass, a child can stand
much more erect. This is because it has
shorter legs and so, with the same in-
clination of the shin with respect to the
adult, the pelvis moves back less, so as to
enable him to keep his back straight. By
contrast, in B there is a shift of the body
masses towards the trunk and the head:
this moves the entire COM forward, so
Figure No. 12
that in order to keep it constantly at the
BODY PROPORTIONS DURING GROWTH
same horizontal distance from the ankle,
the child can stand even more erect.
A child, therefore, is the perfect squat-
ter, but his so-called natural gift for
this movement derives from his physical
build, as he grows he does not unlearn
anything, his anthropometric distribu-
tion simply changes and that kind of
movement becomes more complicated.
There is nothing to copy from a child be-
cause an adult is physically not built like
a child. Conversely, a child is not built to
run for the same reasons: aside from
the immaturity of the neuromuscular
system, a very high COM puts him at a
Figure No. 13
disadvantage, making him sway like an On the left, the COM of an adult, on the right the COM of a child
adult trying to run with a weight of 40 kg
on his head. The photos shows Andrzej
Stanaszek, a highly skilled powerlifter
(300.5 kg squat for 52 kg body weight).
One of the reasons that this athlete is so
strong (and squats perfectly vertical)
is that, being a dwarf, he has the propor-
tions of a child.
The position of the COM above the bal-
ancing quadrilateral is therefore affect-
ed by the distribution of body masses;
understanding this concept is therefore
an effective key to understanding the
movement itself. For example (2), a num-
ber of normal weight and overweight
people were asked to perform the squat: Andrzej Stanaszek
the former were able to flex the knee

more than the latter. An overweight per-

son tends to have high body mass in the
central and lower part of the body, so - by
moving the pelvis backwards in the drop-
down - the COM moves back to the sup-
porting quadrilateral at a lower degree
of knee flexion with respect to a person
of normal weight.
Positioning the arms completely paral-
lel to the ground moves the COM further
forward, allowing greater bending of the
knees. Therefore, in this case, placing
Figure No. 14
On the left, an incorrect squat, on the right a correct squat? the mass in front of the trunk is advan-
tageous: the positioning of the COM ex-
plains why individuals who literally fall
back during the descent, can squat. all
other factors being equal, if they holding
a barbell, a kettle bell or any weight to
the chest.
THE SQUAT WITH THE

KNEES BEHIND THE TOES
One of the rules to follow for a correct
movement of squat is that the knees
should never extend beyond the toes.
Figure 14 illustrates the problem: by
tracing an imaginary perpendicular to
the ground and passing by the toes, the
Figure No. 15 squat on the left would be incorrect be-
Knees extending beyond the toes cause the knees go beyond this line, while
the squat on the right would be correct,
and therefore a reference. The explana-
tion is that in the image on the left there
is an increase in the forces acting on the
knee, with respect to what happens in
the image of the right: greater forces on
the knees, higher chances of injury.
Faced with such a categorical position,
it is necessary to maintain a rational ap-
proach: the position should be assessed
and not accepted without criticism.
Firstly, we need to observe what happens
in practice. If the knees extending be-
yond the toes was really harmful to the
Figure No. 16 knees, Dimitry Klokov and Lydia Valentin,
Move the knees, move the back as shown in Figure 15, would be perform-
ing a completely wrong move.
The point is that in the Olympic lifts
the knees are more or less in this
position. And not only that, if we
observe 100 different squats, not
only in Weightlifting, but also in
Powerlifting, or performed by peo-
ple at the gym, it may be that at the
lowest point, the knees are aligned
with the toes, but at a certain point
of the descent they actually extend
beyond them.
There are no statistics that indicate
the danger or risk of injury to the
knees due to their position, which
Figure No. 17
does not mean that the problem
Knees aligned with toes
cannot exist, however, it is interest-
ing to at least question the rule. feet actually come about: it is pos- (8), in fact, it is shown how lifters at
Lets analyse what occurs in sible to consider the study of Chan- national level tend to have a lower
Figure 16: dler (1991) (7) as a good starting forward movement of the knees
point. This research is the official and lesser inclination of the trunk.
In A, the position is considered position of the NSCA on squats for A reduced forward movement of
incorrect, but it provides stabil- athletic training, and many studies the knees, as analysed once again
ity to the individual performing have been confronted with this pa- by McLaughlin (1978) (McLaughlin,
the squat, with the COM over per, to either confirm or discredit Kinetics of the parallel squat., 1978)
the centre of the feet. it. We encourage the reader to find with one of the first biomechanical
In B, the individual is asked to the original document, so as to read models of the squat, creates, all
move the knees back, but this it in its entirety and not limit oneself else being equal, lesser force on the
causes the whole trunk to move to an interpretation of the passage knees themselves, as is apparent
because of the kinetic chain. that follows. This study reported from the above conclusion.
Moving the trunk back causes that: forward lean of the knee in- As always occurs in the academic
an equivalent displacement of creases shear forces on the knee. world, every position is studied and
the COM toward the heels, lead- Keeping the shin perpendicular may analysed to confirm or discredit it.
ing to a feeling of instability. increase shear forces on the back as In 2003, Fry and other research-
In C, the individual recovers bal- a result of forward trunk inclination. ers (10) carried out very interest-
ance by tilting the back forward, Although there are exceptions, the ing work: to prevent the tips of the
so as to reposition the COM shin generally should remain as knees from extending beyond the
above the centre of the feet. vertical as possible to reduce shear toes, the researchers used a barri-
forces at the knee. Maximal forward er (a sort of wall) placed in front
In other words, by simply resorting movement of the knees should of the people performing the squat.
to basic physics, the correction place them no more than slightly in Figure 16 is very explicit, because
of the knees undoubtedly worsens front of the toes. This guideline de- it demonstrates exactly what hap-
the movement as a whole, and the rives from a series of studies by Mc- pens: the individuals knees are be-
reason is to be found in the COM dis- Laughlin (1977, 1978), the first to hind the toes, but there is a greater
placement. have formalised the analysis of the inclination of the back.
Therefore, one wonders how did squat, dividing the movement into The authors conclusions are: Bar-
this rule of knees behind the phases. In an initial study in 1977 bell squat exercise guidelines, in-
cluding those published by the Na- it only shows what happens. The alistic. An extract from the study
tional Strength and Conditioning limits of the study itself are cor- by List (12): the restriction in the
Association, cite the need to keep rectly pointed out: the model is 2D movement of the shins in a restrict-
the knees from moving forward and the centre of mass (COM) is not ed squat shows an increase in the
past the toes or to keep the shin calculated in a detailed manner. trunks ROM (Range of Motion), es-
as vertical as possible, when per- Further studies followed over time, pecially between the lumbar and
forming the exercise. However, in such as those of Lorenzetti (11) and thoracic segments of the spine, but
order to optimize the forces at all List (12): in the research, respec- there is no increase of ROM in the
involved joints, it may be advanta- tively from 2012 and 2013, there hips. The increase in the thoracic
geous to permit the knees to move is a full 3D biomechanical model, curvature in a restricted squat rep-
slightly past the toes when in a par- the change in the spinal curvature resents flexion of the spine itself.
allel squat position. This sugges- is analysed, and above all, the real Therefore, a restriction in the shins
tion assumes that the individual problem of the previous study was movement results in an increase in
performing the squat does not pos- overcome. In these two studies, the the trunks movement.
sess any pathological conditions of protocol does not provide for the To prevent a backward fall, the re-
the involved joints such as chon- execution of the squat with a wall striction in shank motion needs to
dromalacia, patellar tracking disor- in front of the knees. In this case ei- be compensated for by increased
ders, anterior or posterior cruciate ther verbal instructions during per- motion of the hips or the trunk to
ligament injuries, injuries of the formance (e.g. Keep your knees maintain stability, with the centre
meniscus, or related conditions. back) or there is a visual reference of mass vertically aligned above
In fact, this study does not provide (as in these two studies, Figure 17), the base. Further conclusions
any explanation for this behaviour, which make the situation more re- from the study by List (12): Prac-
Figure No. 18
THE SQUAT PERFORMED WITH VISUAL REFERENCE FOR KNEE POSITION
titioners should not be overly strict These last two studies, in fact, con- the squat and the authors suggest
with athletes/clients in coaching firm and expand upon the result of that this is required to allow the hips
against anterior knee displacement the first, stating the fact that a for- to reach the deepest aspect of the
during performance of the squat. ward displacement of the knees is squat movement. Rather than set
A certain amount of anterior dis- necessary for a proper squat, oth- guidelines for forward knee move-
placement at the knee during unre- erwise the back flexes forward and ment during squatting the authors
stricted squatting may prevent un- may even loses its curvature. The suggest viewing the forward knee
due stress on the lumbar spine and reference samples of the studies movement as a precursor for syn-
potential for back discomfort. Thus, are individuals with considerable chronisation of the hip and knee an-
when training leg muscles, the un- experience in performing the squat, gles. To summarise, the knees be-
restricted squat may be the best the same people that you, the read- hind the toes rule has been scaled
choice. Conclusions from Loren- er, will often find yourself coaching: down: the knee position is the result
zettis work (11): Limiting the po- individuals that work out in the of the mutual movement of the hips
sition of the knees requires both a gym, athletes of sports that are not and knees: and that is what should
displacement of the centre of pres- related to weightlifting: therefore, be observed, precisely the move-
sure (COP) towards the heels, and these results are certainly inter- ment as a whole: a considerable for-
a compensatory mechanism in the esting. An additional study by (McK- ward displacement of the knees can
upper body. A displacement of the ean, 2012) describes the complex therefore be both an indication of a
COP far from the centre of the sup- movement of the knees during the wrong move, or totally functional to
port area reduces stability and this squat, both in an anteroposterior the mechanics of the same. The skill
is particularly unfavourable when and mediolateral direction during of the expert lies in being able to
the individual is lifting relatively the flexing phase, and the exten- understand when it should be cor-
heavy weights. Maintaining a stable sion of the lower limbs. The study rected, taking into consideration
position of the COP on the foot sup- concludes: () the time at which the entire movement. The kinetic
port area is crucial to the athletes the knees moved forward of the chain and COM concepts allow us to
safety. A forward displacement of toes was always before the subjects understand the overall restrictions
the trunk is required to maintain reached halfway of the descent(). of the movement, and therefore
balance and simultaneously verti- Maximum forward position also oc- should be assimilated and em-
cally align the shanks. curred before the deepest part of braced by the kinesiologist.
PAOLO EVANGELISTA GIAMPIETRO ALBERTI

Degree in Engineering and in Associate Professor of Didactics and Methods of
Physical Education. Author of Sports Activities, Faculty of Physical Education,
the book DCSS Powermechanics Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences at
for Power Lifters*. the University of Milan.
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40
ANTICIPATING
THE TIMES.
From the
theory
of ideas to
exercising
movements
By ALBERTO ANDoRLINI
41
42 ANTICIPATING THE TIMES. FROM THE THEORY OF IDEAS TO EXERCISING MOVEMENTS
0.THE PLAN function; and that, by working, the hypothesis according to which
Another attempt. What we are about changes its Shape and the shape methods, techniques, arts, disci-
to start. In our slow and tiring of the world around it. Nothing plines or sports can be brought
flight (so abstract that is seems more. But also, nothing, absolute- closer together or overlap each
inconclusive), I have not imposed a ly nothing, less. other, on the basis of a similar
conventional code that can guide structure. The final step hinted
the reader from the dark depths IN BRIEF. how, in the field of methodology,
of the basic concepts, to the bright The more observant (or perhaps it is possible to chain rather than
sunlight of the exercise. There are only the most patient) of readers, separate, to connect rather than
the guides and manuals for this. will have noticed that we passed distinguish. The steps were too
No, the idea behind the presenta- Beyond Training and A new few and too abstract, and perhaps
tion, albeit written, was a freely Awareness, two titles for two cy- the conclusions were too concise,
articulated reflection or, better cles, each consisting of five arti- to be able to claim to have conclud-
still, a helical reflection. Not a cles. ed a trip. However, at this point,
circle that could and should close, Today we will address Anticipat- whether the steps taken were
but a spring that continues to ing the times, the third and last long and substantial or - on the
expand, stretching out, broaden- title for a thought that has come contrary - inconsistent and short,
ing themes and amplifying issues. to fruition along the way. With the all that is left is for us to continue
It is true that the two extremes first two cycles, I tried to define thinking; and think that it is indeed
of the helix have never touched; the structure of an ideal model. possible to train movement and
from time to time, step by step, I know that talking about meth- to move training, moving the
we have brought them close, then od may sound excessive; lets just boundaries imposed not by the
moved them apart, depending on say that together we have faced a bodys mobility but by the immo-
the need to compress the sense methodological assumption that I bility of thought.
of the discussion, or expand its the consider realistically feasible.
meaning. LETS GO BEYOND.
This chapter, Anticipating the I REMEMBER. We will attempt to move from the
times, takes another step. It es- The ten articles, enclosed in the theory of ideas, to the verification
tablishes another passage. For two cycles, gave birth to eight of the concepts. And to do this,
once again, we rewind and expand statements, eight suggestions, we will try to index as much as we
the spring, and on that mutating eight ruminations between the know about Exercising Movement.
coil we entwine our reasoning. speculative and theoretical. To use the standard analogy, we
Those who have had the patience Eight steps that have accompa- will take a step. back. First we
to follow the contortions of a nied us from a reworking of an A-Z will address Study, then Exercise.
thought that wraps around itself; for enthusiasts of Body, Movement We will deal with re-establishing a
those who have transformed the and Equipment to the drafting of a connection with who, as an unwit-
words a writer into unequivocal minimalist vocabulary, dedicated ting precursor, has laid the foun-
feelings of a doer, will have real- to a few key words: Position, Move- dations of authentic and contem-
ised that we spoke of Training ment, Action, Skill, Transition, Con- porary training; and we will try to
without involving the standard catenation and Flow. analyze those exercises that Func-
terms and/or conventional ref- I RE-THINK. tional Theory filtered, labelled and
erences. We talked about a Body Our reflection then led us to an made its own.
that moves 24 hours a day, that extended analysis of the training Lets forget what has been said
performs a pirouette, that carries model; to the observation of how so far. Alas! Lets forget the de-
an oval ball over a line, that jumps each movement can be traced to fragmentation of techniques and
long, high and sometimes low; a a common structure and primary disciplines, the architecture of
body which, in moving, exerts a language; and the formulation of the body, the mechanics of move-
ANTICIPATING THE TIMES. FROM THE THEORY OF IDEAS TO EXERCISING MOVEMENTS 43
ment, the five levels of Exercise, with any field of human activity? make a real movement. The con-
the somatografiche coordinates, Which buttons do we have to touch tents expressed would be suffi-
the familiarity of the equipment to talk about proactive training cient to animate the work of a life-
and instruments, the grammar of models and not of fragmented time; and instead, they run the risk
the moving body (Position, Move- and sectoral structures? How can of being downgraded, from useful
ment, Action, Transition, Concate- we uncover knowledge which was updates to abused reasonings.
nation, Flow) and everything that never fully assimilated, without
qualifies Exercise as dys-function- falling into the trap of the banal, 3. STARTING FROM SCRATCH.
al, non-functional, pre-functional marketable proposal? Should our So, let us not be dazzled by the
and functional. Lets go back to proposal aim at the specialisation quest for new ideas at all costs.
verify the sustainability of what of a single sector of human activity More often than not, things
was expressed in the previous ar- or at the optimisation of all com- passed off as new, can be regard-
ticles. ponents of social life? ed as irrelevant diversions; at the
most steps to the side, but nev-
BEFORE FUNCTIONAL TRAINING. 2. FROM USEFUL UPDATES. er steps forward. Starting from
Lets fluctuate between the TO OLD DISCUSSIONS scratch means recovering the true
considerations relating to the dis- Retracing the steps that have meaning of that experiment which
semination of the training model mapped out the current training introduced new models of motor
known as Functional Training, scene, you get the strange feel- intervention. A few words to intro-
and the suggestions induced by ing of discovering everything for duce the next step:
everything that has been said, the first time. Countless words
described and experimented have been written, discussed or 4. THE PIONEERS
before F.T.. We will attempt to even thought of over time. Words The paragraph is devoted to the
extend the sources of Functional to support sound ideas were laid lessons given by thirteen leaders
Training, and to widen the retro- one over one another, building a in the field of the Movement. Thir-
spective base, without running house of cards. Often, the anxiety teen precursors, twelve explorers
the risk - I hope - playing second to quickly change our approach of the functional path, each ded-
fiddle to idle fashion and trends. to teaching movement, and to icated to study, research, experi-
I hope to facilitate the reading of change just as quickly our move- mentation, teaching, practice in
the following pages that follow, ment attitudes and habits has led the field. Each one, the author of
commenting in advance on para- us to read those words superficial- a system, which draws inspiration
graphs that make up the basic ly, passing over truly revolutionary from previous systems, in a sort of
structure. concepts and principles. We get chain that generates mixtures, in-
the impression that the same fate teractions and mergers between
1. THE STATE OF PLAY befell enlightening and compre- different cultural and scientific
Two brief quotations will trace the hensive pages, read and perhaps elements.
lines within which the topics will analysed, but then left to rest at
be discussed. the back of a drawer. There is a 5. VIRTUES AND VICES
If it is true that our society is sick, piece on this topic, taken from a The unquestionable work of what
what remedial action we can take much broader discussion. The ex- I call the Pioneers of the Move-
to prevent the deformation of tract contains the words of Vern ment inadvertently supported
the process we are most familiar Gambetta and Gary Gray, two au- the spread of the Functional The-
with, in other words, the training thors, two operators, who exposed ory. On the other hand, to say that
process? Or rather, how can we their ideas, in their own field, the Training we have labelled as
develop the innate potential in a giving a sense to the activity ... to Functional was born from such
practice, training that is, that may come. The extract shows us how to previous acquisitions, is rash, at
overlap, interfere and interact work so that a real body is able to the very least. The incontestable
fact remains that these state- what has been said in the previ- others in the process.
ments have formed the ideolog- ous cycles (Beyond Training and Mark Verstegen
ical, philosophical and scientific A new awareness of training). In President/Founder Athletes Per-
skeleton of an approach that at- this paragraph, I propose the cat- formance.
tempted to restore as much as egorisation of exercises according Creator of the Core Performance
possible, the natural relationship to functional classification. Even System
between Body and Movement. In in this case, what was considered
this paragraph, I discuss the vir- an attempt at the limit of creativ- A human being should be able to
tues and vices of a theory that, in ity until a few years ago, has been change a diaper, plan an invasion,
most cases, has remained so. absorbed as conventional and ac- butcher a hog, conn a ship, design
cepted as such. In photographing a building, write a sonnet, balance
6. THE GOALS . and describing the exercises, I won- accounts, build a wall, set a bone,
OR WHAT IS LEFT OF THEM dered what actual value could the comfort the dying , take orders,
From a terminological analysis framework of the same exercises give orders, cooperate, act alone,
- more or less the same as what have, based on a different mapping solve equations, analyze a new
presentations, discussions and ex- (e.g. the one proposed in my previ- problem, pitch manure, program a
changes have made us accustomed ous articles, referring to somato- computer, cook a tasty meal, fight
to - to a simple listing of what are or grafiche coordinates); and how, I efficiently, die gallantly. Specializa-
were the main goals of Functional wondered, such mapping can con- tion is for insects.
Training. In Functional Training, as tribute to an eclectic vision of train- Robert Anson Heinlein
not always happens in other fields ing; and, if a different grammatical American author of Science Fiction
and for other techniques, the goals approach (Positions, Movements,
give shape to methodological prin- Actions as letters, words and verbs)
ciples; the principles set out the can guide the conjunction of sev- 2. FROM USEFUL UPDA-
guidelines in the operating field; eral motor areas (disciplines, arts, TING TO ...OLD DISCUS-
the guidelines lead to the choice of techniques, methods, sports), SIONS
equipment, methods and parame- according to a common syntactic The following is an extract from
ters; equipment, methods and pa- construction (Transitions, Concat- Following a Functional Path by
rameters dictate the selection of enations , Flows). The answers are Vern Gambetta and Gary Gray, an
content. The exercise, therefore, is up to you. excerpt from The Gambetta Meth-
only the end result of a process that od, published in 1998. My personal
arises from the definition of a func- 1.THE STATE OF PLAY notes and remarks are in italics.
tion to be trained. What the main Our society is sick, from teenagers Anatomy books describe mus-
function is and what the derived to sedentary adults, to athletes cle action very precisely, but they
functions are, is the key to set a tar- who take shortcuts. The reactive do not refer to the kinetic chain
geted and beneficial course. medical model is completely inef- that such actions express, nor do
fective, and it has become obvious they discuss the motor purpose
7. THE EXERCISES. POSITIONS THAT that the solution lies in proactive and what this involves in terms of
BECOME MOVEMENTS THAT BECOME options of mental attitudes, nutri- mobility, stability, proprioception
ACTIONS, THAT IN SEQUENCES tion, movement and recovery. Our and neuromuscular control. Basi-
CAN OR GENERATE TRANSITIONS, performance industry, providing cally, the anatomy book version of
OR CREATE CONCATENATIONS, THAT efficient, customised and scien- movement and the real-life version
CAN FEED FLOWS. tific training models is the key to are very different. For this reason,
A long title, for a paragraph that healthy and happy lives. The only Functional Training refers to the
might become infinite. In the title, way to do this is to do it together, concept of the Kinetic Chain. The
the desire to connect this last arti- with open minds, studying, re- Kinetic Chain is characterized by
cle, Anticipating the times, with searching, sharing and elevating deceleration at one joint in order
to conserve the movement and ab- tion; it simply invites you to assess 4. Gravity is the basis of all resis-
sorb the thrust, and by necessary the current and recurring ideas in tance training; once the body
acceleration at the next joint, so as terms of training, from a different has adapted to the control of
to transmit the movement along perspective. Here are some clarifi- its own load (made up of either
the chain until it directs the effect cations in this regard: the entire body, or a part of the
of resting on the ground to the body, or of an aggravating en-
effector organs. The kinetic chain 1. The purest form of training for vironmental situation: ascent/
concept supports and strengthens any activity is the actual activi- descent, touching/slipping,
the hypothesis that the muscles, ty itself; therefore, it is imper- resting/uplift/landing), only
joints, and proprioceptors all work ative that functional training then will it be possible to add
synergisticallyno joint or body include activities that are com- an extrinsic disturbing ele-
part works in isolation; therefore plementary to the sport being ment (with the sole purpose of
it is important to train movements trained. These should occur teaching the body to react to
not muscles. According to Johannes in multiple environments and the forces from the outside). A
Noth in his chapter Cortical and Pe- include components of the ac- practical example of this con-
ripheral Control. Which appeared tual function. The more func- cept is to stress core before
in the book Strength and Power in tional the environments are in extremity strength and to use
Sport, edited by Komi Pavo, the training, the more versatile the the body weight for resistance
motor cortex is organized in such athlete will be in handling the before adding external resis-
a way as to optimize the selection forces and stresses incurred by tance. The initial load should
of muscle synergies and not for the the actual sport activity. be added eccentrically to teach
selection of a single muscle. Thus the athlete 1. how to take ad-
the motor cortex thinks in terms 2. Programmes need to intro- vantage of the force reduction
of movements and not muscles. duce controlled amounts of and 2. to create a more pow-
Therefore, training individual mus- instability, which trains the re- erful and effective concentric
cles isolates and breaks the kinetic active control of the athlete. action.
chain. Vice versa, training move-
ments integrates and improves the 3. The bodys relationship to 5. The movement that can train an
function of the kinetic chain. gravity must always be consid- athlete to run, jump, or throw,
In all motion, the body, or a seg- ered. Gravity produces torque is the same movement that can
ment of the body, will decelerate or around all of the joints of the rehabilitate that same athlete
reduce force before it accelerates body. Gravity determines the from an injury. The principles
to produce force resulting in the bodys posture. Standing and of functional training apply to
subsequent movement. In other walking require that we over- rehab the same way they apply
words, performance is a constant come or, at the very least, neu- to conditioning. The body does
interplay of force reduction and re- tralise the effects of gravity. not work any differently in re-
sulting force production occurring Gravity conditions the synergic habilitating than in training.
against a background of stabilisa- intervention of joints and mus-
tion. In order for this to occur, the cles in dictating the rhythm of 6. In function there is no such
body takes advantage of gravity, the tri-plane movements and thing as pure open and pure
GRF, and momentum. the synchronous and simulta- closed chain. All movement in-
neous involvement of the limbs volves a coordinated opening
The explanation of functional train- and trunk. Therefore, the exer- and closing of the chain; the
ing may be unfamiliar, or at least cises should involve and inte- issue is not whether the move-
unconventional; its implementa- grate all three planes of joint ment is open or closed chain
tion, however, does not require a development and all the joints but whether it is a functional or
radical change or a change of direc- at the same time. a non-functional movement.
7. The goal of training and rehab mand placed on the substitute. means and tools are only ac-
is to improve condition; how- cessories; without a plan and

ever, it is precisely the activity 9. Traditionally, the selection and a trained user the tools can be
that causes optimises per- use of methodology (means, virtually useless. To be most
formance that can also cause instruments and content)has effective all methodology must
an injury. Should an injury been the focus in rehab and meet the criteria of the Three
occur, how can we make the conditioning. In functional Ps and the Three Es:
causative activity contribute training, it is more important to Is it Practical? Can it be accom-
positively to that athletes de- understand the performance plished given the level of devel-
velopment or rehabilitation. paradigm and the conceptual opment of the athlete and the
Essentially, we must realize basis of functional training facilities and equipment avail-
that the causative activity is and then be able to apply these able?
really what will make that ath- ideas to your situation. It is also Is it Personal? Does it meet the
lete better in training and will important to consider a spec- needs of the individual athlete
be the cure if there is an injury. trum of training or rehab activ- both in terms of abilities and
In both scenarios the body must ities that challenge the system skills?
successfully deal with the loads to improve. Motion, stability, proficiency and physical devel-
and motions that are produced. speed, flexibility, and strength opment?
The effective management are all facilitated concurrently; Is it Proactive? Is there a plan?
of the apparent dichotomy is they are not developed sep- Does it anticipate the possible
based on a sound fundamental arately and then combined. roadblocks to progress and
understanding of the bodys Therefore, it is important to provide a method to overcome
function (biomechanics) and have a variety of activities that these obstacles?
the function of the movement. constantly force the body to Is it esthetic? Does the move-
The better we understand this, raise the level of adaptation ment requested produce a bal-
the less risk if injury there is, and adaptability. anced and fluid effect?
and at the same time, there is Is it effective? Is the movement
more chance to intervene. 10. The choices of specific meth- produced effective? Does it
odology are vast. The scope reach the set goal?
8. The body knows its weak points. of this article does not allow
The clich that the chain is only us to go into detail on all the 11. The body will move as we wish it
as strong as its weakest link various methods; suffice to to only if we listen to it and use
can be applied to the concept know that functional training it as it was designed and con-
of body movement. The body includes the use of equipment structed. This is the key to func-
either breaks down at the weak that facilitates neuromus- tional training. We must allow
link or transfers the force else- cular activity. Neutralisation the body to act naturally1.
where in the body. When that of gravity, the expression of
force is transferred elsewhere, movement, a deep perception 3. Starting
that body part is ready for of the movement and adapt- from scratch
the increased forces or has a ability to real situations, are all If back then (in 1998!) I had been
breakdown. In sport, when one usable means when located in careful, I would not be here now,
player gets tired the coach will the context of a systematic in- questioning myself on the plastici-
substitute another fresh play- tegrated approach. We should ty of training and discussing with
er. The body works in a similar remember that the body is a you the usefulness or otherwise
manner. This can be good or tool, movement is the means of reworking a thought. Would we
bad depending on the quality and the body in movement is have saved time? I do not know. Af-
of the substitute and the de- the only purpose. All additional ter all, our discourse, stems from
our carelessness. After all, the asynchronies. These same imbal- establishing a rational continuum
previous articles do not express ances, amnesia and asynchronies, which links cognition processes to
anything more than a progressive were each generated by the static, motor operations. In chronological
rediscovery of some of historical repetitive and one-sided use of order:
arguments, which were never fully motor potential. In other words,
developed. we closed in, reducing our ability 1. Joseph Pilates
STARTING FROM SCRATCH, or rath- to resist gravity and the destabilis- 2. Moshe Feldenkrais
er, from a manual of Functional ing variables that being on earth 3. Herman Kabat
Training. Not to slavishly support imposes on us. The result? Hyper- 4. Vladimir Janda
the latest fad - precisely functional activity flexors, adductors and in- 5. Berta e Karel Bobath
training - but rather to engage in ternal rotators of the hip; hand and 6. Maggie Knott and Dorothy Voss
a debate that has captured the in- foot pronators; internal rotation 7. Karel Lewit
terest of thinkers and performers of the shoulders; jaw depressors; 8. Pavel Kolar
of movement. It will obviously be and shoulder girdle depressors; 9. Gary Gray
a fake manual; an ad hoc excerpt; all in oppostion to the inhibition of 10. Michael Boyle
a compendium of quick, easy and extensors, abductors and external 11. Gray Cook
compressed reference, able to in- rotators of the hip; hand and foot 12. Stuart McGill
dicate, albeit partially, where the supinators; external rotators of the 13. Stephen M. Levin1
training world is heading. Basically, shoulder; jaw elevators; and shoul-
we will make another attempt to der girdle depressors. I will focus on the main consider-
see if the past hypothesis, are ac- ATTRACTED BY NOVELTIES, we have ations of each figure. The same
ceptable or not; if there is a need to forgotten that the selective ap- considerations which form the ba-
move away from consolidated con- proach, in fragmenting and com- sis for a careful operative approach
cepts and principles, to direct ideas partmentalising, can 1) reduce the to function. It will be a way of
and actions towards a more re- complexity of an intervention in it- opening a window on the world of
sponsive reaction to current needs. self indivisible; 2) cancel the driving research and understanding how
We will critically address what has synergistic actions of agonists and functional exercise is born, trans-
already been widely disseminated, antagonists; 3) reset the proprio- forms and generates variations on
understood and reinterpreted. And ceptive afferents; 4) neglect the the theme, not by chance, or fed by
from all these things that have al- neutralising and stabilising ability a random fashion, but because
ready occurred, we will extract what of individual muscles and muscle it is the result of careful and me-
can help us to train movement and groups; 5) alter the timing of mus- ticulous work; work that promotes
move training. With the underlying cle activation; and 6) interrupt the Movement, scientifically support-
intent of anticipating the times. sequential activation of the kinetic ing the applicability and enhancing
chain. the preventive, rehabilitation and
4.PIONEERS AHEAD OF THE TIMES. The work performing potential together. Ev-
The wellness industry has turned of some of scholars, research- ery indication in the profile of the
gymnastics into a useless mod- ers and practitioners has been individual scholars reminds us that
ernism, diverting the use of move- somewhat predictive. By antici- there is a communion of elements
ments from the real function to a pating the times, these pioneers ... common to all movements.
sterile superficial form. Most of us of movement have built a struc-
have followed the widespread op- ture of thought and an operat- 1. Among the most represented and
quoted operators on the Internet,
erational wave, using a selective ap- ing patrimony, able to support in line with functional ideas: Bill
proach, based on a particular struc- the evidence of their insights. Hartman, Charlie Weingroff,
tural analysis, so immediate and Thanks to them, and to their work, Eric Cobb, Craig Liebenson, Keats
Snideman, Leon Chaitow, Mike
powerful that it fed and perpetuat- we have the possibility of drawing Verstegen, Mike Robertson, Steve
ed imbalances, amnesia and muscle closer to the essence of movement, Myrland, Greg Roskopf, Paul Chek,
Greg Rose, Erik Dalton.
There are six basics principles of

the method:
1. Control over Breathing; guided
by the teacher, as in Yoga;
2. Centering, the core is the syn-
onym of the Power House, con-
sidered the centre of force and
the functional intersection;
3. Exercising Precision; maximum
attention to the proper form of
each movement;
4. Exercising Concentration, con-
stantly focussing the mind on
each movement;
5. Exercising Control over every
part of the body;
6. Exercising Flow, a smooth syn-
thesis of all the previous prin-
ciples.
The application of the principles,

constantly updated in the light of
current knowledge, allows the in-
dividual to develop a specific pro-
gramme for each posture, prefer-
JOSEPH HUBERTUS PILATES
ring to focus on the realignment of
the body, harmony and movement
awareness.
1. JOSEPH HUBERTUS PILATES ical and rehabilitative knowledge.
(Monchengladbach 1880, New The key point of the method is the
2. DR. MOSHE FELDENKRAIS
York 1967). Author of two books toning and strengthening of the
(1904-1983)(doctorate in physics
(Return to Life through Controlo- Power House, the functional unit
at the Sorbonne) was an engineer,
gy and Your Health: A Corrective now defined as Core.
physicist, inventor, martial arts in-
System of Exercising That Revolu-
structor and student of human de-
tionizes the Entire Field of Phys- The fundamental basics of the
velopment. In developing his work
ical Education) and creator of technique identifies in the bal-
Moshe Feldenkrais studied, among
the training system that bears his ance of the pelvic floor and
other things, anatomy, physiology,
name. Inspired by ancient oriental breathing the key with which we
child development, physical activ-
disciplines such as Yoga (India) and restore the entire body structure.
ity, evolution, psychology, as well
Do-In (Japan), J. Pilates devised The Pilates technique includes
as a number of Eastern awareness
an innovative exercise system, sensitisation, mobilisation and
practices and other somatic ap-
which he called Contrology, refer- stabilisation of all the girdles,
proaches. Precisely because of the
ring to mind control over muscles. thanks to a set of exercises that
vastness, vibrancy and accuracy
The method that is taught today, can be performed either as mat-
of his training, Feldenkrais work
although based on the principles work, and with the help of tools,
has been applied in diverse fields,
developed in the early 1900s, is Reformer, Cadillac, Tower, Barrell,
including neurology, psychology,
constantly enriched with new med- Chair, Circle).
performing arts, sport and rehabil-
the variety of testable paths, con-
necting them together in a more
or less certain and direct way, ac-
cording to a linear progression that
goes:
from simple to complex

from general to specific
from detailed to the whole
from left to right
from below to above
This results in a model of distinc-

tions that can be further enriched,
according to other possible strate-
gies, in a game of virtually endless
DR. MOSHE FELDENKRAIS
modalities:
itation. His interest in Ju Jitsu led to States. The Feldenkrais Method I try randomly
him meeting Professor Kano, who is a corpus of movement configu- I try based on past experience
developed the discipline of Judo. In rations that allows the individual I try everything that works
1934, he founded the Ju Jitsu Club to become aware of a limitation, a I consciously do what I already
in Paris and was among the first Eu- lack, a cancellation, an under-use, know I cannot do
ropeans to earn a black belt in Judo. an atrophy or a non-aware habit; I try everything that does not work
And it was precisely the experience and to replace or fill it or complete it I use inconsistency
of applying judo to learning move- with a more effective and satisfying I use pitfalls
ment, combined with an in-depth experience. Stimulating the brain
knowledge of the mechanics of the to recognise and to reorganise the and so on ad infinitum2.
human body and the study of anat- differences, the method leads to an
omy and neurophysiology, at the experience consistent with respect 3. HERMAN KABAT
origin of his famous Awareness to gravity, and then integrates the (MD, PhD; 1913 - 1995). Neurophys-
through movement - ATM lessons. results into a gradually less expen- iologist and researcher in neuro-
Other significant experiences sive functional self-image in terms science, known as the creator of
came from an interest in the work of the use of resources and more the Proprioceptive Facilitation
of F. Mathias Alexander, the first complete of possibilities. The net- method. The method, which picks
to show how body posture is not work of differences is enhanced up from the studies of physiologist
fixed, but can be permanently mod- by interconnections, it is more or- Charles Sherrington, was elaborat-
ified and improved through a set of ganised, more plastic, more effec- ed in the 1930s, in collaboration
specific practices. In 1949, he pub- tive for survival. The broader the with physiotherapist Margaret
lished Body and mature behavior, contexts and the more varied the (Maggie) Knott and is used in the
a text in which his work is exhibited experiences in those contexts, the treatment of patients with neuro-
in an organic way. In 1975, Feldenk- higher is the stimulus for the brain logical disorders. Herman Kabat
rais decided to call his system of in- to ask new questions, to explore created a system of care based on
dividual Functional Integration, new possibilities, to create new manual treatment, able capable of
in the wake of Ida Rolfs Structural answers. assessing the patients movement
Integration which was at that time The proposed neurological strate- and stimulating, at the same time,
becoming popular in the United gy primarily consists in increasing the activation and use of motor
during the range of motion (think by Sherrington has the ability to

of the woodcutter who raises his facilitate movements other than

arm backwards before hitting a those initially executed. Kabat tried
trunk, or a tennis player getting to formulate his 16 basic patterns
ready to serve). for the upper limb and 12 for the
Spirality has ancient origins: the lower limb, by making the most of
movements made in ancient orien- the proximity of the muscles stimu-
tal dances or the evolutionary de- lated by irradiation.
velopment of many life forms such
as shells, are an example. The pat- For example, if we make resistance
terns selected by Kabat have the against the top part of the upper
ability to place the muscle groups limb (flexion plus abduction) by
in a state of maximum elongation, rotating it outwards, it will cause
and to make them contract in ac- the hand to open; if we do the ex-
HERMAN KABAT cordance with the optimal perfor- act opposite movement, the hand
mance of power. The term facili- will close, and so on. The therapist
strategies aimed at restoring the
tation implies several things: one will have to choose the most appro-
most effective kinetic connections.
is the rapid stretching of the mus- priate between the 700 possible
The method thus becomes not
cle, which produces - as a result of variation, remembering the seven
just a therapeutic approach, but
elongation - immediate shortening commandments of the therapeutic
a means by which to evaluate and
and greater facilitation in the re- exercise in PNF:
simultaneously treat certain types
cruitment of motor units; another
of neuromuscular dysfunction. The
element is that the weaker joints the pattern,
knowledge gained through exper-
fulcrums are emphasised by the the position of the therapists
iments is transferred and fixed
stronger ones. How? In the embryo, hands,
during rehabilitation. Kabat insist-
the germ layer of the spine, called maximum resistance,
ed on the concepts of facilitation
the notochord, has two bulges: one verbal commands,
and inhibition, keywords in the
cervical and one lumbar; they will visual coordination (the pa-
history of both scientific research
become the future plexus, vessels tient must visually follow the
and clinical practice.
and muscles of the upper and lower movement),
The Proprioceptive Neuromus-
limbs. This phenomenon makes us traction or the approximation
cular Facilitation2 technique can
think that every part of the body is (if the movement is more tonic
be defined as a set of methods to
closely connected to the adjacent or more phasic),
evoke or accelerate the responses
one; such as: hand - shoulder gir- rapid stretching.
of the neuromuscular mechanism,
dle, but also the trunk and limbs.
through the stimulation of pro-
The ability to use stronger parts or In spinal cord injuries, it has pref-
prioceptors. The movements are
whole parts opens up a series of erable to use those more global
performed under the continuous
possibilities of combined patterns movements aimed at the acqui-
manual and verbal control of the
and involvement - for example - of sition of individual phylogenetic
therapist, following very specif-
a hip flexion through the flexion stages:
ic patterns. They have a diagonal
of the head against resistance.
and spiral direction and involve the
The movement sequence that rolling,
muscles that work in a global pat-
takes place through a precise pat- sitting up,
tern. The movement has a spiral de-
tern requires resistance an expert- on all fours,
velopment, in so far as the muscle
ly modulated by the therapist, in upright.
itself, as a fibro-elastic structure,
order to channel the radiation that
has a winding-unrolling sequence
emerges. The irradiation described The centre of gravity is gradually
raised, and the support base de-
creases, similar to that of a pyra-
mid. In a game of fixed points and
impulses, even patients with spinal
cord injuries can reach sufficient
autonomy, taking advantage of the
remaining supra-lesional muscles.
In peripheral lesions (plexus or cau-
da injury), this method performs
valuable neuronal bombarding.
In these lesions, the excitability
threshold is very high, and requires
a great incentive to produce a
minimal response. PNF is used to
bombard the final common path- MARGARET KNOTT - DOROTHY VOSS
way with afferent input, so as to
facilitate both the passage of a suc-
cessive stimulus (temporal sum-
mation) and more stimuli simulta-
neously (spatial summation).2
4. MARGARET KNOTT
and DOROTHY VOSS.
What we know today as the Pro-
prioceptive Neuromuscular Facilita-
tion (PNF) method is the systematic
evolution of the work started by Dr.
Herman Kabat. In 1945, Margaret
Knott joined Dr. Kabat, in the role of
physiotherapist, and expanded the BERTA and KAREL BOBATH
activities related to the teaching
and dissemination of the method. In revolutionary new approach to the that determine positive patterns.
1954, it is she who added the word treatment of central nervous system This method was designed to ob-
neuromuscular to the method (CNS) lesions. The Bobaths elaborat- tain the attenuation of spasticity,
name. In 1952, collaboration with ed a therapeutic method capable of characteristic of cerebral diseases,
Dorothy Voss began, leading to the acting on neuropathies through the but was extended to all neurologi-
publication, in 1956, of the text inhibition of those postural reflexes cal muscle deficits. The Bobath con-
Proprioceptive neuromuscular fa- which tend to adversely affect coor- cept moves away from some funda-
cilitation: patterns and techniques. dination and muscle tone. The Bo- mental considerations. A selective
bath technique includes a series of movement, which isolates and also
5. BERTA (physiotherapist) positions capable of inhibiting the involves a single joint, is always ac-
(1908-1991) and KAREL (1907-1991) reflections that construct abnormal companied by a reflex activity that
(psychiatrist/neurophysiologist) postural positions; facilitating the balances and absorbs unwanted
BOBATH. construction of those reflections forces, distributing them across the
More than 50 years have passed that produce normal and positive articular network. The Bobath con-
since Berta and Karel Bobath pro- postural patterns; intervening on cept sees the selective movement
posed what was then regarded as a the increase of the tone of muscles as an essential component of com-
plex motor sequences, consisting of system (which appears if not ab-

coordinated movements, aimed at solutely unalterable, at least rela-

achieving a purpose. The effective tively stable) can progressively lose
movement depends on the ability to its functional equilibrium was de-
limit and combine segmental move- scribed by Vladimir Janda, as a result
ments, involving them in the desired of observations made of patients
functional activity, with a variability suffering from cerebral palsy and
subjected to a wide range of envi- strokes. Janda demonstrated how
DR. VLADIMIR JANDA
ronmental conditions. For the multi- muscle imbalances can be better
joint movement to be performed in understood if approached and com-
a precise way, the CNS must control pared to pathological neuromuscu-
the effects of interactive torques, lar conditions (In brain paralysis the
arising from the movements pro- hyperactive muscles are affected by
duced by other joints. Such activi- spasticity, conversely, in the case of
ties, when engaged in a functional a stroke, the inhibited muscles are
way, provide adequate postural sta- affected by paralysis).
bility throughout the multi-segme- Janda also showed (with six relative-
natal kinetic chain. Such assertions ly simple screening tests) how faulty DR. KAREL LEWIT
underline the importance of syner- movement patterns resulted from
gistic muscle activity, expressed at predictable muscle imbalances and
a distance by the specific activation how these caused repetitive strain
area and the need to reconsider injuries, and joint dysfunction.
the association between the glob- Janda describes two regional syn-
al dysfunction and deficiency of a dromes - Upper & Lower Crossed
single segment. Adequate postural Syndromes and more global Layer
control, along with the possibility of Syndrome). The latter, is very similar
moving selectively, facilitates the in appearance to the Joint by Joint
DR. PAVEL KOLAR
production of coordinated motor approach recently published by Mi-
sequences, known as movement chael Boyle and Gray Cook.
patterns. Patterns, which can be de- In addition to what has already been
scribed in relation to the spatial and reported, we should remember the
temporal components and which development of a model for the
include walking, reaching, grabbing evaluation of hip abduction. The test
and all postural transitions, such as involves the gluteus medius as the
sitting down and standing up and agonist; the tensor fasciae latae,
passing, with all possible useful piriformis and quadratus lumborum
variations, from lying down to sitting as synergistic; the adductor muscles
GARY GRAY
up, to standing up. Postural tran- as antagonists. The gluteus medius
sitions, although similar between works as a stabiliser of the femur
individuals, become sequences of and pelvis in the frontal plane. Ac-
dynamic movement, changing and cording to Jandas observations, a
variable in relation to the individual, deficient or defective mechanism
the environment and the purpose. of abduction can cause patellofem-
oral syndrome and iliotibial band
6. DR. VLADIMIR JANDA syndromw, both due to hyperactiv-
(MD, DSc ; neurologist, physiother- ity of the TFL (tensor fasciae latae);
MICHAEL BOYLE
apist; 1928-2002). The idea that a the reason for the latter being the
excessive lateral tracking of the sition and the reworking of simple lower quarter developing a mu-
patella during knee extension. An movements can be used to re- tual diagonal feature; and how
impoverishment of the function boot complex motor patterns and manoeuvers and movements ap-
of the gluteus medius and lower to correct compensatory imbal- plied to a quarter produce cross
back also produces Trendelenberg ances associated with repetitive adjustments and adaptations. His
posture, an imbalance of the pel- stress. In particular, Kolar focuses coined term mostability supports
vis, a lack of lumbar-pelvic stability his research on the neurological the importance of stability and mo-
during single leg stance. development that leads to the full bility in the new kinetic paradigm.
acquisition of upright posture, He also introduction a applied
7. DR. KAREL LEWIT from birth to the age of 4. Along the methodology - Tweakology - that
(MD, DSc) (Czech Republic), neurol- same line of thought is the affirma- interconnects the properties and
ogist. Lewit, despite having crossed tion that postural alteration result- the drivers that define the exercise.
the threshold of 90 years, is still ing in lifestyles that do not conform Gray states if you want to train the
devoted to teaching, practice and to the natural motor development, transversus abdominis, train in the
research. Amongst many contribu- would be able to develop a dead transverse plane; a statement
tions over a 50-year career, we re- zone from both a mechanical and that has opened the door to 3D and
call the description of the protract- perceptive point of view, in the spi- rotational exercise.
ed posture syndrome (Forward nal tract between T4 and T8.
Drawn Posture). This syndrome, 10. MICHAEL BOYLE
characterised by over-activity in Consequently, for Kolar, the first is a leading name in the strength
the hip flexors, is the result of pro- goal of therapy is to normalise up- and conditioning world (Strength
longed sitting. This attitude devel- right posture. and Conditioning, Performance
ops a closed or flexed posture. The Strategies to verticalise posture Enhancement and general fitness).
gluteus maximus is inhibited and include reflex locomotion proce- Author of Functional Training for
compensatory tightness develops dures; distension of the abdominal Sports (2003) and Advances in
in the hamstrings. Treatment is wall; rib mobilisation; facilitation of Functional Training (2011). He di-
aimed at two primary targets: fas- key stabilisation areas referred to vides his time between training,
cial release of the posterior chain as punctum fixum (lower anterior studying, writing and teaching.
(erector spinae, gluteus maximus ribs, lower border of the scapulae, One of his most important contri-
and hamstrings) and mobilisation etc.); The exercises designed to butions has been his emphasis on
of the fibular head. Normally, pos- develop enhanced co-muscle acti- the mutual relationship between
ture improves immediately after vation around key joints (e.g. C0-C1, hip extension and knee extension;
treating just of these key links. T/L & Lumbo-sacral). the diffusion of anti-flexion exer-
cises supported by Dr. Mc Gill; and
8. DR. PAVEL KOLAR 9. GARY GRAY the dissemination of the Joint by
(Czech Republic). Dr. Kolar is a phys- PT (Michigan, U.S.A.). Gray is an Joint Approach, an expansion on
ical therapist specialising in paedi- American therapist, who has sig- the well known Layer Syndrome of
atrics, sports medicine and neu- nificantly developed the principles Dr. Janda. He always invites people
rological rehabilitation. A former of kinetic chain paradigm. Gray sup- to think in terms of movements in-
world class gymnast and protg ports both the use non-functional stead of individual muscles.
of Vaclav Vojta (the physician who floor exercises, as a primary way of
developed the method of the same restoring function, and the use of 11. GRAY COOK
name, for the treatment of Cere- functional exercises in a standing PT, co-founder (with Greg Rose, DC,
bral Palsy), Kolar has emphasised position, as the subsequent dy- and Lee Burton, PT), of Functional
that developmental kinesiology is namic proposal. He developed the Movement Screening (FMS) and
closely interfaced with the central concept of how the upper quarter Selective Functional Movement As-
nervous system and how the acqui- can interact with the contralateral sessment (SFMA); evaluation mod-
els to detect, analyse and classify 13. STEPHEN M. LEVIN inspired his study. The sculpture by
fundamental and functional move- Orthopaedic Surgeon. Levin coined Kenneth Snelson, with its compres-
ments. A screening exam based on the term biotensegrity, adding sion struts, floating in a global sup-
the observation of these motor pat- the prefix bio to an already known ply network, enabled him to under-
terns, FMS and FSMA classify move- term, Tensegrity. The term tenseg- stand how, in the relative simplicity
ments based on any dysfunctions, rity describes the biomechanical of the design, it contained the key
excluding from the assessment organisation of all life forms, from principles of an alternative model
the weight of isolated muscular im- viruses to humans. Studies con- to the one commonly accepted, es-
pairments. The evaluation systems ducted on the human spine led sentially made up of fulcrums and
have the advantage, compared to Levin to find what he himself has levers. Levin contacted Snelson
similar tests proposed by Dr. Janda, identified as defects of the pre- and began his long career in the
of being numerically scored. vailing biomechanical model. Levin research and publication on the
started these studies from a purely subject. He has created models of
12. STUART MCGILL surgical perspective. In the mid- the human spine and other organs,
Professor at the University of Wa- 70s, he began to study the mechan- using the laws of tensegrity (cf. the
terloo, a biomechanical spine ex- ics of the spine. At that time, the life and work of Buckminster Fuller).
pert. Author of the texts: Low Back field of biomechanics respected In this system of total body re-mod-
Disorders, Ultimate Back Fitness the Newtonian approach. As a re- elling, the spine and limbs are not
and Performance, The Ultimate sult of studies by Borelli (1680), the a set of assembled rigid elements.
Back. Assessment and Therapeutic biological structure was described They are, rather, semi-rigid, visco-
Exercise, The Ultimate Back. En- as a set of rigid material resting elastic, non-linear bone segments,
hancing Performance. Laborato- on a solid foundation. Human be- connected by non-linear, viscoelas-
ry research directed by McGill has ings, however, and all the biologi- tic connectors (i.e. cartilage, joint
three objectives: understanding cal structures are omnidirectional, capsule and ligaments) to a visco-
how the low back works; studying dependant on gravity but they are elastic, non-linear, integrated mo-
the causes of the problems re- mobile and - above all - made from tor system (muscles, tendons and
lating to the low back; searching, soft materials such as foams, connective tissue). Levin has de-
investigating and making assump- colloids and emulsions. The laws of veloped a hierarchical model of the
tions that may influence the pre- mechanics, if applied to the result- body that incorporates mechanics
ventative, rehabilitative and per- ing structure, can lead to different and physiology, from the sub-cel-
formance proposals. He has shown conclusions. Levin has sought and lular to the structured organism;
the dangers of repetitive actions, found in the principles of tenseg- a model based on a Tensegrity ico-
and called for a special attention rity architecture, a model compat- sahedron. Levin has extended the
to the well-known, but abused ex- ible with his intuition, in stark con- model to all living organisms, from
ercises. He created the Big 3, low trast to the dominant Newtonian viruses to vertebrates, their sys-
back core exercises to deal with approach. Levin states that it was tems and sub-systems. The model
back problems. the vision of the Needle Tower that has now spread around the world,
Starting from
the left:
GRAY COOK
STUART MCGILL
STEPHEN M. LEVIN
embedded in many of the disciplines If the keys to training are integra- mensional motor paradigm;
of physical and manual therapy. tion (training the interdependence the continued involvement of
of muscle actions and not their thought, perception, imagina-
EXTRAPOLATE independence), neuromuscular tion; the search for a precise,
& TRANSFER control (feed back - feed forward), effective, economic and effi-
From the teachings of each of opposition to gravity (one/two leg cient action (getting the max-
these pioneers, we can acquire stance), control over ones own body imum benefit possible from
significant elements, correlated to weight, multidimensionality, the minimum effort).
the development of a theory, which reactive forces exerted on and by From H. Kabat, M. Knott and
is not born, ipso facto, but which, the ground, torques (momentum), D. Voss, the use of multi-joint
formed by the dissemination of an the acceleration and deceleration multi-plane diagonal and ro-
overall thought, has been gradual- of segments located on the same tational movement patterns,
ly enriched with various contribu- kinetic line, the generation and ab- referring to upper and lower
tions. A theory that has intervened sorption of forces, the mind/body limbs, trunk and neck; atten-
to define the current direction in relationship, then, through the in- tion to spiral movement;
the field of training, restoring the depth work of those pioneers, we using global preparatory pat-
correct relationship between real can verify (or at least consider) how terns aimed at the acquisition
movement and the ideal exercise, every principle and every concept of individual phylogenetic
between artificial exercise and nat- expressible in theoretical terms, stages: rolling, reaching a sit-
ural movement. has already been investigated and ting position, quadrupedal
exposed by those who knew how position, upright position; the
A THEORY MADE to skilfully expand the search hori- gradual raising of the centre of
UP OF THEORIES: zon. What emerges from the work gravity and the gradual reduc-
some elaborated in the field of mo- of each of them? I shall attempt to tion of support points.
tor control (Gesell & Mc Graw, 1940; answer briefly, leaving room for fur- From B. and K. Bobath, the
Bernstein, 1967; Gibson, 1966; ther - your - personal insights. integration of selective move-
Schmidt, 1975; Kelso, 1984); oth- ments in composite and com-
ers derived from clinical practice From J.H. Pilates, the central- plex movement patterns: from
(Neuro-Developmental Treatment, ity of the Core, as a source of the reduction of the support
NDT approach by Karl and Berta proximal stability and distal base in multi-joint movements,
Bobath; Brunnstrom Approach by mobility; respiratory educa- quadrupedal positions, to ver-
Signe Brunnstrom; Neuro-Physio- tion; peripheral control; the ticalising adjustments, to pos-
logical Approach by Margaret Rood, use of integral small equip- tural transitions; the use of the
Sensory Integration, S.I. Theory by ment and machines. Swiss ball.
Jean Ayres; Proprioceptive Neuro- From M. Feldenkrais, exper- From V. Janda, the description
muscular Facilitation P.N.F System imenting new experiential of Upper & Lower Crossed Syn-
by Kabat, Knott and Voss); some routes beyond the restrictions dromes and global Layer Syn-
developed in the field of training imposed by gravity; exploring drome; the focus on stabilising
science, or derived from the study new possibilities in motor se- mechanisms and activating
of the anatomy (the muscle chains quences organised around forgotten or inhibited mus-
studied by F. Mezieres and the my- a specific human function cles; the use of the monopodalic
ofascial meridians researched by (walking, bending, stretching position and locomotives pat-
T.W. Myers); the last, finally, linked out, sitting down, etc.); the terns in therapy; the use of un-
to the study of motor learning pro- adaptation to new contextual stable surfaces; attention to the
cesses (Task Oriented Approach, situations; the relationship integrated work of the muscles
Shumway-Cook & Woolacott, 2001). with the ground (grounding); crossing the critical junction be-
the expansion of the three-di- tween the gluteus and the latis-
simus dorsi of the opposite side the introduction of diagonal From the models regarding
(thoracolumbar fascia). patterns of trunk flexion with the study of motor control and
From K. Lewit, neuroplastici- rotation (chop) and trunk ex- learning2, the therapists need
ty, sensorimotor amnesia, the tension with rotation (lift); to find a task or to propose a
relationship between over- the fusion of elements of con- problem which the nervous
activity and muscle inhibition ventional training concerning system has to solve (problem
resulting from habits that do force, with concepts of the re- solving) to make a movement;
not conform to natural motor habilitation world. the patient on the other hand,
development; From M. Boyle, the dissemi- needs to search and actively
From P. Kolar, the locomotor nation of the Joint by Joint Ap- use the perceptual information
pattern, the reflexes of rota- proach. gathered in a real and stimu-
tion and sliding, to facilitating From G. Cook, the creation of lating environment, in order
and co-activating exercises Functional Movement Screening to coordinate the movements
aimed at fixed points or key (FMS), and Selective Functional towards the desired goal.
areas of stabilisation. Movement Assessment (SFMA).
From G. Gray, the relation- From S. McGill, the Big Three 2. Sherrington and the
Theory of Reflexes from the
ship between upper and lower as an element of postural syn- early 1900s; Jackson and the
quarters as a synthesis of the thesis, focused on core stabili- Hierarchy Theory, also from
contralateral intersecting re- sation. the early 1900s ; J. Gibson
and the Ecological Theory
lationship; the emphasis on From Stephen M. Levin, the from 1966; N. Bernstein and
Stability and Mobility as cor- myofascial chains and the ap- the Theory of Systems or
Cybernetics from 1967; the
nerstones of performance; proach of the musculoskeletal recent Theory of Parallel
the proposed rotational and system to a plastic model of bi- Distributed Processing, by
three-dimensional exercises; ological tensegrity. various authors.
ALBERTO ANDORLINI
After extensive experience as a Physical Education Teacher,
today he is a Sports Trainer and Rehabilitator. His activity
has long been connected to his interest in the evolution of
movement and the development of performance.
He has worked for Fiorentina F.C., Siena F.C., Al Arabi
Sports Club, Chelsea F.C., he was the Physical Therapist and
Sports Trainer for the Italian Womens Football Team. He
is currently the Rehabilitator at Palermo Sports Club. He
collaborates with the Florence Training Lab and lectures
in Sports Science and Techniques and Preventative and
Adaptive Motor Sciences at the University of Florence.
ANTICIPATING THE TIMES FROM THE THEORY OF IDEAS TO EXERCISING MOVEMENTS 57
58
BY jay r. hoffman
BASIS FOR
POWER
SCIENTIFIC
TRAINING
59
In general individuals who are not training program. In order to main- can get there which is critical for
experienced in resistance train- tain strength performance the ath- success. Optimally, athletes and
ing will experience large increases lete needs to continue to provide coaches desire to increase maximal
in strength during the beginning the stimulus that maintains maxi- force and the rate of force develop-
stages of a training program. As mal strength performance. Howev- ment. Specific training programs or
strength levels are improved the er, the inclusion of specific exercises manipulating acute program vari-
individual may also experience im- that focuses on high velocity move- ables within the resistance train-
provements in various power com- ments will maximize power perfor- ing program can emphasize either
ponents of athletic performance, mance as well. This has also has and/or both training goals. Most
such as jump height and speed. been demonstrated by several in- power movements in sports in-
This is primarily the result of the vestigations that have shown that volve a countermovement in which
athlete being able to generate a the inclusion of ballistic exercises the muscles are first stretched and
greater amount of force. As the ath- (e.g. squat jump) can enhance pow- then shortened rapidly. An exam-
lete becomes stronger and more er production in resistance-trained ple is the bending of ones knees
experienced, the rate of strength athletes when combined with their prior to performing a vertical jump.
development decreases and even- regular traditional resistance train- This movement is referred to as a
tually reaches a plateau (Hoffman ing programs (Hoffman et al., 2005; stretch-shortening cycle. The dif-
et al., 2014). At this point, not only Newton et al. 1999). The use of bal- ference in jump height and power
are strength improvements harder listic training appears to generate expression between a squat jump
to achieve, but improving maximal a new window of adaptation stim- and a countermovement jump (in
strength may not provide the same ulating performance gains in elite which the athlete lowers him or her-
stimulus to enhance power perfor- athletes with considerable training self to a squat position and pauses
mance as it did during the earlier experience. before performing the jump) is re-
stages of training. As discussed, power performance lated to the greater force output at
An important factor for maximiz- will increase the rate of force devel- the start of the upward (concentric)
ing power production is exerting as opment. The rate of force develop- movement. The countermovement
much force as possible in a short ment is defined as how quick maxi- jump allows for greater forces to be
period of time. Training for maximal mal force is reached (see Figure 1). exerted against the ground and en-
strength through heavy resistance Although maximal force remains hances acceleration of the body as
training may be effective for en- important, how quickly the athlete it leaves the ground (Newton et al.
hancing power in the inexperienced
athlete, but may not provide the
same stimulus in the experienced,
resistance trained athlete. For
these athletes, if plyometric exer-
cises or a combination of plyomet-
ric and resistance training (using
a light resistance such as might
be used with ballistic training) is
added to the training program, the
athletes ability to increase their
rate of force development may be
enhanced. However, it is also im-
portant to understand that it is not
a question of performing one mode
of training versus the other, but it is
a function of adding to the existing Figure No. 1 RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT (RFD)
SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR POWER TRAINING 61
2012). Other methods attributed to al. 2012). It is the combination of bar through the full-range of mo-
the differences in power output be- both high force, low velocity and tion by actually throwing the bar
tween the two types of jumps are low force, high velocity that should as in a bench press throw or jum-
recovery of stored elastic energy, be integrated into the athletes ping with the weight as in a squat
activation of the stretch reflex and training program. If the trained jump, the potential for power de-
muscle-tendon interactions (Hoff- athlete would focus on only one velopment may even be greater.
man, 2014). aspect of the training model, a po- This type of movement is referred
tential decrease in either the force to as ballistic resistance training.
RELATIONSHIP or velocity component may occur As an athlete moves a bar through
BETWEEN FORCE, without the appropriate stimulus. its full range of motion during a
VELOCITY, AND POWER One of the major issues that has lift, the greater velocity of move-
Training Methods for Power De- been identified with traditional re- ment in a movement that allows
velopment Traditional resistance sistance training exercises is the for continuous acceleration would
training programs are effective deceleration of the bar towards be advantageous in stimulating
in improving strength in the high the end of the concentric phase of power development compared to
force, slow velocity movements. a lift. Deceleration has been repor- a traditional exercise, in which the
However, these strength impro- ted to occur for nearly 25% of the bar is decelerated towards the end
vements are not reflected in the time spent in the concentric pha- of the range of motion. Newton
same magnitude during higher ve- se, but may increase to 52% as the and colleagues (1996) comparing
locity movements. Exercises using load is reduced (~80% of 1-RM) the bench press throw to the tra-
reduced loads performed at a gre- (Elliot et al. 1989). Thus, even when ditional bench press movement
ater velocity will result in greater using lighter resistance the athle- reported that muscle activation
force outputs at the higher velo- te needs to spend more time de- was 19% - 44% higher in the throw
city ranges and improve the rate celerating the bar. However, if the versus the press movements, and
of force development (Newton et athlete was able to accelerate the that deceleration occurred for
40% of the concentric movement The initial movement in a plyomet- may perform the plyometric drills
during the press. ric exercise is for the muscle to be wearing weighted vests or holding
It is acknowledged that the bench rapidly stretched (eccentric con- dumbbells in their hands when per-
press throw may not be a practical traction), as in a countermovement forming some of the jumps.
exercise, considering that attemp- jump, and then shortened to accel- A number of different studies have
ting to catch the bar is not recom- erate the body upward (concentric demonstrated the effectiveness
mended once it leaves the hands, contraction). The use of the eccen- of plyometric training for improv-
there are several other types of tric movement appears to enhance ing power, generally reported as
exercises that may be very effecti- the amount of stored elastic ener- improvements in vertical jump
ve. For instance, squat jumps, me- gy acquired during the eccentric height (Hoffman, 2014). Although
dicine ball throws, and plyometric phase that is able to be recruited traditional resistance training has
drills are all resistance movemen- during the upward movement of been shown to improve vertical
ts that do not require deceleration the jump (Bosco and Komi 1979). jump performance as well, these
during the concentric phase of the In addition, the prestretch during improvements may be limited in
exercise. There have also been te- the lower movement of the jump experienced, resistance trained
chnological advances that have results in a greater neural stimu- athletes (Hakkinen et al. 1985), or
used hydraulics to allow athletes lation (Schmidtbleicher et al. 1988) in athletes who have a high vertical
to use a bench press throw as a le- as well as the torque generating jump ability (Hoffman 2014). When
gitimate ballistic exercise. ability at the start of the upward plyometric drills are combined with
movement (Kraemer and Newton a traditional resistance training
TRAINING METHODS 2000). The greater torque at the program, vertical jump perfor-
FOR POWER DEVELOPMENT onset of the jump begins with a mance appears to be enhanced to a
Training for power is accomplished greater force exerted against the significantly greater extent than if
by improving maximal force capa- ground with a subsequent increase performing either resistance train-
bility and by enhancing the rate at in impulse (force applied over time) ing or plyometric training alone
which a submaximal force can be resulting in a more rapid accelera- (Hoffman, 2014).
exerted. However, where the em- tion of the body upward. Plyometric Training
phasis should be and how that is Plyometric training is a training Program Design
manipulated is largely determined method that is used to enhance A primary concern when beginning
by the experience and strength lev- power performance. The primary a plyometric training program is
el of the athlete. Novice athletes question is whether plyometric the increased potential for injury,
or athletes that are weak would drills should be considered a sup- because the drills place high for-
benefit primarily from training pro- plement to the normal training ces on the musculoskeletal system.
grams designed to enhance maxi- regimen or an alternative way of However, no epidemiological stu-
mal strength. That may be enough training. Combining traditional dies have addressed the issue of
of a stimulus to increase power resistance training and plyomet- whether plyometric training pla-
performance (Cormie et al, 2010). ric drills is often used during the ces the athlete at a greater risk
However, for the experienced ath- power phase in the yearly training for injury in comparison with other
lete, the inclusion of plyometric program of the strength/power forms of training. However, one
drills, ballistic training and Olympic athlete. The body weight of the should keep in mind that plyometric
style resistance training may pro- athletes is most often used as the drills used by athletes are the same
vide the necessary stimulus to en- overload, but the use of external exercises that are commonly seen
hance power performance. objects such as medicine balls also being used by children in the scho-
Plyometrics provide a good training stimulus olyard. Hops, skips and jumps are
Plyometrics are exercises that for certain plyometric exercises. generally movements that are part
stretch and then shorten the mus- To increase intensity of effort or of elementary school physical edu-
cle to accelerate the body or limb. difficulty, experienced athletes cation curriculum and have been
shown to be an effective and safe drill. For most bounding and Volume of Training
way of improving physical fitness running drills, 33-44 yards The volume of training is the total
in youth (Hoffman, 2014). Intere- (30-40 m) of straightaway are work performed in an exercise ses-
stingly, there has been evidence required, whereas for some of sion. During plyometric training,
supporting the use of plyometrics the vertical and depth jumps, volume often refers to the number
training as part of the strength only 3-4 yards (3-4 m) of space of foot contacts during each ses-
training program of competitive are needed. For jumping drills, sion. Foot contacts provide a me-
women athletes, may actually re- ceiling height should be ap- ans of prescribing and monitoring
duce the risk for anterior cruciate proximately 4 yards (4 m). exercise volume, especially for dril-
ligament injury. As with any trai- Select exercises that have ls involving jumping. In drills that
ning program, certain precautions a high degree of specificity involve exaggerated running exer-
should be in place to insure a safe within the athletes sport to cises such as bounding, the volume
environment to conduct these dril- enhance performance gains. of training may be measured by
ls. Some recommendations for par- Ensure that all drills are perfor- distance. The time needed to com-
ticipating in plyometric training are med with proper technique. plete a plyometric exercise session
listed here: Allow for sufficient recovery should not exceed 20-30 min for a
between exercise sessions, beginner. This does not include the
Use footwear and landing sur- and do not perform plyometric time needed for warm-up and co-
faces with good shock-absor- drills when fatigued. ol-down. As the experience level of
bing qualities.Allow for a pro- the athlete increases and a greater
per warm-up before beginning Intensity of Training number of high-intensity drills are
the exercise session. Intensity of training is controlled by incorporated into the training pro-
Use proper progression of dril- the type of exercise performed. Con- gram, the time needed to complete
ls; master lower-intensity drills sidering that most plyometric drills the workout may increase.
before beginning more com- use the athletes body mass, the Frequency of Training
plex plyometric exercises. complexity of the drill dictates the in- Frequency is the number of plyo-
All boxes used for drills should tensity level (i.e., one leg hops versus metric training sessions perfor-
be stable and have a nonslip two leg jumps). In certain situations, med per week. To date, research
top surface. increasing or adding weights (e.g., has not focused on the optimum
Make sure that there is suf- weight of medicine ball), may also in- number of weekly training ses-
ficient space for the desired crease the intensity of training. sions. The athletes need for reco-
very has been suggested as a basis ximize performance. The quality training improved to a significantly
for the frequency of training for of each repetition must take pre- greater extent than the subjects
plyometrics. Low-intensity drills cedence over the quantity. Similar that performed traditional resi-
such as skipping or front or diago- to resistance training, a 2-3 min stance training but not plyometric
nal cone hops may be performed recovery period should separate training. Others have shown that
daily, whereas more complex dril- each set to permit adequate pho- when ballistic exercises (jump
ls and higher-intensity exercises sphagen replenishment. Although squats) are added to a traditional
such as bounding or depth jumps less information is available for resistance training program for
may require a longer recovery pe- proper rest intervals between re- 5-weeks significant improvemen-
riod (48-72 h) before the next exer- petitions, the goal is to perform a ts are noted in maximal squat and
cise session (Hoffman, 2014). Ath- high quality repetition, as such the power clean performance indica-
letic teams may hold two to three athlete should rest 5-10 s between ting the additive benefits of the
plyometric sessions per week. repetitions, especially for the more ballistic exercise (Hoffman et al.,
However, this depends on the time intense plyometric drills 2005). Another study compared
of the year. During the off-season, Ballistic Training 8-weeks of traditional resistance
the frequency of plyometric exerci- Ballistic exercises such as jump training to a combination of tra-
se sessions may be relatively high squats, bench throws or medici- ditional resistance training plus
because they are integrated into ne ball throws allow the athlete to ballistic training (jump squats,
the off-season strength and condi- accelerate a force through a com- bench press throws and ballistic
tioning program. However, during plete range of motion. The benefits push-ups) (Mangine et al., 2008).
the season, coaches and players of ballistic movements have been All subjects performed a 4-day per
focus primarily on practices. The demonstrated in several studies. week split routine (two days upper
number of plyometric sessions, One investigation compared tradi- body and two days lower body). At
although not necessarily elimina- tional resistance training, ballistic the end of 8-weeks of training the
ted, is substantially reduced. Ne- resistance training, and plyometric combined group experienced a
vertheless, common sense should training in recreational athletes 13.6% improvement in jump power,
prevail when using plyometric drills with at least 1 year of resistance while the traditional resistance
during the season. For basketball training experience (Wilson et al., training group actually decreased
and volleyball players who play se- 1993). Following 10 weeks of trai- 9.6%. The combined group had a
veral games a week, and continual- ning, the ballistic resistance group 6.2% increase in upper body power
ly scrimmage during practices, the showed improvements in a greater (measured from ballistic push-up
addition of plyometric exercises number of variables testedjump performed on a force plate), while
may be more likely to cause injury height in both the counter-move- the traditional resistance trained
than enhance power performance. ment and squat jumps, isokinetic group improved by 1.4%. However,
In contrast, track and field athletes leg extensions, 30-m sprint time, ballistic exercises may not provide
who compete in a limited schedule and peak power on a 6-s cycle any additional benefit from tradi-
often train through several meets testthan either the traditional tional resistance training in the
to peak at the more important com- resistance training (improvemen- weak or novice individual (Cormie,
petitions. Maintaining a high fre- ts in the counter-movement and et al. 2010).
quency and volume of plyometric squat jumps and 6-s cycle test) or Athletic performance improvemen-
sessions during the season may be plyometric training groups (im- ts (jump power, sprint speed) in
beneficial for these athletes. provements in counter-movement relatively weak men were similar
Rest and Recovery jump only). All three training pro- between subjects performing a
Plyometric training is not used as grams resulted in significant im- traditional resistance training pro-
conditioning exercises, As such, provements in countermovement gram compared to a power training
adequate recovery between each jump performance. However, the program (Cormie et al, 2010). The
repetition and set is desired to ma- subjects that performed ballistic investigators suggested that the
incorporation of ballistic training rious pulls that often results in the production. Athletes with limited
probably should be integrated into bar and or the body being projected resistance training experience may
the training programs of athletes into the air. The loading used to eli- improve their power performance
that have developed a solid stren- cit the highest power output in the- with the use of traditional resistan-
gth foundation (squat 1-RM/body se exercises is between 70% - 80% ce training exercises until they have
mass ratio > 1.60). For weaker ath- 1-RM (Hoffman 2014). An important developed a strength base. The
letes, the focus on basic strength benefit for incorporating the Olym- power exercises (e.g., jump squats,
improvement will increase both pic movements into the training plyometrics, and Olympic move-
strength and power. As discussed program of strength and power ments) can be successfully integra-
earlier, the experienced strength athletes is the similarity of these ted into the resistance training pro-
trained athlete will need a greater exercises to athletic movements grams of strength/power athletes.
stimulus to make additional impro- such as jumping and sprinting. In addition, as the window of adap-
vements in power performance. A study comparing Olympic weight tation is reduced for slow-velocity
Ballistic exercises are incorporated lifting to traditional power lifting strength (traditional resistance
into the traditional resistance trai- training in competitive strength/ training programs), the combina-
ning program of the athlete. These power athletes demonstrated the tion of resistance training and the-
exercises are often integrated in benefits of Olympic lifting (Hoffman se other forms of training may pro-
the strength, power and peaking et al., 2004). During the 15-week vide a new window for adaptation
phases of the annual periodized training study, participants in both that further enhances the power
training program. High-velocity, groups significantly improved their production of the athlete.
ballistic movements selectively re- squat strength, however the stren-
cruit higher-threshold, fast twitch gth improvements in the Olympic
motor units which are also critical lifting group were 18% greater
to maximal strength development than the power lifting groups. In
(Kawamori and Haff, 2004). Peak addition, those athletes that trai-
power outputs have been shown ned with the Olympic weight lifting
to be attained using a wide range exercises experienced a two-fold
of loads (between 15-60%) of the improvement change in time for the
athletes 1-RM for ballistic exerci- 40 yd sprint compared to the power
ses such as the jump squat and bal- lifting group (0.07 0.14 s compa-
listic bench press (Hoffman, 2014). red to 0.04 0.11 s, respectively).
The large range in intensity used in Although these results were not
these exercises are likely related to statistically different, the practical
differences in muscle mass recruit- difference for a competitive group
ment, single versus multiple joint, of athletes was impressive. A signi-
training experience, methods used ficantly greater improvement in
to measure power output, and vertical jump height was also seen
strength level of the subjects. in the Olympic lifting group compa-
Olympic Weight Lifting red to the power lifting group.
The snatch, clean and jerk, and
their variants (high pulls, power SUMMARY
cleans, power snatch, hang clean The use of plyometric, ballistic and
and hang snatch) are generally Olympic exercises has been de-
referred to as the Olympic weight monstrated to be advantageous in
lifting movements. Similar to the the training programs of experien-
ballistic exercises the athlete ac- ced, resistance trained athletes
celerates the bar through the va- interested in maximizing power
DR. JAY HOFFMAN

holds the rank of full professor in the Sport and Exercise Science program at the University of Central
Florida. He is presently the Department Chair of Education and Human Sciences and Director of the Institute
of Exercise Physiology and Wellness.
Dr. Hoffman is a fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine and the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (NSCA).
He served as President of the National Strength and Conditioning Association Board of Directors
from 2009-2012. Dr. Hoffman also served on the Board of Directors of the USA Bobsled and Skeleton
Federation. Dr. Hoffman holds a unique perspective in his sport science background. Prior to his academic
career he signed free agent contracts with the NY Jets and Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL and the Tampa
Bay Bandits of the USFL. A dual national of the USA and Israel, Dr. Hoffman commanded the Physiological
Unit of the Israel Air Force and served as a Research Officer in the Combat Fitness Unit of the IDF during
his military service. Dr. Hoffman has been honored or awarded the 2007 Outstanding Sport Scientist of
the Year from the NSCA, 2005 Outstanding Kinesiology Professional Award from the Neag School of
Education Alumni Society of the University of Connecticut, 2003 Educator of the Year NSCA, and 2003 Neag
School of Education Outstanding Alumni Research Award (University of Connecticut).
Dr. Hoffmans primary area of study focuses on physiological adaptations resulting from nutritional and
exercise intervention. Dr. Hoffman has published more than 200 articles and chapters in peer-reviewed
journals. His books Physiological Aspects of Sport Training and Performance, Norms for Fitness,
Performance, and Health, and Program Design were published by Human Kinetics. A Practical Guide to
Designing Resistance Training Programs and Total Fitness for Baseball were published by Coaches Choice.
Further sharing his research and findings, Dr. Hoffman has lectured at more than 380 national and
international conferences and meetings.
References
1. Bosco C, and PV Komi. Mechanical 9. Kraemer, WJ and RU Newton. Training
characteristics and fiber composition for muscular power. Phys. Med. Rehab.
of human leg extensor muscles. Eur. J. Clin.N. Amer. 11:341-368, 2000.
Appl. Phys. 24:21-32, 1979
10. Mangine GT, NA Ratamess, JR Hoffman,
2. Cormie P, MR McGuigan and RU AD Faigenbaum, J Kang, and A Chila-
Newton. Adaptations in athletic per- kos. The Effects of Combined Ballistic
formance after ballistic power versus and Heavy Resistance Training on Ma-
strength training. Med. Sci. Sports and ximal Lower- and Upper-Body Strength
Exerc. 42:1582-1598, 2010. in Recreationally-Trained Men. Journal
of Strength and Conditioning Research.
3. Elliott BC, DJ Wilson and GK Kerr. A 22:132-139, 2008
biomechanical analysis of the sticking
region in the bench press. Med. Sci. 11. Newton RU, P Cormie and WJ Krae-
Sports and Exerc. 21: 450-462, 1989. mer. Power Training. In: Hoffman JR
(ed). NSCAs Guide to Program Design.
4. Hakkinen K, PV Komi and M Alen. Effect Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL. 95
of explosive type strength training on 117, 2012.
isometric force- and relaxation-time,
electromyographic and muscle fibre cha- 12. Newton, RU, WJ Kraemer and K Ha-
racteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta kkinen. Effects of ballistic training on
Phys Scand. 125:587-600, 1985. preseason preparation of elite volleyball
players. Med. Sci. Sports and Exerc.
5. Hoffman JR. Physiological Aspects of 31:323-30, 1999.
Sport Training and Performance. 2nd
Edition Human Kinetics: Champaign, 13. Newton RU, WJ Kraemer K Hkkinen
IL. 2014. B Humphries and AJ Murphy. Kine-
matics, kinetics, and muscle activation
6. Hoffman JR, J Cooper, M. Wendell, and J during explosive upper body movemen-
Kang. Comparison of Olympic ver- ts. J. Appl.Biomech. 12: 31-43, 1996.
sus traditional power lifting training
programs in football players. J. Strength 14. Schmidtbleicher D, A Gollhofer and U.
Cond Res. 18:129-135, 2004. Frick. Effects of a stretch-shortening
typed training on the performance capa-
7. Hoffman JR, NA Ratamess, JJ Cooper, J bility and innervation characteristics of
Kang, A. Chilakos, and A Faigenbaum. leg extensor muscles. In Biomechanics
The addition of eccentrically loaded XI-A, ed. G. de Groot, A. Hollander, P.
and unloaded jump squat training on Huijing, and G.Van Ingen Schenau 185-
strength/power performance in college 9. Amsterdam: Free University Press,
football players. J. Strength Cond Res. 1988.
19:810-815, 2005.
15. Wilson GJ, RU Newton AJ Murphy and
8. Kawamori, N and GG Haff. The optimal BJ Humphries. The optimal training
training load for the development of load for the development of dynamic
muscular power. J. Strength Cond Res. athletic performance. Med. Sci. Sports
18: 675-684, 2004. and Exerc. 25:1279-86, 1993.
68
Isometric
strength
assessment in
weightliftinG
BY Carlo Varalda
69
When the decision was made to car- a system that reduces the run-up height, it would be easier, even for
ry out the isometric deadlift test, to the bar. The snatch grip (wider those with an inferior technique,
some very important aspects were one) was decided on, as it is consid- to produce positively good muscle
addressed in order to make the test ered less traumatic, and allows to performance.
effective as regards the analysis of anticipate the barbell lock. A final consideration, with a nar-
the resulting numbers. row angle it is not possible to pig-
We decided to implement the bar- gy-back the system carrying out
Firstly, it was necessary to adapt bell lock as soon as movement of the test and so, it is not possible to
the system to make the starting the barbell raises the weight plates use ones own body weight.
position as close as possible to that slightly, basically, when the bar is The isometric deadlift test should
of the technical exercise. Then, it located halfway up the tibia. The be analyzed from two points of
was necessary to define the type purpose of this is to keep the an- view:
of grip required of the athlete, the gles of the body very narrow, which
snatch (a wider grip) or the clean consequently does not create sub- The correct position in perfor-
& jerk (more narrow). Lastly, it was stantial differences in athletes mance
necessary to identify the precise with short limbs and those with The ability to express force
moment in the exercise in which long limbs. Another aspect: if you quickly.
the barbell would be locked in order want to measure the muscle po-
to measure the expressed force. tential of individuals taking the It is important to assume a correct
The same iron platform used previ- test, it is considered more useful to starting position, in order to render
ously was adopted for the starting do so when the angle at the knee is the body effective during the mus-
position; the only change made was still narrow so as not to distort the cle contraction phase of the lower
a slight raise in the place where the results. In fact, if the lock point of limbs. This presupposes a relatively
feet are positioned so as to create the barbell was taken at kneecap sound knowledge of the technique
ISOMETRIC DEADLIFT TEST

1 RM kg 1st kg 2nd
n mf kg barbell kg iso t kg barbell kg iso t
deadlift test test
1 F 115 70 121 0,08 80 115,2 0,08 191 195,2
2 F 120 80 110,6 0,07 75 113,6 0,07 190,6 188,6
3 F 125 80 147,5 0,08 85 123,2 0,08 227,5 208,2
4 F 110 70 106,8 0,06 75 138 0,08 176,8 213
5 F 100 65 59,7 0,06 65 85 0,08 124,7 150
6 F 90 65 33,2 0,04 65 75,1 0,06 98,2 140,1
7 F 100 65 100 0,07 65 96,1 0,06 165 161,1
8 M 180 130 237 0,10 150 159,9 0,10 367 309,9
9 M 155 70 184,3 0,07 100 184,8 0,09 254,3 284,8
10 M 205 100 140 0,08 100 193,8 0,08 240 293,8
11 M 170 130 207,3 0,09 150 192,9 0,12 337,3 342,9
12 M 170 130 165,2 0,09 150 121,4 0,10 295,2 271,4
13 M 160 70 83,3 0,06 80 99,1 0,06 153,3 179,1
Table n0. 1 Isometric deadlift test in advanced athletes

ISOMETRIC STRENGTH ASSESSMENT IN WEIGHTLIFTING 71
ISOMETRIC DEADLIFT TEST
n mf max clean barbell iso T barbell iso T
1 M 75 40 151 0,06 40 135 0,06
2 F 79 40 105 0,06 40 111 0,06
3 M 105 40 184 0,05 40 163 0,07
4 M 90 40 95 0,07 40 127 0,06
5 M 55 40 70,8 0,05 40 95,4 0,07
6 F 60 40 68,8 0,06 40 93,6 0,07
7 M 105 40 194 0,05 40 211 0,05
8 M 70 40 140 0,05 40 114 0,05
9 M 115 40 172 0,06 40 202 0,07
10 M 113 40 166 0,05 40 178 0,06
11 M 135 40 188 0,06 40 177 0,07
12 F 60 40 71,5 0,07 40 78,8 0,08
13 M 70 40 139 0,07 40 117 0,06
14 F 50 40 70,6 0,06 40 85,7 0,04
15 F 78 40 89,2 0,06 40 86,1 0,07
16 F 40 84,5 0,05 40 103 0,05
17 M 50 40 113 0,07 40 127 0,06
18 M 65 40 74,6 0,07 40 103 0,07
Table n0. 2 Isometric deadlift test in youth categories
and good joint mobility. Without strength. In an initial phase, an emp- dardise the load on the barbell for
delving into the technical aspects ty barbell tied to a chain was used. both men and women: about 70%
of the snatch exercise, a very low The results obtained were already of the deadlift maximal. Naturally,
performance time (less than 1 sec- good, but a question arose: would in order to make the tests perfectly
ond) obliges the athlete to apply an athlete used to feeling a heavy compatible with the actual sport,
force in a very short time. load in his hands, make less of an the female athletes used the wom-
The Globus Iso Control allows us effort given the lightness of the ens barbell and the male athletes
to see both the peak force, ex- equipment used during the test? used the mens one.
pressed in kg, and the time in which So, the barbell was loaded with The results were very interesting,
the peak force was reached from two 10kg plates and the results and are summarised in Table 1.
the moment in which the load cell improved. The weight was subse- Table n.1 shows the data of a num-
has been subjected to traction. quently increased and the results ber of advanced athletes. In some
This way it is also possible to verify were even better, all within the cor- cases, you can see that even when
the features and abilities of the ap- rect confines of the exercise/test. the weight of the barbell is in-
plication of the athletes maximal At this point, it was decided to stan- creased, the total weight moved
does not change. For some athletes, as it is a statistic that coaches and It is clear that we are only at the be-
the difference between 1 RM and athletes acquire very early on. ginning, and that the numbers are
the isometric test is not very differ- For organisational and practical still inadequate to produce com-
ent. This may mean that this athlete reasons, the work proposed was prehensive statistics, however, it
has still some work to do on the ac- based on a fixed load rather than was decided to use this test in all
tual muscle structure aspects. on load percentages; this was to gatherings of the Progetto Italia
prevent the youths from being Youth of the Italian Weightlifting
For some athletes, there is a major too enthusiastic and overdoing Federation. In this way, we will ob-
difference between the 1 RM and things, which could have resulted tain the data of the most promising
the isometric test. This may mean in injury. The data obtained are athletes on the Italian weightlift-
that the athlete has great muscle shown in Table 2. There were some ing scene, and we will be able to see
potential that he fails to express interesting results also in this case, how performances change, using
as his level of neuromuscular train- from different points of view. Not these guidelines to direct the ses-
ing is quite low. At this point, the only for the loads produced, but sions of physical training sessions.
same test was also carried out with also as regards start up times.
younger athletes (categories: chil- One last point: as the maximal iso-
dren, beginners, under 17). It must also be said that, on this oc- metric contraction has a great ef-
casion, there were also some errors fect on neuromuscular activation,
Given the young age and lack of in the technical approach, mainly what would happen if an athlete
experience, many of them they did due to lack of experience, but it can performed an isometric test before
not have a deadlift maximal. It was be extremely useful to coaches to stepping up on the platform?
decided to take the clean maximal plan training workouts even better. But more about that another time.
CARLO VARALDA
Federal Instructor with the FIPE (Italian Weightlifting Federation). National
Sporting Director. Coordinator of the Training Sector of the FIPE and NSCA
National Programme.
Bibliography
1. NSCAs Guide to Test and Assessment, Human Kinetics, 6. Ignjatovi A, Stankovi R, Herodek K, Radovanovi D,
2012 Investigation of the relationship between different mu-
scle strength assessment in bench press action, Physical
2. NSCA Manuale di Condizionamento Fisico e di Allena- Education and Sport Vol. 7, No 1, 2009, pp. 17 25
mento della Forza, Calzetti Mariucci Editori, Perugia
2010 7. Townsenda R, Schapmireb DW, Jamesc J St, Feelerd L,
Isometric strength assessment, Part II: Static testing
3. Noorkiva M, Nosakaa K & Blazevicha AJ, Effects of does not accurately classify validity of effort, Work 37
isometric quadriceps strength training at different mu- (2010) 387394
scle lengths on dynamic torque production, Journal of
Sports Sciences (Accepted 16 February 2015) 8. Gabriel DA, Kamen G, Frost G, Neural Adaptations to
Resistive Exercise, Sports Med 2006; 36 (2): 133-149
4. Gallagher S, Steven Moore J, Stobbe TJ, Physical Strength
Assessment in Ergonomics, American Industrial Hygie- 9. Driss T, Serrau V, Behm D, Isometric training with
ne Association (AIHA), Fairfax, Virginia 1998 maximal co-contraction instruction does not increase
co-activation during exercises against external resistan-
5. Juneja H, Verma SK, Khanna GL, Isometric Strength and ces, Journal of Sports Sciences 01/2014; 32(1):60-9
Its Relationship to Dynamic Performance: A Systematic
Review, Journal of Exercise Science and Physiotherapy, 10. Sale DG (1988). Neural adaptation to resistance training.
Vol. 6, No. 2: 60-69, 2010 Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20(5
Suppl), S135145.
ISOMETRIC STRENGTH ASSESSMENT IN WEIGHTLIFTING 73
74
COm
pLEXITY.
HOW TO
STUDY IT
AND OBTAIN
USEFUL
INFORMATION
The position and innovative approach of a re-
nowned physicist, to comprehend complexity
and study it in various phenomena typical of
modern society. And also of sport.
(Part one)
By Luciano pietronero
75
76 COMPLEXITY. HOW TO STUDY IT AND OBTAIN USEFUL INFORMATION
The editorial staff of EWF- SM put 1.2 Galileo was, therefore, the something that can occur and can
a series of questions to Professor first to embark on the reductionist be measured: this measurement
Pietronero, who took due note and study of reality: before him, phys- of a single event gave birth to the
proceeded to answer them pre- ics and science in general tended scientific method. We may call it
cisely. The following is the text, with to provide so-called top-down the scientific reductionist method,
minimal modifications made, of answers - in other words, God is with which the scope of study is re-
the encounter between Professor made in such a way, then there are duced, going straight to the heart
Pietronero and various members men, plants, etc. First came the to- of a phenomenon and analysing
of the Physics Department. As the tal vision, that is, a general vision the smallest piece of the element,
reader will see, we have chosen to of the studied system, without ad- of the matter, of the Universe. It is a
conserve the spontaneous and live- dressing the details of its parts, method that, as you know, has been
ly nature of the interview and the only then followed the vision of extremely successful and has giv-
encounter. the parts that make up the system en rise to serious implications: for
itself, with a progressive speciali- example, by studying how a stone
1. Totalizing visions sation and specification process, falls, you can understand the law of
and reductionist which allows to acquire all the de- gravitation, from the law of gravita-
visions of life tails of each part of the system. tion we understand the movement
and the universe Naturally, the top-down approach, of planets: therefore, it is clear that
1.1. As we all know, Enrico Fermi or an initial comprehensive analy- starting from something small, you
(1901-1954) and Guglielmo Mar- sis of the systems with the aim of can then move on to much larg-
coni (1874-1937) were two great understanding them, is highly com- er systems, different to what had
Italian scientists. Putting it brief- plicated, because global analysis is been studied since the beginning.
ly, we can say that they dealt with complicated. The so-called reduc- It is ultimately this approach that
an aspect of science that can be tionist science begins when people has created the scientific corpus,
defined as reductionist (in other start to say, ok, lets forget every- for example, of Physics.
words, tending to reduce all con- thing else, the whole, the entirety,
cepts and all systems to the most and lets concern ourselves with 2. A simple
elementary entities possible, in only one event, for example, how a introduction to
order to study and comprehend stone falls. the concept of
them): instead of dealing with how complexity:
the Universe is made as a whole, 1.3 So, why exactly is it better to the era of Google
from Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) deal with how a stone falls? Be- 2.1 Therefore, reductionism was
onwards, scientists have tried to cause a stone falls in the same way a huge success: this approach led
focus their attention and inter- from the Tower of Pisa, in Japan or to nuclear and sub-nuclear phys-
ests, in their profession, on just in any other place in the world: it is ics, atomic physics, the transis-
one aspect at a time out of a thou-
sand. There is a famous statement
attributed to Galileo, pronounced
during one of the trials he was sub-
ject to: to the question: You study
how a stone falls from the tower
of Pisa: do you not think that God,
if he wishes, can make this stone
go where he wants?, he replied:
certainly, if God wishes, this stone
can go anywhere. But I deal with the
cases He is not interested in.
COMPLEXITY. HOW TO STUDY IT AND OBTAIN USEFUL INFORMATION 77
tor - that plays such a large part in is not the key to the mechanism, singularly intended individual,
todays life - is substantially from it is rather the interaction with considers the analysis of the inter-
that, hence even our computers, other individuals: therefore, a per- action between different individ-
etc. However, there are situations son who wants to understand the uals (here we are already within
in which all of this is not enough to transition phase must change their the complexity: a serious approach
understand and explain: for exam- perspective of observation and to the latter starts precisely from
ple, if you look at a piece of matter consider the entirety of the sys- such a change of perspective).
that transforms from solid to liq- tem and focus on the interactions
uid, we know for certain that we between individuals, the single el- 2.2 We can now make a digression
have many atoms, the same type of ements that compose it. This top- and address a modern phenome-
atom, which we know well: but even ic, which can be greatly extended, non that clearly explains the mean-
if we know all the properties of the would lead us very far, to a point or ing and significance of complexity:
atom, we cannot understand from to a context of still relatively unex- the phenomenon we are referring
these when a solid becomes liquid. plored knowledge, which is repre- to is Google and its incredibly suc-
That is, there are extremely import- sented by biology: how is it possible cessful search engine. Before the
ant and very common properties, that those atoms, of which we know era of Google, the previously ex-
such as phase transitions, which almost everything, if put together isting search engine focused on
are not connectable to the individ- to form a cell, can create a living the specific characteristics of each
ual properties of a single atom of organism, a life, life? The latter is existing website, so, for example if
matter and are not explained by another emerging property, much you needed to study hunting and
the latter. This can be considered a more complex than the solid-liquid hunters, you looked at a hunting
simple example of complexity and transition, but in which even knowl- site, the properties of a rifle, where
is necessary to help us understand edge of the individual elements is hunters went hunting, etc. and then
that the key to comprehending not enough to understand some- you compared the information ob-
the transition from solid to liquid thing of the properties, such as the tained with those of another hunter.
state is not in the properties of the division of the cell or the different The pre-Google vision was in a sense
atom, but lies instead in the prop- properties of biological matter. reductionist. Google has completely
erties of the interaction between Typically, in the complex, there changed the perspective, because
different atoms. Therefore, the is the change of perspective that, it does not focus on the character-
subject, the single, the individual compared to the analysis of the istics of a single site, it rather ex-
amines the existing connections relating to different aspects, such as you can imagine, the modern-day
between one site and another. It is as volume, number and variety of questions which apply to the Inter-
therefore clear that if many hunters the same), and to the specific tech- net, to the new complex and global-
direct their hyperlinks to the site of nologies and the methods of anal- ised economy, to modern medicine
a certain hunter - the hypothetical ysis: Google is a perfect example of and also to the analysis of sport.
one that we are considering - this big data analysis, because it has the
means that that particular hunter typical complexity of the Internet 3.3 Sport is certainly a complex
is highly regarded. So Google has system. Here I would like to make system, with a considerably high
moved the vision analysis of web- another slight digression concern- number of variables: the athletes
sites from a reductionist vision to ing what is a complex system. Lets performance depends on the his
a complex vision that focuses more take, for example, the telephone physiological variables, training
on the interaction between the network: before the Internet, it was methods, diet and much more. So,
sites than the site itself. a network designed by an engineer, sport is a phenomenon in which, as
or by a group of engineers; in any regards all things in todays world,
3. The so-called case, somewhere there was a writ- a huge amount of information is
Big Data. The Google ten project, and the network was accumulated, which is however, a
phenomenon, Sport built along the lines of this project, double-edged sword, because on
3.1 Naturally, what has been said therefore we knew exactly how the one hand it provides us with a lot
so far enables us to make another telecommunications network was of data, on the basis of which - if we
important step, one related to the structured and made. A radically dif- know how to read and interpret it -
Big Data question (as we know, Big ferent situation has been created we can also obtain an understand-
Data is the term used when dealing with the Internet, in other words, an ing of the phenomenon and, in any
with very large quantities of data, object has been activated that has case, a quantity of useful informa-
not been planned by an engineer, tion, and on the other hand, this
and its growth resembles that of a information can create immense
biological organism, in which each confusion. All this brings us back to
of us can participate and make a the Big Data question, which recon-
contribution, but that none of us can nects us precisely to Google, a won-
control, (we see that even very pow- derful example of the approach to
erful governments have serious dif- Big Data, an original and, as we can
ficulty in controlling the properties all see, highly successful approach
of a system such as the Internet). and also more or less ideally very
3.2 Therefore, we can certainly con- simple in its configuration. There-
clude that the Internet is an excel- fore, all this can only mean that
lent example of a complex system the difficulty lay not in the need to
that has elements that transcend have a new Einstein, what we ac-
the single discipline involved, for tually needed was quite a simple
instance, that of telecommunica- thing, and here we have the Goo-
tions, or physics or mathematics, gle algorithm, that anyone with a
and which also contains knowledge good knowledge of math could have
about other different disciplines. planned. So, consequently, we must
And so the questions that inevitably admit that there are areas of knowl-
arise are: if nobody designed it, how edge and information-processing
do we understand how it works, how which are still totally unexplored
do we control it, how do we know if and yet of the greatest importance,
it will be stable or if one day every- which certainly should be explored.
thing will collapse?. And these are, And this is the situation today.
4. An example of lem through the eyes of the physics cation system, etc. This is the stan-
the application of of complexity, that is, focusing on dard view, but the topic is always
Googles algorithm: the interactions and not on the in- the same: they are undoubtedly
complexity applied dividual properties. What does this important data, but data that are
to economics and mean in this particular case? Sup- very hard to collect and then inter-
also to sport pose a person wishes to define Ita- pret. For example, how can we add
4.1 My personal opinion is that we lys competitiveness: he could start up the grades that we would give to
are only at the beginning of this vi- by studying the transport system the transportation system minus
sion of the problems affecting soci- and grade it, or the economy, ed- those for pollution? It is totally arbi-
ucation, pollution and a thousand trary. Therefore, considered in the
ety today, and in any case, we have
other things and after each study traditional view, this information,
the wonderful example of Google.
give a final grade, having exam- does provide some data, but with it
Here I would like to report an in-
ined a hundred parameters. We did comes immense confusion (known
teresting experience that we had,
nothing of the sort. We look at what as noise). On the contrary, we be-
in this University, when we applied
products Italy produces, which is lieve that the data of the products,
Googles philosophy to the analy-
an objective fact that requires no despite being limited, providing
sis of competitiveness in countries
parameters, and from these prod- genuine information that can be
and to the complexity of products
ucts - by means of a mathematical well interpreted, obviously with
from various countries across the algorithm inspired by Google, but the appropriate algorithms. So, the
world. This experience led us to in- different from Googles one - we idea is that rather than examining
troducing the concept of economic try to reconstruct the real complex- all the data that directly involve
complexity, in which fitness is de- ity of Italy. This too is an example what we want to calculate, we ne-
fined as the industrial capacity of of Big Data; and what do we learn glect them and seek this informa-
a country, and the inherent com- from all this? In a Big Data case, we tion a posteriori, in other words,
plexity of products is considered: throw away 90% of the data that starting with the products, to define
all this, in other words a similar ap- we start off with, as we focus on our an overall capacity of the countrys
proach, allows a new vision of mac- study, in other words, we are going industrial competitiveness that,
roeconomics, which has provided to examine only the products that somehow, summarises all those
interesting results. Italy produces, we are not going to aspects and all the properties con-
study phenomena that are difficult tained in such a large system (Big
4.2 But I am not an expert in eco- or impossible to know about, such Data) - education, transport, corrup-
nomics, I just looked at this prob- as the level of corruption, the edu- tion, etc., - which summarises them
starting from their result, as materi- the perspective, we are interested ate this filter, apply this algorithm
alised in the countrys products. in the interactions, rather than in- or use this specific mathematical/
dividual properties. So, in brief, the computer analysis of the data: after
4.3 Naturally you will have under- Piketty case is a lucky (but rare) one, this we will extract information that
stood that we are not far from sports where, given the nature of the ques- are not apparent, data without any
statistics: for example, a football tion, there is no great analysis to be special treatment. This view implies
game is now digitized to the tenth made, because the data speak for that Big Data is a scientific problem,
of a second, in other words, we know themselves. In most cases, however, of understanding, that it is not only
for every tenth of a second, the loca- it is not so. a problem of data accumulation,
tion, the orientation of each player, and that for each topic, there must
the ball, etc. What will we do with all 4.4 Where is this vision applied? The be a different strategy in the fu-
this data? Big Data is, in some ways, answer is. everywhere, because by ture to extract the information. For
an enormous opportunity, but in the now the accumulation of data, such example, I repeat, we have studied
end it is also a myth, because the as in sport, economics, medicine (for with good results the crucial prob-
data alone do not generally speak. example, in patients responses to lem of the competitiveness of the
There are a few exceptions where treatment: perhaps, with a similar countries: if those interested in this
data alone provide the answer: the approach, we may find correlations type of research simply change the
famous French economist Thomas that are still unexplored, given the subject and apply it to the industrial
Piketty (born in 1971, is the author limitations of traditional data). So, competitiveness of companies, they
- among other things - of a famous the phenomenon of Big Data is re- will find that the characteristics
book published in 2014, Capital in ally a new science, which permeates are completely different, in other
the Twenty-First Century) studied all other sciences or human activ- words, it is a good thing for coun-
economic inequality due to capital ities such as the organisation of a tries to be diversified, it is good
in different countries and through- city, and that poses new problems that companies are specialised:
out history: he calculates inequality, related to information theory, to therefore, this means that, for the
that is, how much is invested, how the possible ways and methods of companies, we will have to look at a
much income comes from work as extracting truly useful information set of data that give us information
opposed to what comes from cap- from this huge mass of data. Here, other than that we examine for the
ital, with a somewhat neo-Marxist everyone has different opinions: various countries. It is, of course, a
vision. This inequality does not re- according to some computer sci- process that is under active work in
quire any kind of algorithm, the mer- entists, the problem of Big Data is progress.
itorious work of Piketty has been to only accumulating data and having
accumulate an enormous amount of fast access on the computer. I do not
data (an excellent starting point for agree with this: as in our example
an evaluation of a scientific nature); of economic complexity, first there
in his case, the real hard work con- is a filter problem, we need to un-
sisted in the accumulation of data: derstand what data is most import-
once the data was gathered, calcu- ant, how to eliminate the so-called
lation was simple. This is a rare case, noise (hence, it is not true that the
the most common case is that the more information you possess, the
Google type case, where there are better), and then how to focus the
a lot of data, but they do not speak efforts on a precise way of extract-
for themselves. This complexity, ing information. So my personal
which is objective, requires a data view of Big Data is that there will be
filter: as we have seen, we focus many new algorithms, that is, for
only on some data and we change every problem we will have to cre-
LUCIANO Pietronero, Physicist.
Extensive international experience in scientific and industrial laboratories
(Xerox USA and Brown Boveri CH for a total of 10 years) and in the academic field
(Full Professor in Groningen NL for 5 years).
Since 1987, Professor of Condensed Matter Physics at the University of Rome,
La Sapienza.
Fields of interest: Theory of the Structure of Matter, Superconductivity,
Statistical Physics,
Physics of Complex Systems, Economic Complexity.
In 2004, Professor Pietronero founded the Institute of Complex Systems of the
National Research Council in Rome (200 people), which he directed until 2014.
The goal was to study issues that go beyond the individual disciplines such as
the Internet, Bioinformatics, Complex Systems in general, Smart Cities and more
recently, Economic Complexity.
He has created a generation of young scientists (more than 100) determined
to overcome disciplinary barriers to devote themselves to the more current
and important issues of science and society. Many of these young people hold
leading positions both in Italy and abroad. In 2008, he received the Fermi
Award, the highest award conferred by the Italian Physical Society. Recently
he developed the theme of Economic Complexity, consisting of a radically new
scientific approach to the economy, consisting of a scientific and verifiable way
to understand what factors lead to the development and success of a country, or
how a poor country can get out of the poverty trap. These works have had great
resonance in both the academic world and in the policy making and business
sectors, and have been subjects of a Nature editorial: http://www.nature.com/
news/physicists-make-weather-forecasts-for-economies-1.16963
Recently the World Bank, whose mission statement is to eradicate poverty from
the world by 2030, has decided to adopt these new methods for its studies on
strategies for the industrial and economic success of developing countries.
82
ABSTRACTS
R
ussian

- -
: ; -
Ingo Sandau, Jrgen Lippmann, Ilka Seidel ; ,
SM (ing), n. 5, anno II, settembre-dicembre - .
2016, pagine 4-13 -
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. - Paolo Evangelista e Agiampietro Alberti . ,
SM (ing), n. 5, anno II, settembre-dicembre /-
20042014 2016, pagine 24-37 ( -
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(turnover) Carlo Varalda
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20042014. Alberto Andorlini (squat)
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2016, pagine 38-54
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,
(REVERSE - ( )
ENGINEERING) , Luciano Pietronero
Andrew Charniga, Jr. , , SM (ing), n. 5, anno II, settembre-dicembre
SM (ing), n. 5, anno II, settembre-dicembre , , 2016, pagine 72-79
2016, pagine 14-23 , -
- , ,
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( Jay R. Hoffman ,
) SM (ing), n. 5, anno II, settembre-dicembre , . -
2016, pagine 56-65 Pietronero,
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, - , - La Sapienza.
; - ()
S panish resumenes
LA TCNICA DE ARRANCADA EN EL ejercida sobre ellos por los movimientos de pueden mejorar su potencia con la utiliza-
LEVANTAMIENTO DE PESAS MASCU- las extremidades inferiores; a la necesidad cin de ejercicios con sobrecargas tradicio-
LINO DE NIVEL INTERNACIONAL: percibida de corregir las carencias de las nales hasta que hayan desarrollado una base
UN ANLISIS A LARGO PLAZO mujeres; y a la total confusin de los aspec- de fuerza. Los ejercicios de potencia (como
Ingo Sandau, Jrgen Lippmann, Ilka Seidel tos relativos a la investigacin cientfica con las sentadillas con saltos, la pliometra o los
SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem- las exigencias comerciales. El autor trata de movimientos olmpicos) pueden integrarse
bre de 2016, pgs. 4-13 poner orden en los conocimientos y pre- bien en los programas de entrenamiento de
El objetivo del presente estudio ha sido ana- senta y aplica lo que l mismo denomina fuerza de los deportistas de fuerza y de po-
lizar los cambios que se han producido en ingeniera inversa, y extrae conclusiones tencia. Asimismo, como el tiempo de adap-
la tcnica de arrancada entre los aos 2004 muy interesantes y aclaradoras. tacin para la potencia de baja velocidad es
y 2014 por lo que hace al movimiento de reducido (programas tradicionales de en-
la barra. Con esta finalidad, se han exami- trenamiento de la fuerza), la combinacin
nado los primeros seis deportistas de sexo LA FSICA DE LA SENTADILLA del entrenamiento con sobrecargas y estas
masculino de las ocho categoras de peso Paolo Evangelista e Giampietro Alberti otras formas de entrenamiento puede pro-
en cuatro campeonatos internacionales de SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem- porcionar un nuevo margen de adaptacin
halterofilia. Con el propsito de evaluar los bre de 2016, pgs. 24-37 que aumente ulteriormente la produccin
cambios a largo plazo, la tcnica de arran- Los autores presentan el gesto clsico de la de potencia del deportista.
cada se ha analizado utilizando la videome- sentadilla como un ejercicio multifactorial
tra bidimensional de la barra. Los resulta- en el que desempean una funcin deter- EVALUACIN ISOMTRICA EN LA
dos de los anlisis a largo plazo ponen de minante las caractersticas antropomtri- HALTEROFILIA
manifiesto una inclinacin neta, a lo largo cas, la movilidad de las articulaciones, la Carlo Varalda
del tiempo, de la produccin de la veloci- fuerza muscular y la representacin mental SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem-
dad del primer tirn al segundo, con una de uno mismo durante su propia ejecucin. bre de 2016, pgs. 66-71
reduccin de la velocidad mxima en el pri- Los autores realizan una serie de conside- En el Strengh Lab de la Federacin Italiana
mer tirn y un aumento de la velocidad ver- raciones sobre distintos tipos de sentadilla, de Halterofilia (FIPE) se est procediendo,
tical mxima en el segundo. En coherencia sobre la sentadilla en nios y sobre diversos desde hace tiempo, a evaluar la capacidad
con el nfasis excesivo puesto en el segundo estudios realizados en el mundo; todo ello de aplicacin de la fuerza de forma iso-
tirn, la ejecucin de las denominadas fases acompaado de un eficaz conjunto de im- mtrica, lo que se considera muy til para
de turnover y de encaje empeora. Cambian- genes y referencias bibliogrficas. comprender la potencialidad muscular del
do la forma en que se acelera la barra para deportista. El autor expone los primeros
alcanzar la velocidad necesaria y realizar un PRERRECORRER LOS TIEMPOS: DE resultados de dicha experiencia, basada en
levantamiento mximo, en teora la propul- LA TEORA DE LAS IDEAS AL EJERCI- la obtencin de datos relativos al ejercicio
sin puede mejorarse evitando una reduc- CIO DE LOS MOVIMIENTOS (PARTES de la sentadilla y del peso muerto (deadlift),
cin de la velocidad en la fase de transicin. PRIMERA Y SEGUNDA) ambos, como se ha mencionado anterior-
Sin embargo, esta modificacin de la tcni- Alberto Andorlini mente, muy relacionados con la prctica de
ca de levantamiento en la fase de acelera- SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem- la halterofilia.
cin lleva consigo algunos inconvenientes bre de 2016, pgs. 38-54
en las fases de movimiento posteriores. En Se trata de la primera parte de un extenso
consecuencia, no se produce ningn au- estudio en el que el autor aborda una nueva LA COMPLEJIDAD Y LA FORMA DE
mento del peso mximo levantado en las serie de reflexiones con el ttulo: Prerre- ESTUDIARLA Y DE EXTRAER INFOR-
competiciones entre 2004 y 2014. Los en- correr los tiempos, sobre la posibilidad de MACIN TIL (PRIMERA PARTE)
trenadores de levantamiento de pesas han entrenar el movimiento y mover el entrena- Luciano Pietronero
de ser conscientes del nfasis excesivo en el miento, un debate que ha suscitado el inte- SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem-
segundo tirn y de los consiguientes efectos rs de numerosos pensadores y ejecutores bre de 2016, pgs. 72-79
negativos que este comporta en las fases de del movimiento, a quienes se ha pedido su Se trata de la primera parte de una diserta-
turnover y de encaje. opinin para elaborar casi un compendio cin sobre la complejidad en la que se pre-
de consulta rpida, simple y comprimido, senta el punto de vista y el planteamiento
EL MECANISMO DE LAS LESIONES capaz de indicar, aunque sea parcialmente, innovador de un fsico de renombre, para
MEDIANTE LA INGENIERA INVERSA hacia dnde se est dirigiendo el mundo del comprender la complejidad en cuestin y
Andrew Charniga, Jr. entrenamiento. para estudiarla en diversos fenmenos ca-
SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem- ractersticos de la sociedad moderna, entre
bre de 2016, pgs. 14-23 FUNDAMENTO CIENTFICO DEL EN- los cuales tambin se encuentra, y no en l-
Los numerosos estudios que se han llevado TRENAMIENTO DE POTENCIA timo lugar, el deporte.
a cabo sobre las lesiones del ligamento cru- Jay R. Hoffman El autor es el profesor Luciano Pietronero,
zado anterior en las mujeres, en deportes SM (ing), n. 5, ao II, septiembre-diciem- catedrtico de teora de la estructura de la
como el voleibol, el ftbol, el baloncesto e bre de 2016, pgs. 56-65 materia en la Universidad de Roma La Sa-
incluso el sfbol, contienen errores destaca- La utilizacin de ejercicios pliomtricos, ba- pienza, Departamento de Fsica.
bles, que se basan en hiptesis errneas y lsticos y olmpicos ha demostrado ser ven-
en los prejuicios consiguientes, relativos a tajosa en los programas de entrenamiento
la denominada biomecnica de las mujeres de deportistas experimentados, entrenados
y a las caractersticas de la fisiologa vincu- con sobrecargas, que estn interesados en
lada al sexo, que se perciben como caren- aumentar al mximo la produccin de po-
cias biolgicas; a la necesidad de evitar el tencia. Los deportistas con una experiencia
estiramiento de los ligamentos o la tensin limitada en el entrenamiento de la fuerza
84

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N 5 / September-December 2016

The pull is one of the most

SNATCH RESULTS AND AGE

OG 2004 WC 2007 WC 2011 WC 2014

Note: OG = Olympic Games, WC = World Championship

Year F1 F2 F3 v1 v2 vmax sdown vmin tdrop

(quoted from Seeing the Body: The Divergence of Ancient Chi-

others is so commonplace the term

a single spring it can also release she struggles to balance the

For instance, the footwear of Amer-

ican football, volleyball and basket-

Reverse engineering can help ex-

The ability to release tension in the

In addition, the ability to generate

Lastly, the mental representation of

The image in Figure 1 shows that

What is certain, however, is that a

Figure No. 6 Figure No. 7 Figure No. 8

during movement at a point even outside

the athletes body.

THE CHILD SQUAT

a child. In the comparative simulation, in

the former were able to flex the knee

more than the latter. An overweight per-

THE SQUAT WITH THE

ing a completely wrong move.

PAOLO EVANGELISTA GIAMPIETRO ALBERTI

is to improve condition; how- cessories; without a plan and

There are six basics principles of

The application of the principles,

the variety of testable paths, con-

from simple to complex

This results in a model of distinc-

during the range of motion (think by Sherrington has the ability to

of the woodcutter who raises his facilitate movements other than

raised, and the support base de-

plex motor sequences, consisting of system (which appears if not ab-

coordinated movements, aimed at solutely unalterable, at least rela-

DR. JAY HOFFMAN

ISOMETRIC DEADLIFT TEST

Table n0. 1 Isometric deadlift test in advanced athletes

Table n0. 2 Isometric deadlift test in youth categories

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