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Society Guidelines
Presentation, Diagnosis, and Medical Management of Heart
Failure in Children: Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines
Paul F. Kantor, MBBCh,a,b Jane Lougheed, MD,c Adrian Dancea, MD,d Michael McGillion, PhD,e
Nicole Barbosa, BSc,a Carol Chan, BSc, Phm,a Rejane Dillenburg, MD,f
Joseph Atallah, MD, MDCM, SM,b Holger Buchholz, MD,b Catherine Chant-Gambacort, MN, NP,f
Jennifer Conway, MD,a,b Letizia Gardin, MD,c Kristen George, BScN,a Steven Greenway, MD,g
Derek G. Human, MBBS,h Aamir Jeewa, MD,i Jack F. Price, MD,i Robert D. Ross, MD,j
S. Lucy Roche, MBChB,a Lindsay Ryerson, MD,b Reeni Soni, MD,k Judith Wilson, BScN,a and
Kenny Wong, MD;l for The Childrens Heart Failure Study Group
a
The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
b
Stollery Childrens Hospital, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
c
The Childrens Hospital of Eastern Ontario, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
d
Montreal Childrens Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Que bec, Canada
e
The University of Toronto, School of Nursing, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
f
McMaster Childrens Hospital, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
g
Alberta Childrens Hospital, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
h
British Columbias Childrens Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
i
Texas Childrens Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
j
Childrens Hospital of Michigan, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
k
Winnipeg Childrens Hospital, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
l
Isaak Walton Killam Childrens Hospital, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
ABSTRACT
RESUM
E
Pediatric heart failure (HF) is an important cause of morbidity and Linsufsance cardiaque (IC) chez lenfant est une cause importante de
mortality in childhood. This article presents guidelines for the recog- morbidite et de mortalite durant lenfance. Cet article pre sente les
nition, diagnosis, and early medical management of HF in infancy, lignes directrices sur le depistage, le diagnostic et la prise en charge
childhood, and adolescence. The guidelines are intended to assist me dicale pre
coce de lIC en bas ge, durant lenfance et ladolescence.
Received for publication December 27, 2012. Accepted August 15, 2013. multidisciplinary experts on this topic with a mandate to formulate
disease-specic Recommendations. These Recommendations are aimed to
Corresponding author: Dr Paul F. Kantor, University of Alberta,
provide a reasonable and practical approach to care for specialists and
Department of Pediatrics, Stollery Childrens Hospital, 4C2.22 WMC 8440,
allied health professionals obliged with the duty of bestowing optimal care
114 St, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2B7, Canada. Tel.: 1-780-407-3964;
to patients and families, and can be subject to change as scientic
fax: 1-780-407-3954.
knowledge and technology advance and as practice patterns evolve. The
E-mail: paul.kantor@albertahealthservices.ca
statement is not intended to be a substitute for physicians using their
The disclosure information of the authors and reviewers is available from
individual judgement in managing clinical care in consultation with the
the CCS on the following websites: www.ccs.ca and/or www.
patient, with appropriate regard to all the individual circumstances of the
ccsguidelineprograms.ca.
patient, diagnostic and treatment options available and available resources.
This statement was developed following a thorough consideration
Adherence to these Recommendations will not necessarily produce
of medical literature and the best available evidence and clinical experi-
successful outcomes in every case.
ence. It represents the consensus of a Canadian panel comprised of
0828-282X/$ - see front matter 2013 Canadian Cardiovascular Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2013.08.008
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1536 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
practitioners in ofce-based or emergency room practice, who Les lignes directrices visent aider les praticiens qui rencontrent dans
encounter children with undiagnosed heart disease and symptoms of leur exercice en cabinet ou la salle des urgences des enfants ayant
possible HF, rather than those who have already received surgical une cardiopathie non diagnostique e et des symptmes dIC probable,
palliation. The guidelines have been developed using the Grading of plutt que ceux qui ont de j subi une chirurgie palliative. Les lignes
Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation directrices ont e te
e
tablies en utilisant la me thodologie GRADE
(GRADE) methodology, and are accompanied by practical Recom- (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evalu-
mendations for their application in the clinical setting, supplemented ation) et sont accompagne es de recommandations pratiques en vue
by online material. This work does not include Recommendations for de leur application en milieu clinique, en plus dtre complete
es par un
advanced management involving ventricular assist devices, or other contenu en ligne. Ces travaux nincluent pas les recommandations sur
device therapies. la prise en charge avance e concernant les dispositifs dassistance
ventriculaire ou les autres traitements laide de dispositifs.
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Kantor et al. 1537
CCS Guidelines for HF in Children
D. Presentation and Detection of HF in Children Table 1. Strength of Recommendations and quality of evidence
classications used in this guideline
Denition Quality of evidence Interpretation
HF in children (aged 0-18 years) can be dened broadly High Further research is very unlikely to
as the failure of the heart to supply blood to either systemic change our condence in the
or pulmonary circulation at an appropriate rate of ow, or to estimate of effect
Moderate Further research is likely to have an
receive venous return at an appropriate lling pressure, important inuence on our
resulting in adverse effects on the heart, the circulation, and condence in the estimate of effect
the patient. This denition is not different to that applied to and might change the estimate
adult patients. Symptoms of HF in children are supercially Low Further research is very likely to have
similar regardless of the underlying etiology, but physical an important inuence on our
condence in the estimate of effect
signs might be more specic. Systemic manifestations are and is likely to change the estimate
mediated by sympathetic and central neurologic pathways, Very low Any estimate of effect is very uncertain
activated in response to pulmonary congestion and/or Recommendation Interpretation
decreased systemic perfusion.9,10 Clinical features of HF
Strong The desirable effects clearly outweigh
unique to children are: the undesirable effects, or clearly do
1. Possible coexistence of structural congenital heart not
Conditional The trade-offs are less certain, either
lesions, with simultaneous pulmonary overcirculation because of low-quality evidence or
and systemic underperfusion (when the 2 circulations because evidence suggests that
are linked in parallel by an intracardiac shunt or a patent desirable and undesirable effects are
arterial duct). closely balanced
2. A change in symptom complexes over time from infancy
through adolescence. In infants and young children, these
are primarily respiratory and feeding difculties (which are Failure to thrive and nutritional deciency conditions
similar to the metabolic demands of physical exertion seen
Feeding difculties (and therefore growth failure) are
in older children).
commonly recognized as presenting symptoms of congestive
HF in infants and young toddlers (age 0-2 years).14-16 The
characteristic ndings range from prolonged feeding time
Symptom severity and recognition (> 20 minutes) with decreased volume intake to frank
intolerance and vomiting after feeds. Irritability with feeding,
Table 2 lists the typical features of HF in children, sweating, and even refusal of feeds are also commonly re-
categorized as common and less common. The New York ported. When HF is established in infants and toddlers for
Heart Association (NYHA) classication of functional class more than 1 month in duration, poor weight gain becomes
is best suited to quantify changes in functional capacity in evident, and in the longer term, failure in linear growth can
patients with established chronic HF. The Ross classica- also result. This failure to thrive is a classical nding in
tion (Table 3), has been applied to younger children for the many forms of undiagnosed heart disease, and might also
same purpose. Additional modications and composite coexist with noncardiac diseases, which must be excluded.
scales of severity have been proposed for children,11,12 but Persistent growth failure after diagnosis and treatment of HF
without secondary validation of the predictive value for in infants suggests inadequate response to therapy, and
clinical outcomes. An age-stratied modication of the portends an ominous outcome.16
Ross classication has been proposed,13 which also awaits In the setting of primary nutritional decit (calorie intake
validation. For children, there is therefore an empirical tool deciency, protein deciency, and in some cases, trace
for grading the severity of acute decompensated HF element deciency), cardiac dysfunction might also occur.
symptoms, but not for predicting mortality based on status Children and adolescents with nutritional deciency resulting
at presentation.
Table 2. Symptoms characteristic of heart failure in children
Less commonly
Commonly encountered encountered
RECOMMENDATION Infants and Tachypnea Cyanosis
young children Feeding difculty Palpitations
D1. The NYHA/Ross classication is a suitable basis for (reux, vomiting, Syncope
symptom stratication of patients with established feeding refusal) Facial edema
chronic HF, but is not essential to establishing the Diaphoresis Dependent edema
Pallor Ascites
diagnosis, or determining the prognosis of HF in
children (Strong Recommendation, Moderate- Older children Fatigue Palpitations
and adolescents Effort intolerance Chest pain
Quality Evidence). Dyspnea Dependent edema
Values and preferences. This Recommendationplaces Orthopnea Ascites
Abdominal pain
high value on the need for the development of reliable and Nausea
valid prognostic indicators for pediatric HF. Vomiting
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1538 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
Table 3. Classication of symptomatic severity in pediatric heart Noncompaction CM. Noncompaction CM, commonly
failure referred to as left ventricular [LV] noncompaction might
Class of symptoms Symptoms noted on history actually involve either or both ventricles; this is a genetic CM
with a characteristic hypertrabeculated or spongy LV
I Asymptomatic
II Infants: mild tachypnea or diaphoresis endomyocardial layer, within an outer thin-walled compacted
with feeding; no growth failure layer of muscle. HF is the presenting complaint in a third of
Older children: dyspnea on moderate patients with this phenotype,13 although in other patients,
exertion syndromal or chromosomal abnormalities and metabolic
III Infants: marked tachypnea or
diaphoresis with feeding; growth
disease are the primary presenting features.
failure
Older children: dyspnea on mild or Restrictive CM. Restrictive CM is primarily a genetic
minimal exertion disorder of 1 of several sarcomeric proteins in children, is
IV Tachypnea, diaphoresis or respiratory
distress at rest characterized by symptoms of diastolic HF, which in children
presents as orthopnea, cough (and sometimes a presumed
Infants refers to age 0-1 year. Older children refers to age 1-10 years.
diagnosis of asthma), chest pain, or syncope.17 Sudden death
is common in this disease, and later progression to signs and
in hospitalization should therefore also be evaluated for
symptoms of congestive HF might also occur. Signs of right
underlying secondary cardiac effects of calorie and/or protein
ventricular (RV) failure, with hepatic venous congestion or
malnutrition.
ascites because of long-standing left atrial and pulmonary
hypertension might eventually be noted.
RECOMMENDATION
Hypertrophic CM. Hypertrophic CM (HCM) in infancy
D2. Underlying cardiac disease should be considered and
and early childhood has many causes, including syndromal
excluded in younger infants with feeding difculties
abnormalities, myocardial glycogen or lysosomal enzymo-
and growth failure when primary gastrointestinal and
pathies, abnormalities of oxidative phosphorylation, and also
other common causes have been ruled out, and in
the sarcomeric mutations commonly recognized in young
infants, toddlers, and children with chronic calorie,
adult patients. Children might present with symptoms related
protein, or trace element deciency (Strong Recom-
to the underlying metabolic disorder, and later develop
mendation, Moderate-Quality Evidence).
systolic HF. Those with severe hypertrophy might also
Values and preferences. This Recommendation places demonstrate symptoms of diastolic HF. Syncope related to LV
a high value on early diagnosis of underlying HF in situ- outow tract obstruction or to ventricular arrhythmias is well
ations of ambiguous clinical symptoms and signs, or when described in school-aged children and adolescents with HCM.
uncertainty is present. Early and repeated cardiovascular
examination of infants is mandated as the most valuable Arrhythmogenic RV CM. Arrhythmogenic RV CM is an
screening tool available. Expert evaluation is considered important group of diseases of the desmosomal complex,
preferable in situations of uncertainty, notwithstanding which result in bro-fatty myocardial inltration of either
the potential for unnecessary referral: the trade-off of ventricle, and ventricular arrhythmias in adolescence and
missed diagnosis at an earlier stage of disease being of such young adulthood. These patients rarely present with HF
signicant consequence to the patient and family. classical symptoms in childhood, because of severe biven-
tricular systolic dysfunction.
Because numerous genetic and metabolic disorders are
associated with CM, affected patients with these diagnoses
Presentation of CMs in children might present with HF symptoms as a primary complaint.
CMs are uncommon in general practice, but nonetheless The more commonly encountered conditions are detailed in
important causes of HF in children. They have multiple Supplemental Table S1. In the case of the skeletal muscular
causes; genetic and acquired. Although the presenting symp- dystrophies, these symptoms can be difcult to identify
toms of HF are similar to those arising from other causes, the because of muscle weakness limiting activity.18 There is no
major phenotypes of the CMs do have some noteworthy correlation between the severity of the skeletal myopathy and
features, as outlined in the following sections. the degree of cardiac involvement.
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Kantor et al. 1539
CCS Guidelines for HF in Children
incomplete recovery and 24% of registry cases progressing to the clinician in their evaluation, based on the presence of
death or cardiac transplantation. abnormal perfusion and increased uid congestion.
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1540 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
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Kantor et al. 1541
CCS Guidelines for HF in Children
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1542 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
RECOMMENDATION RECOMMENDATION
E10. All pediatric patients presenting with HF require E14. A diagnosis of acute myocarditis should be consid-
a thorough personal health history and a family ered in all children, regardless of age, who present
history including a 3-generation pedigree (Strong with new onset HF without a history of decreased
Recommendation, High-Quality Evidence). functional capacity, and specically if echocardio-
E11. Metabolic laboratory testing in children with unex- graphic ventricular dilation is less than expected for
plained CM (of hypertrophic, dilated, or non- the degree of systolic dysfunction and clinical
compaction phenotype) should be based on clinical severity (Strong Recommendation, Moderate-
presentation and assisted by specialist consultation: Quality Evidence).
virtually all undiagnosed patients, whether there is E15. EMB should only be performed if conrming the
a familial pattern or not, require primary screening clinical diagnosis of myocarditis will have a clear
tests, including serum amino acids, organic acids, effect on the patient treatment plan (for example,
total and free carnitine levels, lactate, and urine listing for transplantation). EMB is not recom-
testing for ketones, mucopolysaccharides, and mended in infants weighing less than 10 kg, or in
oligosaccharides (Strong Recommendation, High- patients who are hemodynamically unstable (Strong
Quality Evidence). Recommendation, Moderate-Quality Evidence).
E12. Specialty consultation with genetic and/or metabolic
Values and Preferences. These Recommendations place
services is recommended to guide further testing
a higher emphasis on clinical diagnosis supported by
such as muscle biopsy or specic gene screening,
noninvasive imaging, and a lower emphasis on conrma-
molecular, or cytogenetic testing. Excluding familial
tion via biopsy, except in specic cases as outlined in
CM is crucial, especially when the presentation is in
Recommendation E15. The trade-off is diagnostic
the fetus or newborn (Strong Recommendation,
conrmation for increased safety.
High-Quality Evidence).
E13. At-risk family members might require secondary
diagnostic screening, including genetic testing,
echocardiography, or other relevant modalities of morphological and functional assessment. This modality
screening, depending on the etiology identied might offer children a less invasive option to identify
(Conditional Recommendation, Low-Quality inammation, with a lower risk of adverse events than EMB.
Evidence). The accuracy and reproducibility of CMRI is at least equal to
echocardiography in the assessment of LV size and function
and is likely superior in the assessment of RV size and
treatment plan might change, especially if transplantation was function.85-87 In patients with DCM, the prognostic value of
previously being considered.79,80 However, the diagnostic MRI tissue characterization, and the characterization of scar
accuracy of RV endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) for suspected tissue by late gadolinium enhancement is described in
myocarditis tends to be low, and is affected by the length of adults.88 This technique offers insight into the pathophysi-
time from presentation of symptoms to time of biopsy, vari- ology of HF in children regardless of etiology, and might be
ation in pathological interpretation, and sampling errors.80-82 useful to determine the prognosis and timing of treatment in
The addition of LV biopsy or MRI-guided biopsy might children with slowly progressive ventricular dysfunction such
increase yield,79,83 but also the hazards of the procedure. EMB as Duchennes muscular dystrophy or anthracycline-related
is associated with an increased risk of adverse events in chil- CM.89
dren with suspected myocarditis who are using inotropic CMRI criteria for the diagnosis of myocarditis have been
support.84 In addition, there is limited evidence to support the proposed with several alternative tissue-characterization tech-
use of immunosuppressive or immune-modulating therapy in niques. When available, CMRI offers a reasonable alternative
children, previously 1 of the main reasons for obtaining biopsy to EMB, although the sensitivity and specicity for children
conrmation of myocarditis.19 Attempts should be made to with myocarditis is not known. The predictive value of CMRI
isolate a viral pathogen to support a clinical diagnosis of ndings in children with CM in general is also uncertain, and
myocarditis: typical viral pathogen screening using polymerase so at this point, CMRI is not recommended as a preliminary
chain reaction should include: enterovirus, adenovirus, investigation in children with HF.
parvovirus, hepatitis C, and the herpes group viruses (EBV,
CMV, HSV, HHV6/7, VZV) from blood, stool, and/or
nasopharyngeal samples as appropriate.
RECOMMENDATION
Cardiac MRI E16. CMRI might assist in the clinical diagnosis of
Cardiac MRI (CMRI) is showing increasing diagnostic myocarditis, and might provide additional infor-
potential in diseases including the primary CMs and acquired mation in CMs by tissue and scar characterization.
diseases like myocarditis. In patients with biopsy-proven The prognostic value of CMRI ndings is not yet
myocarditis, myocardial edema on T2-weighted CMRI can known (Conditional Recommendation, Low-
be found in the LV subepicardial or intramural areas.83 The Quality Evidence).
sensitivity of these changes is increased by simultaneous
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Kantor et al. 1543
CCS Guidelines for HF in Children
F. Medical Treatment of the Child With Acute Patients who are unresponsive to loop diuretic agents
HF alone might benet from the addition of a thiazide
agent. Metolazone is the most commonly used agent,
Acute therapy for HF but the benet is probably a class effect. Hypokalemia or
As indicated in Figure 1, patients can be thought of as hyponatremia are commonly noted with this combina-
having symptoms related to uid overload, underperfusion, or tion, and therefore electrolyte monitoring is important.
both. The early management of children with HF should
address these problems. It is important to note that indis-
Inotropic agents. There are no controlled clinical trial data
criminate administration of intravenous uid resuscitation is
to guide the use of inotropic agents in the setting of acute HF
contraindicated, and will worsen the condition of children
because of myocardial disease in children. Even in adults, only
with HF symptoms. The following approach is
a few randomized controlled studies have assessed the safety
recommended.
and efcacy of inotropic agents in advanced HF, and have not
demonstrated a long-term survival benet.
Diuretic agents. Loop diuretic agents play a key role in the Nevertheless, these medications appear to improve end-
acute management of patients with symptomatic HF. organ perfusion in patients with low cardiac output,
Nevertheless, the current literature examining their relative including in children with myocardial dysfunction after
efcacy and effect on survival in the pediatric HF population cardiopulmonary bypass, and also provide short-term symp-
is very limited. A Cochrane review of diuretic therapy in tomatic relief. However, the goal of therapy needs to be care-
adults with chronic HF conrms that use of diuretic agents fully considered: although there is good empirical evidence that
effectively relieve symptoms, reduce episodes of worsening inotropes can bridge patients to mechanical circulatory support
HF, increase exercise capacity, and potentially have some or cardiac transplantation, their toxicities prohibit routine use
inuence on survival.90 These data, along with empirical and limit their utility to only the sickest patients, who genuinely
evidence, is sufcient to justify their routine use in the require rescue from low cardiac output with organ dysfunction
emergency setting in children with HF. Thiazide diuretic with metabolic acidosis. The requirement for inotropic support
agents will signicantly enhance the effect of loop diuretic for more than 48 hours requires a plan for weaning of support,
agents, and can be added in patients with limited response to transition to a more viable means of circulatory support, and
loop diuretic agents.91 consideration of the need for cardiac transplantation.94,95
Vasopressin antagonist agents (tolvaptan, conivaptan, Milrinone. Children with decompensated HF who present
and others). These renal tubular V2 receptor antagonists with clinical evidence of low cardiac output syndrome (poor
promote diuresis and have demonstrated symptom reduction perfusion, decreased urine output, cool extremities) might
in combination with diuretic agents in adults with HF.92 No return to an adequately perfused state when inotropes are
survival benet has been demonstrated with the use of these added to standard diuretic therapy. Milrinone, an inotrope
agents93 and there are insufcient data to make a Recom- with vasodilatory properties, can increase cardiac index, reduce
mendationregarding their use in children. pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, and reduce systemic
vascular resistance in adults with advanced HF.96,97 In infants
and children, milrinone can prevent low cardiac output
RECOMMENDATION syndrome after cardiac surgery.98 Milrinone might cause
peripheral dilation and should be used with caution in
F1. A loop diuretic, such as furosemide, is recommended
hypotensive patients. Dosing is indicated in Supplemental
for patients with HF and signs and symptoms of
Table S2.
congestion. An initial starting dose of 0.5-1 mg/kg
intravenously or orally every 6-12 hours, is safe and
effective (Strong Recommendation, Moderate- Catecholaminergic drugs. Dopamine is a sympathomimetic
Quality Evidence). agent that increases heart rate, stroke volume, and systemic
vascular resistance in a dose-related fashion.99 Epinephrine
and norepinephrine have similar properties, but are more
commonly associated with arrhythmias, compromised distal
Methods in practice perfusion, and increased myocardial oxygen demand.
Dobutamine, a catecholamine analogue that activates b1-
adrenergic receptors, might be considered as an alternative
The goal of therapy is to return patients to a euvolemic choice, but higher doses might be required in patients who are
state, over a period of days to weeks. Subsequently, already taking b-blockers. Dosing is indicated in
gradual weaning to the lowest required dose of diuretic is Supplemental Table S2.
appropriate. Blood pressure, electrolyte, and renal
function indices should be monitored. Fluid intake
restriction to 80% of basal metabolic requirements Vasodilator agents
might be necessary in some patients, depending on their Systemic vasodilators are occasionally used in children in
caloric status and needs. A reduction of free water and an the setting of acute decompensated HF, to reduce afterload.
increase in calorie-rich uid intake is desirable in most Although commonly used in adults in whom hypertension
settings. is a frequent comorbidity, there is insufcient evidence of
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1544 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
Nitroprusside sodium. Administered intravenously as In advanced HF, ACEi therapy introduction should
a continuous infusion, nitroprusside is an effective dilator of occur after stabilization of HF symptoms with diuretic
arteriolar and smooth muscle cells. It can acutely improve and simultaneous to inotropic support withdrawal.
cardiac index in children with acute HF.100 Prolonged Uptitration can proceed safely over 3-10 days in most
administration (> 72 hours), especially when associated with inpatients, and can be more gradual in outpatients.
renal failure, can result in thiocyante toxicity. Captopril is the typical rst choice for most infants and
with enalapril being an appropriate choice for those
older than the age of 2 years (see Supplemental Table 2).
Nitroglycerine. Despite its common use in the adult with
The use of a captopril tablet dissolved in a precise
acute HF, nitroglycerin, predominantly a venodilator, is
volume of water, and dosing a fraction of the suspension
uncommonly used in the children because there is no evidence
(dissolve and dose method) overcomes the problem of
demonstrating a specic indication for its use in HF in
the short half-life of this medication in suspension form.
children.
In older children with stable hemodynamic status,
longer-acting ACEi therapy, such as ramipril and peri-
Nesiritide. This synthetic analogue of natriuretic peptide has ndopril, might be considered for use to enhance
vasodilatory and natriuretic effects. Nesiritide has been used adherence.
for more than a decade in adults with acute HF, although the Caution is advised when these agents are used in the rst
most recent data do not suggest a signicant long-term benet 4 months of life, because renal dysfunction is more
for this particular drug.101 There is very limited evidence to common,116 and therefore uptitration must be carefully
support the use of this drug in children.102,103 monitored. A small drop in systolic blood pressure is
typically noted in patients who take an ACEi. This
Chronic therapy for HF: angiotensin-converting enzyme
might occasionally exceed the expected 5%-10% drop
inhibitor and angiotensin II receptor blocker therapy
in baseline values, necessitating observation for up to
Randomized trials in adult patients have repeatedly shown 2 hours after the rst dose.117 The magnitude of
that angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEi) therapy the effect has been reported to be greater in patients
reduces symptoms and improves survival of HF patients at with high renin levels (who commonly also have
optimal doses. Studies in children have focused predominantly hyponatremia).106,118
on hemodynamic markers.104-109 Some retrospective data110 A creatinine rise of greater than 50% over baseline value
have demonstrated a survival benet for children with CM in any patient requires a reassessment of uid balance
and HF,111 however, other data have failed to show any and diuretic therapy, and consideration for a dosage
survival benet.7,112 Although widely used, ACEi therapy reduction or withdrawal of ACEi therapy.116
remains unvalidated by any randomized controlled trial Adequate pregnancy avoidance measures are required in
measuring survival in children with symptomatic HF. Recent adolescent female patients who take an ACEi because of
data suggest that the use of a tissue-specic ACEi (perindopril) its teratogenic effects.
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Kantor et al. 1545
CCS Guidelines for HF in Children
NO SOMEWHAT YES
YES NO
Are symptoms Is patient warm
improved in 48-72 hrs? and diuressing?
Start ACEi Start ACEi then NO
(Reassess blocker YES NO YES
1-2 monthly) (Reassess
1-2 weekly) CLASS D
(BNP ) (BNP ) Wean in
72 hours Epinephrine
With normal Na+
Ventilatory support
Na+, Urea and Urea or
Circatory support
Creatinine Creatinine
Figure 2. Simplied decision-making in symptomatic acute decompensated heart failure management. Groups A-D correspond to those designated
in Figure 1. It is usual to admit all patients who are symptomatic at their initial presentation. Those with mild symptoms and no vomiting/
gastrointestinal symptoms might respond to oral therapy, although IV diuretics are typically required. It is usual to reserve IV inotropic/vasodilator
therapy for those who have underperfusion and volume overload. Most patients should be able to achieve oral maintenance therapy, at least on
a temporary basis. , with or without; ACEi, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; BNP, brain natriuretic peptide; EF, ejection fraction; IV,
intravenous; LV, left ventricular; NPPV, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation; RV, right ventricular.
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1546 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
Step 3 -Blocker
Figure 3. A symptom-based guide to the introduction of oral maintenance therapy for children with chronic heart failure (HF). The introduction of b-
blocker therapy might be considered in patients already taking ACE inhibitor therapy with asymptomatic persistent moderate reduction in left
ventricular ejection fraction (usually ejection fraction less than 40%), especially if the etiology is considered to be ischemic heart disease. Lighter
shading for each drug indicates when the possibility of a lower target dose, or slower increment than usual is needed, because of advanced HF with
severely compromised systolic function. Narrowing of the bars indicates the possibility that fewer patients will tolerate the introduction of that agent
at that given symptomatic stage. Note the preferred use of pulsed diuretic therapy, which becomes more frequent as symptoms advance. Red
arrows indicate the point at which admission to hospital and additional support therapies might be required. ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme;
IV, intravenous; NHYA, New York Heart Association.
0.05 mg/kg every 12 hours is required, with pharma- mortality in selected patients with HF.124,125 Data regarding
cokinetics in children younger than 4 years favouring the role of spironolactone or related agents in the treatment of
dosing every 8 hours. children with HF are very limited.
The initiation of b-blocker therapy after inotropic
support requires caution. There is limited evidence to
guide practice, so Recommendations for decision- RECOMMENDATION
making are largely empirical, with a guide provided in F6. Aldosterone antagonist therapy is reasonable in chil-
Figure 2. It should be noted that initiation of b-blocker dren with chronic systolic HF, provided renal func-
therapy might be considered in children who are tion is normal or only mildly impaired. Close
asymptomatic but have a persistent moderate reduction monitoring of renal function and serum potassium is
in LV EF (usually less than 40%) despite being estab- required when coadministering aldosterone antagonist
lished while using optimal ACEi therapy, especially if therapy with ACEi therapy (Conditional Recom-
the etiology is considered to be ischemic heart disease. mendation, Low-Quality Evidence).
The general approach to sequential addition of chronic
medical therapy in pediatric HF patients is summarized
in Figure 3.
In older children with stable hemodynamic status,
Methods in practice
consideration might be given to starting a b-blocker as
soon as ACEi dosing has been established. Spironolactone is the typical agent used, because expe-
rience with eplerenone in children is limited. Spi-
ronolactone is typically initiated for patients in whom
Aldosterone antagonist therapy
therapy with an ACEi and b-blocker has not resulted in
Therapy with drugs that block the effects of aldosterone is improved ventricular function or reversal of ventricular
well established in adults with systolic HF,123 in reducing remodelling (as indicated in Fig. 3).
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Kantor et al. 1547
CCS Guidelines for HF in Children
Hyperkalemia might result in patients who receive spi- including a steroid only arm.69 This study failed to show
ronolactone and an ACEi, especially if renal function is any hemodynamic or clinical improvement with steroid use
already compromised. Therefore, potassium levels and alone, and some benet in these parameters when steroids
renal function indices should be checked before starting were combined with cyclosporine or azathioprine. A recent
spironolactone, within 7-14 days after introduction, and Cochrane review does not support a role for corticosteroids in
periodically thereafter. Any potassium supplementation the treatment of myocarditis.133 Additional data from a large
should be carefully re-evaluated. registry series identied no effect of treatment strategy on
Dosing suggestions are provided in Supplemental patient survival in clinically diagnosed or biopsy-conrmed
Table S2, with the usual starting dose of 1 mg/kg/d, myocarditis.134
and the target maximum of 2 mg/kg/d being tolerated
by most patients.126 Intravenous immunoglobulin G. Numerous case reports,
Male gynaecomastia is a nonreversible complication, and and 1 retrospective study have suggested a potential benet of
must be closely monitored. intravenous immunoglobulin G (IVIG) in the treatment of
myocarditis.135 There have been no randomized controlled
trials of this therapy in children.134 A recent Cochrane review
Digoxin
of this therapy for adult patients failed to show any difference
Digoxin has been studied extensively in adults with between those who did or did not receive IVIG, with regard to
congestive HF, in whom there is some evidence of acute mortality, the need for transplantation, or insertion of an LV
hemodynamic benet.127 In the setting of chronic congestive assist device.134 Recent registry data and national patient
HF in adults, digoxin use decreased the rate of hospitalization information dataset reviews also do not suggest a difference in
and improved quality of life, but not survival.128 In children, outcome in pediatric myocarditis treated with IVIG.130,134
the addition of digoxin to diuretic therapy has traditionally
occurred in infants with a large ventricular septal defect and
pulmonary congestion because of overcirculation. However, RECOMMENDATION
digoxin is not reported to result in improved contractility, or
F7. A standard approach to HF management should be
improvement in clinical symptoms in this setting. There are
applied in patients with myocarditis including
no pediatric data supporting the use of digoxin in children
inotropic support and diuretic therapy (Strong
with structurally normal hearts and systolic dysfunction, and
Recommendation, Moderate-Quality Evidence).
therefore no Recommendationcan be made for routine
F8. For fulminant myocarditis, mechanical circulatory
digoxin use in children with HF. If it is already being used in
support should be considered. Invasive therapies are
conjunction with carvedilol in children (for arrhythmic
considered acceptable considering the prospect of
control for example), digoxin dosing might require
spontaneous recovery (Strong Recommendation,
reduction.129
Moderate-Quality Evidence).
F9. Corticosteroids are not recommended as a routine
Medical management of myocarditis treatment for myocarditis, particularly in the absence
The typical approach to therapy for myocarditis in children of robust randomized controlled trial evidence.
focuses on supportive care, and recognition of clinical dete- Continued speculative use of immunosuppressive
rioration which is a common occurrence.130 Because of risks therapy in the absence of a prospective clinical trial
of hemodynamic instability and rhythm disturbances, patients will not contribute to the evidence base of
should be admitted to an intensive care unit or ward with management for this disorder (Conditional Recom-
close monitoring, including cardiac monitoring. The role of mendation, Low-Quality Evidence).
the immune system in the pathogenesis of myocarditis has led F10. IVIG is not recommended as a routine treatment for
to an ongoing interest in the role of immunomodulation and myocarditis (Conditional Recommendation, Low-
immunosuppression as therapeutic modalities. A demonstra- Quality Evidence).
tion of a benecial effect for this approach in the pediatric age Values and preferences. These Recommendations place
group has been difcult to achieve, because of a lack of robust, a high priority on conservative management in an
adequately designed and powered studies, and because of the observed and monitored hospital setting when this disease
frequent occurrence of spontaneous recovery. Results of is in evolution.
a recent meta-analysis examining available studies in adults
and children did not indicate any benecial effect of immu-
nosuppressive therapy on survival or LV remodelling in
patients with myocarditis.131
Acknowledgements
Corticosteroid therapy. Small and predominantly retro- The Childrens Heart Failure Study Group was responsible
spective cohort studies in children with acute myocarditis have for the conception and development of this project, with the
suggested that steroids (alone or in combination with other collaboration of the Canadian Pediatric Cardiology Associa-
immunosuppressive agents) might be benecial to survival tion. The primary panelists are listed as authors. The
and symptomatic recovery.90,132 Prospective studies are, following individuals served as secondary panelists, or expert
however, limited to a single small randomized controlled trial reviewers: Sarah Bowdin, MD, University of Toronto; Charles
comparing 3 different immunosuppressive treatment strategies Canter, MD, George Washington University; Christian
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1548 Canadian Journal of Cardiology
Volume 29 2013
Drolet, MD, University of Laval; Melanie Everitt, MD, 12. Connolly D, Rutkowski M, Auslender M, Artman M. The New York
University of Utah; Mark Friedberg, MD, University of University Pediatric Heart Failure Index: a new method of quantifying
Toronto; Lars Grosse-Wortmann, MD, University of Tor- chronic heart failure severity in children. J Pediatr 2001;138:644-8.
onto; Daphne Hsu, MD, Albert Einstein University; John 13. Ergul Y, Nisli K, Varkal MA, et al. Electrocardiographic ndings at
Lynn Jefferies, MD, Cincinnati Childrens Medical Center; initial diagnosis in children with isolated left ventricular non-
Ashok Kakadekar, MD, University of Saskatchewan; Seema compaction. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 2011;16:184-91.
Mital, MD, University of Toronto; Beth Kauffman, MD,
14. Nugent AW, Daubeney PE, Chondros P, et al. The epidemiology of
Stanford University; Robert McKelvie, MD, McMaster
childhood cardiomyopathy in Australia. New Engl J Med 2003;348:
University; Elfriede Pahl, MD, Lurie Childrens Hospital; Jim 1639-46.
Potts, PhD, BCs Childrens Hospital; Julian Raiman, MD,
University of Toronto; Suryakant Shah, MD, Memorial 15. Ross RD, Bollinger RO, Pinsky WW. Grading the severity of congestive
University of Newfoundland; and Elizabeth Stephenson, MD, heart failure in infants. Pediatr Cardiol 1992;13:72-5.
University of Toronto. The literature search was designed and
16. Azevedo VM, Albanesi Filho FM, Santos MA, Castier MB, Tura BR.
executed by Thomasin Adams-Webber, University of The impact of malnutrition on idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy in
Toronto. children [in Portuguese]. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2004;80:211-6.
The authors acknowledge the editorial assistance of
Michelle Graham, MD, University of Alberta, and wish to 17. Rivenes SM, Kearney DL, Smith EO, Towbin JA, Deneld SW.
thank the Witchel family of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and Sudden death and cardiovascular collapse in children with restrictive
the Miller family of Delaware, Ontario, Canada for their cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2000;102:876-82.
support. 18. Melacini P, Vianello A, Villanova C, et al. Cardiac and respiratory
involvement in advanced stage Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neuro-
muscul Disord 1996;6:367-76.
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