http://www.cvmbs.colostate.edu/clinsci/wing/fluids/fluids.

htm, 23 Mei 2007

FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE THERAPY

(http://www.cvmbs.colostate.edu/clinsci/wing/fluids/fluids.htm)

Wayne E. Wingfield, MS, DVM

Diplomate, ACVS, ACVECC
Professor and Chief, Emergency and Critical Care Medicine
Department of Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80523
wwingfie@vth.colostate.edu

1. What is plasma osmolality?

Plasma osmolality is a function of the ratio of body solute to body water; it is regulated by changes
in water balance. Water intake is derived primarily from three sources: Ingested water, water
contained in food, and water produced from oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water
losses occur in the urine and stool, as well as evaporation from the skin and respiratory tract.
Alterations in plasma osmolality of as little as 1% - 2% are sensed by osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. These receptors initiate mechanisms that affect water intake (via thirst) and water
excretion (via antidiuretic hormone [ADH]) to return plasma osmolality to normal.
2. Define "effective circulating volume".
Effective circulating volume is defined as that part of the extracellular fluid (ECF) that is in the
vascular space and effectively perfusing tissues. It varies directly with ECF volume and also with
total body sodium, since sodium salts are the primary ECF solutes holding water in the
extracellular space. Therefore, regulation of sodium balance, by changes in renal sodium ion, and
the maintenance of effective circulating volume, are closely related.
3. What are the major effectors of effective circulating volume?
Three major effectors alter effective circulating volume: 1) The sympathetic nervous system, 2)
angiotensin II, and 3) renal sodium excretion. Volume depletion, sensed by arterial baroreceptors as
hypotension, causes an increase in peripheral sympathetic tone. Increased sympathetic tone returns
volume to normal by initiating specific compensatory changes. These compensatory changes
include the following:
o Venous constriction: Increased venous return
o Increased myocardial contractility and heart rate: Increased cardiac output
o Arterial vasoconstriction: Increases systemic vascular resistance and blood
pressure
o Increased renin secretion: Increases levels of angiotensin II which is a potent
vasoconstrictor
o Increased renal tubular sodium resorption (due to increased levels of
angiotensin II and aldosterone).
Sympathetic tone induced changes in effective circulating volume are transient and compensatory;
appropriate changes in renal sodium excretion are required to restore normal volume.

4. What is the bodys main defense against hyperosmolality?

The major defense against hyperosmolality (accumulation of solute in excess of body water) is
increased thirst. Although the kidney can minimize water losses via the action of ADH, water
deficits can be corrected only by increased dietary intake.

5. When can hypo-osmolality result?

Hypoosmolality can result from excessive body water retention with subsequent dilution of body
solutes or from solute loss in excess of water loss (e.g., diarrhea). Because the kidney excretes
large volumes of water daily, persistent water retention resulting in hypoosmolality occurs only in
the presence of decreased renal water excretion. In patients with normal renal function,
hypoosmolality must therefore be due to solute loss in excess of body water loss.

6. How does hypovolemia (i.e., dehydration) increase the circulating volume?

Hypovolemia causes an increase in renin secretion. The subsequent increase in angiotensin II
causes an increase in blood pressure (as a result of arterial vasoconstriction), as well as renal
sodium retention (this is both a direct effect and also the result of increased aldosterone secretion).
With sodium retention, water is also retained.

7. How do you determine the degree of dehydration in an animal?

Clinical assessment of dehydration is best accomplished by serial body weight monitoring.
Experience has shown that the physical examination findings often underestimate the degree of
dehydration. During the acute phase of volume depletion, these classical physical examination
findings are all that are available. The chart below is offered as a general guideline and assumes
more serious hypovolemia is present.
TABLE 1. Estimating the percentage dehydration based upon physical examination findings.

Estimated
Percentage Physical Examination Findings
Dehydration
History of fluid loss but no findings on physical
<5 examination

Dry oral mucous membranes but no panting or

5 pathological tachycardia

Mild to moderate decreased skin turgor, dry oral

mucous membranes, slight tachycardia, and normal
7 pulse pressure.

Moderate to marked degree of decreased skin turgor,

dry oral mucous membranes, tachycardia, and
10 decreased pulse pressure.
 Marked loss of skin turgor, dry oral mucous
12 membranes, and significant signs of shock.

8. When and how much fluid can be given via the subcutaneous route?
In mild dehydration, subcutaneous fluids are useful. Isotonic fluids should be used and no more
than 5 to 10 ml/lb should be given at each injection site. The rate of subcutaneous fluid flow
usually is governed by patient comfort. These fluids are aseptically administered and multiple sites
are required to provide adequate fluid volume. Generally, all subcutaneous fluids are resorbed
within 6 to 8 hours. If fluids are still noted subcutaneously after this time, the use of intravenous
fluids to reestablish peripheral perfusion should be considered.

9. How about using the intraperitoneal route for fluid administration?

The intraperitoneal route is quick, easy, and the fluids will generally be reabsorbed thus increasing
the circulating volume. However, there is the potential of bacterial peritonitis, perforating viscera,
and decreasing ventilation from impeding diaphragmatic excursion. Experience with peritoneal
dialysis in dogs has shown that peritoneal fluids often traverse the diaphragm, entering the thoracic
space, and further affecting ventilation. Currently, intraperitoneal fluids cannot be recommended.

10. When and how are you going to administer the intravenous fluids?
In general, intravenous fluid administration is indicated in dogs and cats with 7% or greater
dehydration. There are numerous potential routes for intravenous fluid administration:
o Peripheral veins
o Jugular veins
o Intraosseous

11. When and how do you estimate the volume of fluids to be given an animal?
The amount of fluid needed for replacement depends on the patient's status. Of primary concern is
the status of the blood volume and later concern is directed to restoration of total body water and
electrolytes.

12. What are the three phases of fluid therapy?

o Emergency phase
o Replacement phase
o Maintenance phase

13. How much fluid should be given during replacement therapy?

The volume of fluid administered during the dehydration phase is based on an assessment of fluid
needs for the following:
 Returning the patient's status to normal (deficit volume)
Replacing normal ongoing losses (maintenance volume)
Replacing continuing abnormal losses (continuing losses volume)

14. How do you calculate the deficit volume?

The deficit volume is an estimate based on findings from the physical examination (Table I) or on
known changes in body weight To make the calculation of deficit volume, the estimated
dehydration is multiplied by the body weight. It must be remembered that it is difficult to replace
all deficits in a 24-hour period. An attempt to do so may result in urinary losses furthering
dehydration. Thus, it is recommended that only 75% to 80% of the deficit volume be replaced
during the first 24 hours. Also, dont forget that you must also add "daily maintenance volumes" to
your calculated deficit volume if the animal is not eating nor drinking.
Example 1:
A 22-lb (10 kg) dog is assessed to be 7% dehydrated. What volume of fluid deficit should be
given during the first 24 hours?

Total Deficit Replacement Volume = Deficit Volume PLUS Maintenance Volume

Deficit replacement volume (ml) = % dehydration x body weight (lb) x 454 a x 0.80
 Deficit replacement fluid volume (ml) = 0.07 x 22 lb x 454ax 0.80 = 560 ml
a = 454 mls = 1 pound

or
Deficit replacement volume (ml) = % dehydration x body weight (kg) x
1000b x 0.80
Deficit replacement fluid volume (ml) = 0.07 x 10 x 1000 x 0.80 = 560
ml
b = 1000 ml = 1 kilogram

15. What are "maintenance volumes" for fluid therapy?

Maintenance volumes are normal ongoing losses. Ongoing losses are divided into sensible and
insensible losses. Sensible losses can be measured and are water losses in the urine and feces.
Insensible losses are normal but are not easily quantitated. These water losses occur during panting
or sweating. One-third of the maintenance volume is made up of the insensibile volumes and two-
thirds, sensible volumes.
16. How much fluid should you give for maintenance volume if the animal is not eating nor
drinking?
There is a paucity of data regarding water needs for the dog and cat and many authors recommend
dramatically different fluid and energy requirements. As you will recall, water and energy
requirements are numerically the same (1 Kcal of energy = 1 ml of water). Unfortunately, many
authors recommend dramatically different fluid and energy requirements. Data from recent
research has been used to document that energy expenditure or consumption is less than published
formulas and recommendations. Estimation of water needs include 50mls/kg/day, 132 kcal X
Kg0.75, 156 X Kg0.667, (30 X kg) + 70, 70 X Kg0.75. Indirect calorimetry is being used to estimate
energy (and thus water) needs for the dog and cat. These studies reinforce that previously
recommended formulae overestimate the energy (water) requirements of the cat and dog (Figures 1
and 2).
Figure 1. Maintenance fluid volumes for the cat. Recommended volumes are calculated from the
formula (30 X BWKg) + 70.

Figure 2. Maintenance fluid volumes for the dog. Recommended volumes are calculated from the
formula (30 X BWKg) + 70.

Example 2:
A 22-lb (10 kg) dog is assessed to be 7% dehydrated and has been vomiting. How much fluid
should be given during the next 24 hours?
 Volume (ml of fluid required) = deficit volume + maintenance volume
= [0.07 x 22 lb x 454 x 0.80] + [(10 x 30) + 70]
= [560] + [370] = 930 ml

or
= [0.07 x 10 kg x 1000 x 0.80] + [(10 x 30) + 70]
= [560] + [370] = 930 ml

17. Does the formula recommended above satisfy water needs in the sick animal?
The question regarding energy (water) requirements in sick animals continues to elicit controversy.
Traditionally it has been taught that illnesses, injuries, and surgery resulted in the increased need
for more energy (water). These teachings were extrapolated from human and rodent data. In the
dog, there is mounting evidence that increased energy requirements are not common in the sick,
injured, or surgical dogs. In fact, there are increased numbers of publications documenting the
lower energy (water) requirements for both the normal and sick or traumatized dog. Additionally,
from an evolutionary perspective, it seems logical to expect the dog to preserve available energy
with illness or injury. The reserves are already minimal and it makes little sense to increase
metabolic requirements in order to survive. It makes more sense to conserve available energy and
to reduce metabolic (thus energy and water) requirements. Studies on dogs in a critical care unit
have documented the presence of significant hypothyroid function. Thus, metabolic requirements
are reduced.
The decision to change the formulae for calculating water requirements will only come with more
objective evidence taken from normal and sick dogs and cats.

18. How do you account for continuing losses during the replacement phase of fluid therapy?
A crude but effective guideline for replacing continuing abnormal losses is to estimate the volume
of fluid loss and then double this estimate. The result will be surprisingly close to the actual
volume of vomitus, diarrhea, or urine.

19. How do you tell when an animal is receiving an inadequate fluid volume?
Any acute change in body weight results from losses or gains in water. If the animal is losing body
weight while being given crystalloid fluids, the animal is likely receiving inadequate volumes of
fluid. One group of patients where body weight may fool you is in animals that are third-spacing
fluids (peritonitis, pyometritis, pleural effusions). In these animals the animal may still be
dehydrated but the body weight may not have changed. Monitoring the central venous pressure will
result in a value which is well below 5 cm H20. Additionally, if renal function is adequate, an
animal which is dehydrated will have a urine specific gravity above 1.025.

20. What are the clinical signs of overhydration?

Classically, pulmonary edema is associated with overhydration. Clinically, pulmonary edema is the
terminal event of overhydration! Before pulmonary edema results you will first note an increased
serous nasal discharge, followed by chemosis, and finally pulmonary congestion will be ausculated
before edema ensues.

21. List the common crystalloid fluids, their electrolyte composition, pH, and osmolality.

Buffer Calories Osmolality

Solution Na+ K+ Cl- Ca++ Mg++ mEq/L Kcal/L mOsm/L

Dextrose 5% in
Water - - - - - - 170 278

Dextrose 2.5% in
0.45% Saline 77 - 77 - - - 85 280

Ringers Lactate
Solution 130 4 109 3 - Lactate 28 9 272

Ringers Solution
147 4 156 4.5 - - - 309

Acetate 27
Normosol-R
140 5 109 - 3 Gluconate 15 294
(Multisol-R)
23
Dextrose 5% in
Ringers Lactate 130 4 109 3 - Lactate 28 179 525

Normal Saline
(0.9%) 154 - 154 - - - - 308

Dextrose 50%
- - - - - - 1700 2525

Dextrose 5% in
Saline (0.9%) 154 - 154 - - - 170 -

Potassium Chloride
- 2 2 - - - - -

22. How do you select the parenteral fluid to be given?

In selecting a fluid, it is important to know which electrolytes are lost and to institute replacement
therapy based on knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disease. Table II provides an overview
of electrolyte changes and replacement recommendations.
After you have studied Table II, you might want to test your knowledge by taking a quick quiz on
selecting the appropriate fluid (http://www.cvmbs.colostate.edu/clinsci/wing/fluids/fluids.htm).
Table II. Selection of fluids for selected diseases.

SERUM
CONDITION
Na+ Cl- K+ HCO3- Volume FLUID OF CHOICE

NORMOSOLR-R + KCl or
Diarrhea
D D D D D
Lactated Ringer's + KCl

Pyloric obstruction 0.9% NaCl + KCl

D D D I D

NORMOSOLR-R + KCl,

Dehydration Lactated Ringer's + KCl,

I I N N/D D
0.9% NaCl + KCl, 5% dextrose

0.45% NaCl + 2.5% dextrose +

Congestive heart failure
N/D N/D N N I KCl, 5% dextrose

0.45% NaCl + 2.5% dextrose +

End-stage liver disease
N/I N/I D D I KCl

Acute renal failure 0.9% NaCl,

I I I D I
-Oliguria NORMOSOLR-R + KCl,
D D N/D D D
-Polyuria Lactated Ringer's + KCl,

NORMOSOLR-R,
Chronic renal failure
N/D N/D N D N/D Lactated Ringer's solution, 0.9%
NaCl
Adrenocortical insufficiency 0.9% NaCl
D D I N/D D

Diabetic ketoacidosis 0.9% NaCl (+ KCl)

D D N/D D D

D = Decreased I = Increased N = Normal

Case Studies in Fluid Therapy

Suggested Reading

Aberman A: The ins and outs of fluids and electrolytes. Emerg Med 14(7):121-127, 1982.

Adams LG, Polzin DJ. Mixed acid-base disorders. Vet Clin N Amer: Small Anim Pract 19(2):307-326, 1989.

Bonner CW, Stidham GL, Westenkirchner DF, Tolley EA: Hypermagnesemia and hypocalcemia as predictors of high mortality in critically ill
pediatric patients. Crit Care Med 18:921-928, 1990.

Concannon KT. Colloid oncotic pressure and the clinical use of colloidal solutions. J Vet Emer Crit Care. 3:49-62, 1993.

Dubick MA, Wade CE: A review of the efficacy and safety of 7.5% NaCl/6% dextran-70 in experimental animals and in humans. J Trauma 36:323-
330, 1994.

Duval D. Use of hypertonic saline solutions in hypovolemic shock. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 17(10):1228-1231, 1995.

Garvey MS: Fluid and electrolyte balance in critical patients. Vet Clin North Am: Small Anim 19:1021-1057, 1989.

Haskins SC: A simple fluid therapy planning guide. Sem Vet Med Surg 3(3):227-236, 1988.

Kronfeld DS: Protein and energy estimates for hospitalized dogs and cats. Proc Purina International Nutrition Symposium, Jan 15, 1991, Orlando,
FL, pp 5-11.

Ogilvie GK, Salman MD, Kesel ML, et al. Effect of anesthesia and surgery on energy expenditure determined by indirect calorimetry in dogs with
malignant and nonmalignant conditions. Amer J Vet Res 57(9): 1321-1326, 1996.
Ogilvie GK, Walters LM, Salman MD, et al. Resting energy expenditure in dogs with nonhematopoietic malignancies before and after excision of
tumors. Amer J Vet Res 57(10):1463-1467, 1996.

Schaer M: General principles of fluid therapy in small animal medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal 19:203-213, 1989.

Schertel ER, Allen DA, Muir WW, et al. Evaluation of a hypertonic saline-dextran solution for treatment of dogs with shock induced by gastric
dilatation-volvulus. J Amer Vet Med Assoc 210(2):226-230, 1997.

Thatcher CD: Nutritional needs of critically ill patients. Compend Cont Educ Vet 18(12):1303-1337, 1996.

Walters LM, Ogilvie GK, Salman, MD, et al. Repeatability of energy expenditure measurements in clinically normal dogs by use of indirect
calorimetry. Am J Vet Res. 54:1881-1885, 1993.

Walton RS, Wingfield WE, Ogilvie GK, et al. Energy expenditure in 104 postoperative and traumatically Injured dogs with indirect calorimetry. J Vet
Emerg Crit Care 6(2):71-75, 1996.

Copyright, 1998. Wayne E. Wingfield, DVM, Colorado State University. All Rights Reserved.

This page was last edited: