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1. Background
Throughout this note, D will denote a squarefree integer different from 1.
This means that n2 does not divide
D for any integer n > 1. The purpose of
this note is to study the ring Z[ D] using
many of the ideas weve studied
in chapter 8 of DF. As a ring, we define Z[ D] to be
Z[ D] := Z[x]/(x2 D).
More concretely, we can view Z[ D] as the set
Z[ D] = {a + b D|a, b Z}
with addition and multiplication given by
(a + b D) + (c + d D) = (a + c) + (b + d) D
(a + b D) (c + d D) = (ac + bdD) + (ad + bc) D.
For each = a + b D Z[ D] we define the conjugate of , denoted , to
be
= a b D.
The first observation we can make about the conjugate is
Lemma 1.1. = for any , Z[ D].
Proof. This is just a direct calculation. We have
= (a b D)(c d D)
= (ac + bdD) (ad + bc) D
= .
Define the function N : Z[ D] Z given by
N (a + b D) = a2 b2 D = (a + b D)(a b D).
For reasons we will discover later, N () = is known as the norm of .
We will soon see that many properties of can be deduced from its norm.
Our first observation about the norm is that it is multiplicative.
Lemma 1.2. N () = N ()N ()
1
2 DR. ZACHARY SCHERR
Proof.
N () =
= (Lemma 1.1)
=
= N ()N ().
4. Number Theory
The basic tool from number theory that makes everything work in Z[i] is
the following proposition.
Proposition 4.1. Let p be an odd prime. Then there exists n Z with
n2 1 mod p if and only if p 1 mod 4.
Proof. Suppose first that there exists n Z so that n2 1 mod p. Then
the order of n in the group of units Z/pZ is necessarily 4 and so Lagrange
tells us that 4 = o(n) divides p 1 = o(Z/pZ). That is, p 1 mod 4.
The converse is harder to prove. Later in the course we will see that
Z/pZ is always a cyclic group. If g generates this group then o(g) = p 1
p1
and if p 1 mod 4 then x = g 4 will have the property that x2 1
mod p.
We dont need such a strong result to see that Z/pZ has a square root
of 1. For example, let G denote the group Z/pZ . Then the subgroup
H = {1} has index p1 2 in G. Then if p 1 mod 4 we have that 2 is
p1
Thus
p|(n + i)(n i),
but notice that p does not divide neither n + i nor n i. This shows that
p is not prime in Z[i] so it is not irreducible. Let be an irreducible factor
of p. Then 0 = p for some 0 Z[i]. Thus N ()N ( 0 ) = p2 so N () = p
or N () = p2 . If N () = p2 then 0 is a unit, but then () = (p) saying
that (p) is a prime ideal, which weve shown is absurd. Thus N () = p and
indeed p = .
Putting everything weve proven together yields:
Theorem 4.3. There are exactly three types of primes in Z[i]. They are
given by
1 i.
p Z so that p 3 mod 4
Z[i] so that N () = p where p 1 mod 4.
As a final application, we prove the celebrated two squares theorem of
Fermat.
Theorem 4.4. Let p 1 mod 4 be a prime. Then there exist integers a, b
so that a2 + b2 = p.
Proof. If p 1 mod 4 then weve just shown that there exists Z[i] with
N () = p. But then if = a + bi we have
N () = a2 + b2 = p,
proving the claim.