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Computer based systems for automatic control include.

Industrial PCs with data acquisition boards. Commercial software applications allow
control an supervision tasks with graphical user interfaces.
Stand-alone digital controllers, where the user adjusts PID parameters.
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) which where originally designed for sequential
control. Today they include advanced data processing options as well as specialized
modules for PID.

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The example shows several uses of On/Off control.
In this case, jars on a conveyor belt are being filled from a silo. When a jar is full, it is sensed
by the level sensor, which sends a signal to the controller to turn Off the hot liquid flowing
from the silo, and to start the conveyer moving. As the next jar moves into the filling
position, it is sensed by the position sensor, which sends a signal to the controller to stop the
conveyer belt, and to start filling the jar. Once it is full, the cyc!e repeats itself.
Level sensors in the hopper senses when the hopper is full, and when it is almost empty.
When empty, the sensor sends a signal to the controller to turn On the feed valve to the silo;
when full, the level is detected and a signal is sent to the controller to turn the feed to the silo
Off. When the silo is full, the heater is turned On to bring the liquid up to temperature before
the jars can be fiHed. An On/Off temperature sensor senses the temperature, which informs
the controller when to resume filling, and to stop the operation if the temperature in the silo
falls below the minimum set tem perature.

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The figure (left) shows an advertisement image for Modicon 084, one of the first PLCs.

The figure on the right is a control cabinet for a PLC system. This is an improvement over
hardwired relays not only in programming flexibility and debugging, but also in volume and
mean time between failures.

The relay circuit is substituted by a program, which means that it is no longer parallel but
sequential.

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The user develops programs and supervises PLC performance from an application running in
a PC.

The PC can be occassionally connected to the PLC through a cable. Alternatively, it can be
permanently connected through a LAN.

This means that programs are usually edited and created iin the PC before they are uploaded
to the PLC. For debugging, PCL programs can be directly edited from the PC or,
alternatively, downloaded to the PC.

Thus, there are two versions of the PLC programs: the ONLINE version in in the PLC and is
the one that is actually executed; and the OFFLINE version is in the PC for development.

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PLCs can be customized by modular composition.

Modules include:
- A power supply module.
- The CPU, which executes the user programs.
- Digital (discrete) inputs or outputs.
- Analog inputs and outputs.
- Special funcitions, like PID or encoder input modules.
- Communication modules for specific Fieldbus types.

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In contrast with general purpose computers, the RAM memory in the PCL CPU has
predefined areas for programs as well as for the different types of data.

These include:
- Mapping of input signals from input modules.
- Working version of output signals for output modules.
- Intermediate data which are neither input nor output.
- Timers, which store a timer count (integer).
- Counters, which store a counter value (integer).

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Switches, push buttons, photoelectric devices, etc, are wired to discrete input modules.
These convert electric signals into binary (1 or 0) values.

Binary output modules are used to connect motor starters, alarms, pilot lights, etc.

The PLC program substitutes the cirtuit that relates inputs and outputs by a sequential
program.

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The figure shows an example where different types of switches are connected to the eight
terminals of an input module.

Switches can be either normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). The latter are
preferred for safety critical signals.

Independently of its normal position, when the switch in a given terminal is closed, the
corresponding bit in the CPU memory image is set to a boolean 1.

The figure also illustrates the symbols usually employed for:

Level switches
Limit switches
Pressure switches
Flow switches
Temperature switches

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All inputs and outputs from the modules are mapped to specific addresses in the CPU
memory.
The figure shows the example for SIEMENS Simatic.
Addresses correspond to the position of I/O modules added to the left of the CPU.
These addresses indicate the byte number. To indicate the bit within a byte, the byte number
is followed by a dot and a bit number between 0 and 7.

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In the Siemems example, slots 1 to 3 are always reserved for the power supply module, the
CPU, and an Interface module, respectively.
Thus, address 0 (i.e. the first position) corresponds to the first I/O module (slot number 4).

When addressing data from the modules, it is preceded by E or A to indicate input or output
(alternatively, the international standard I or Q) can be used.

This is followed by B (byte -8 bts), W (word- 16 bits), or D (double word -32 bits) to indicate
data length.

For binary data, instead of data length, the dot-bit information is added. For example: E 0.0,
A4.3 (or I0.0, Q4.4 in international notation)

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Three different programming languages were originally developed for PLCs:

- Ladder diagrams evoque contact circuits.

- Function block diagrams use boolean gates and other functions.
- Instruction list is the actual manchine code.

All three formats are different in their representation, but they correspond exactly to the
same sequiential program represented by the instruction list.

PLC programs are sequences of computer instructions, and NOT logical or electrical circuits.

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The figure illustrates a ladder program with both Examine if on and Examine if OFF
conditions.

These instructions check and modify the status of input and output image areas of the
memory.

These images are updated by the operating system, that executes the Program Cycle.

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In PLCs, real time response is achieved through the program cycle, which is managed by the
Operating System.

Basically, the cycle has three major steps:

1. Values from input terminals are copied to their corresponding CPU memory images.
2. Memory values (inputs and output images, internal storage bits, timers, counters, ) are
used and modified by the sequential execution of the program.
3. After the last instruction is completed, all output images are sent to the terminals of the
output modules.

In Siemens PLCs, the program that is repeatedly executed by the OS is called OB1.

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As the time required for each IL instruction is known for a given CPU, the total time of the
cycle can be defined.

Thus, the cycle time specifies the response time to sampled inputs.

As cycle time is essential for PLC performance, CPUs check that all cycles are below a
specified maximum time (watchdog timer).

Note that the program has no repeat or while instruction. The iteration is produced by
the operating system.

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