Polymer science: research advances, practical applications and educational aspects (A. Mndez-Vilas; A. Solano, Eds.

)
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Conducting Polymer/Graphene Filler-based Hybrids: Energy and

Electronic Applications
Ayesha Kausar1,* and Muhammad Siddiq2
1
Nanosciences Division, National Centre for Physics, Quaid-i-Azam University Campus, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan.
2
Department of Chemistry, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan.

This chapter covers the potentially important conductive polymers and their benefits with effective relevance in number of
growing technologies in telecommunication, biomolecular electronics, display devices, electrochemical storage systems,
and many more. The most widely investigated polymers in practical applications are polythiophene (PTh), polypyrrole
(PPy), and polyaniline (PANI). These polymers have been employed in technical applications depending upon their
stability and ease of preparation. Conducting polymers display significantly high values of specific capacitance however in
terms of several physical properties they are not up to the mark. Relevance of graphene-based materials incorporated in
conducting polymers is also considered in this chapter. Polymer/graphene filler composites have recognized a range of
interesting characteristic such as superior mechanical properties, high electron mobility at room temperature, and
exceptional thermal conductivity. Conductive polymer/graphene filler composites may involve a three-dimensional
network to haulage electrical conductivity. The formation of conducting polymer interconnected graphene network present
significant advantages to be employed in a range of applications such as electronics, sensors, Li-ion batteries, solar cells,
EMI shielding, etc.

Keywords: Conductive polymers, graphene-based fillers, sensors, solar cells, Li-ion batteries.

1. An overview of conducting polymer

Polymer have been ignored in a range of extensive applications due to their conventional roles as electric insulators.
From numerous disciplines, scientists are now combining capability to study organic solids that demonstrate
outstanding conducting properties. A large number of organic compounds, which efficiently transport charge, are
generally categorized into three groups i.e. (i) organometallic species; (ii) charge transfer complexes/ion radical salts
and (iii) conjugated organic polymers [1]. A new class of polymers known as electroactive conjugated polymers or
essentially conducting polymers has currently emerged. Such materials demonstrate remarkable optical and electrical
properties which were formerly found only in inorganic systems. Electronically conducting polymers vary from all the
recognizable inorganic crystalline semiconductors (e.g. silicon) in two significant features (i) they have long range order
and (ii) are molecular in nature. A major condition for a polymer to become essentially electrically conducting is the
formation of delocalized molecular wave function through overlap of molecular orbitals. Moreover, molecular orbitals
must be partly filled so that there is free movement of electrons all over the lattice [2]. Conductive polymers (CPs) is a
new class of materials which demonstrate highly reversible redox behavior and strange deal of metal and plastic
properties. Conducting polymers was first synthesized in 1960s, and they are the most recent invention in polymers.
CPs have both optical and electrical properties related to those of metals and inorganic semiconductors The potential
benefit of conductive polymers with effective relevance is in number of growing technologies in telecommunication,
biomolecular electronics, display devices, and electrochemical storage systems [3]. Conducting polymers display
significantly high values of specific capacitance, while in terms of strength they are not up to the mark. Carbon-based
materials present reasonable stability, however from the viewpoint of definite capacitance and other constraints, they
fall apart. Conductive polymers are plastics that have ability to conduct electricity just as semiconductors and metals
can. On the other hand, conventional polymers are organic carbon-based molecules. Polymers with freely held electrons
in their backbone are frequently recognized as conducting polymers. Each atom beside the backbone is occupied in a
bond, which is much weaker than the bonds that hold the atoms in polymer chain together. There are about 25
conductive polymer systems today [4].

1.1. Types of conducting polymer

The conductive polymers related to polyenes or polyaromatics (polyaniline, polythiophene, polyacetylene, polypyrrole,
poly(phenylene vinylene), poly (p-phenylene)), have been widely studied. They combine the positive features of metals
and usual polymers the ability to conduct charge, enormous electrical and optical properties with flexibility and
simplicity of synthesis. The most widely investigated polymers in practical applications are polythiophene (PTh),
polypyrrole (PPy), and polyaniline (PANI). Recently, the incorporation of conductive fillers such as metal powder,
carbon black, natural flake graphite, graphene, and graphene nanoplatelet in polymers have gained great attention [5].
The structure and types of few conducting polymers are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Different types and structure of conducting polymers.

Polymer Abbreviation Structure

Polythiophene PTh
S
n

H
N
Polypyrrole Ppy
N
H
n

Polyaniline PANI
N
H
n

Polyacetylene PA
n
X

Functionalized polyacetylene f-PA

n

Poly(phenylene vinylene) PPv

Poly(p-phenylene) PP
n

2. Structure and properties of conducting polymer

Conducting polymers exhibit -electron backbone which is capable of strange electronic features such as low energy
optical transitions, electrical conductivity, low ionization potential, and high electron affinity. This comprehensive -
conjugated system of the conducting polymers has irregular single and double bonds all along the polymer chain (Fig.
1) [6]. The superior values of the electrical conductivity achieved in such organic polymers has led to the name
synthetic metals. Various applications of conducting polymers comprising biosensing devices and analytical chemistry
have been reviewed by different researchers [7]. They have revealed the opportunity of surface modification of
conventional electrodes providing new and fascinating features. These polymers are useful in membrane separation,
electro-catalysis, and chromatography. They also generate new technological potential in design of biochemical and
chemical sensors [8]. In 1977, the discovery that polyacetylene could be easily oxidized (by electron acceptors) or
reduced (by donors) was a chief breakthrough in the area of conductive polymers. Nowadays, the conductive polymers
are promising in a number of new technologies comprising plastic electronics in which inherent features of the
polymers are important in determining device performance [9].

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Poly(acetylene)
pi bond

Conjugated
segment

Fig. 1. -Conjugated system of conducting polymers.

Polyaniline (PANI) is an essential member in the family of inherently conductive polymers (ICPs). PANI has been
widely considered due to the ease of synthesis, good environmental stability and comparatively good processability. It
has also been studied due to electronic, chemical and optical features. Thus PANI-based CPs signify a well organized
class of conductive polymers in materials science [10]. The electrochemical oxidation of aromatic benzenoid,
heterocyclic, or non-benzenoid molecules generally lead to the development of an electrically conducting organic
polymer film at the electrode surface. These films usually have excellent electrical contact and adhesion to the electrode
surface. Thin films, when supported by an electrode surface, can be electrochemically cycled between the conducting
state, oxidized, neutral, and insulating state. Thicker films can be produced in the conducting state oxidized, and can be
peeled off from the surface of electrode to give up free-standing electrically conducting films [11]. Because these films
are in the oxidized state, they signify polymeric cations. Their whole charge balance is obtained by the integration of
oppose anions generated from the electrolyte of electroplating solution [12]. According to this approach, conducting
films have been fabricated from a broad range of organic molecules. These films comprise heterocyclic compounds
such as thiophene, pyrrole, indole, furan, carbazole, and thianaphthene. Conducting polymeric films have also been
generated from polycyclic non-benzenoid and benzenoid hydrocarbons such as fluorene, azulene, fluoranthene, pyrene,
and tripheny lene [13].

3. Graphene and derived nanofiller

Graphene is a single sheet material comprising in-plane sp2 hybridized C with thermal conductivity of ~5000 W/mK at
room temperature, in suspended form. As soon as the material is in contact with a support or even linked with another
graphene sheet, the creative interaction brings a drastic reduction (60% less) of the conductivity in the range of 2000
W/mK. The newly discovered two-dimensional atomic carbon sheet comprised of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms in a
hexagonal lattice, is recognized as building blocks for other graphitic carbon of zero-dimension (0D) fullerene, 1D
CNTs, and 3D graphite. Because of the exclusive features, different forms of graphitic carbon have been used as fillers
for generation of polymer composites with integrated properties [14]. Graphene is a inspiring substance. It is an
extraordinary 2D crystal with one-atom thickness, as shown in Fig. 2. It has become one of the most recent topics in the
field of material science, physics, chemistry, and nanotechnology [15]. It has high intrinsic mobility (200,000 cm2 v-1 s-
1
), large specific surface area (2630 m2g-1), high thermal conductivity (~5000 Wm-1K-1) and high Youngs modulus
(~1.0 TPa). It has good optical transmittance (97.7%) and excellent electrical conductivity. It has attracted great interest
for various applications such as transparent conductive electrodes [16, 17] .

Fig. 2. Structure of graphene sheet.

For over 40 years, graphene has been experimentally studied. Graphene is proposed for the large-scale applications
with polymers. The improvement of methods that allow the mass production and graphene sheet processing have
become a top priority. It is regarded as the thinnest material in the universe with tremendous application potential.
Graphene is estimated to have amazing properties such as high thermal conductivity, superior mechanical properties,
and excellent electronic transport properties [18]. The important properties of graphene have produced enormous

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consideration for its possible application in several devices. The new carbon material that has been lately established is
graphene nanoplatelet (GNP). The GNP has intermediate geometry with 6 nm thickness consistent to 18 graphitic
sheets. Its lateral size is 25m and has comparatively low specific surface area of 120-150 m2/g. Due to low specific
surface area, difficulty in dispersion may arise. Because of excellent mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties,
graphene has evolved attention as reinforcing phase in composite materials. Graphene sheets can restack to form
graphite through van der Waals interaction or due to extraordinary aspect ratio [19]. Very thin nanoplatelets has
tendency to self-roll and are usually expensive. GNP is important as reinforcement in the ceramic matrix composite.
These are particles consisting of 30-40 layers of graphene. GNP retain several excellent properties of single layer
graphene. They have essential energy dispersing mechanism (sheet bending and sliding) due to which improvement in
toughness of ceramic matrix composites has been perceived [20]. Formation of conducting network is revealed from the
conduction measured by the development of GNP at the composite surface. Therefore, nanocomposite-based on carbon
material and conducting polymers have been considered to form electrodes for super capacitors with high capacitance
value and enhanced stability. Poly(p-phenylene) (PP) has been selected as a polymer matrix due to its high electrical
conduction established by high stability when exposed to ambient conditions, cost effectiveness, and ease of synthesis.
The distinction of electrical conductivity with temperature is the chief property, which makes conductive
nanocomposites to be employed as temperature sensors, self regulator heaters and over current protectors [21]. One of
the most significant and interesting areas in polymer composite research are conductive polymer composites (CPCs)
owing to the simplicity of processing, tuneable features, and broad range of applications. Most of the polymers are not
conducting, so conducting fillers are integrated into a variety of polymers for fabrication of CPCs. By increasing the
conducting filler content, a jump in conductivity can be examined with the addition of optimum filler content in the
polymer matrix. This experience is frequently termed as the electrical percolation threshold (Pc). As revealed by both
the theoretical and experimental studies, reduction in Pc may occurr with growing filler aspect ratio. Therefore, efforts
have been made to fabricate conducting network in a polymer matrix by employing large aspect ratio conducting fillers
[22]. Polymer/graphene composites have been recognized with a range of interesting characteristics such as superior
mechanical properties, high electron mobility at room temperature, and exceptional thermal conductivity. Conductive
polymer composites involve a three-dimensional (3D) network to correspond electrical conductivity. The manufacture
of efficiently interconnected 3D graphene network may present significant increase in thermal and electrical
conductivity of polymer composite. Wu et al [23] have organized self-assembly and hot press technique for the
fabrication of polystyrene composites with 3D consistent graphene network. By employing a template-directed
chemical vapor deposition method, Chen et al [24] reported highly conductive poly(dimethyl siloxane) composite films
with 3D graphene foam. The high reduction level of graphene sheets and complex contact between graphene sheets in
the 3D architecture provide extraordinary electrical conductivity to the composites. Although, these methods are
complex and can only be utilized to manufacture precise polymer (thermoplastic) or composite foam. However a
common method that is relevant to most polymers to obtain a desirable graphene 3D network, is still a challenge.
Polyaniline/exfoliated graphene nanoplatelet nanocomposites were synthesized by in-situ polymerization of aniline
monomer in the existence of GNP for thermoelectric applications. PANI has a strong affinity for GNP because of
electron interaction, forming a uniform nano-fibril coating (Fig. 3) [25]. The paper-like nanocomposite have been
synthesized by inhibited vacuum filtration of aqueous integration of PANI decorated GNP.

Benzenoid amine Bond structure Quinoid imine

H H
N N N N

Fig. 3. Chemical structure of doped PANI (emeraldine-base form).

In particular, conductive polymer such as polyaniline has been widely studied and is known for its environmental
strength, superficial acid base doping, and de-doping characteristics. The thermo-electric features of polyaniline have
also been widely studied. Few types of conducting polymers and graphene composites are shown in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 4. The conducting polymer/graphene composite.

4. Significance of graphene-based filler

Graphene is recognized as two-dimensional carbon nanofiller with a one-atom-thick planar sheet (sp2 bonded carbon
atoms). It is compactly packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. It is recognized as the thinnest material in the universe
with remarkable application potential [26]. Graphene is considered to have outstanding features such as superior
mechanical properties, high thermal conductivity, and excellent electronic transport potentials [27]. The essential
features of graphene have built huge attention for its feasible performance in numerous devices [28]. These applications
comprises future generations of high speed and radio frequency logic devices, ultra-thin carbon films, electrically and
thermally conducting resistant nanocomposites, sensors, electronic circuits, and flexible and transparent electrodes for
displays and solar cells [29, 30]. Graphene, as a nanofiller, is favoured over other usual nanofillers such as sodium
montmorillonite (Na-MMT), carbon nanotube (CNT), carbon nanofiber (CNF), and exfoliated graphite (EG) due to
high aspect ratio, surface area, tensile strength (TS), electrical and thermal conductivity conductivity, EMI shielding
ability, transparency, flexibility, and low cofficient of thermal expansion (CTE) [31]. In comparison to CNT, the tensile
strength of graphene is much higher than Kevlar, steel, high density polyethylene (HDPE), and natural rubber. As
compared to all these materials, the thermal conductivity of graphene is also found higher. Moreover the electrical
conductivity of graphene is higher than these materials except for steel [32]. Graphene, has a carbon-carbon bond length
of 0.142 nm. In graphene, electrons act as massless relativistic particles which donate to very strange properties such as
the absence of localization and an anomalous quantum Hall effect. Graphene has established a range of fascinating
properties comprising exceptional thermal conductivity (5000 W m1 K1), high electron mobility at room temperature
(250,000 cm2/Vs) and advanced mechanical properties with Youngs modulus of 1 TPa [33]. Its prospective
applications comprise transparent conducting electrodes, single molecule gas detection, composites, and energy storage
devices such as lithium ion batteries and supercapacitors. In addition, a divergent band gap can be generated as the
dimension of graphene is decreased into narrow ribbons with a width of 1-2 nm, generating semiconductive graphene
with prospective applications in transistors [34]. There is no uncertainty that graphene has evolved as a shining star in
the search of new materials for future composite industry and electronic. Numerous outstanding features of graphene
such as mechanical, electrical, anomalous quantum Hall effect, thermal, and optical propertries have been explored.
These properties have generated remarkable significance among the material researchers. The current applications of
conducting polymer/graphene nanocomposite in numerous fields such as field effect devices, transparent electrodes,
sensors, solar cells, photodetectors, and energy storage devices have been explored. Polymer/graphene nanocomposites
have established a range of fascinating characteristics comprising high electron mobility at room temperature, superior
mechanical properties and exceptional thermal conductivity. Its probable use consists of single molecule gas dectection,
composites and energy storage devices such as lithium ion batteries, super capacitors, and clear conducting electrodes
[35]. For several important industrial relevances, polymer nanofibres have been the optimal candidates. By using a
number of processing techniques such as drawing, self assembly, electrospining and template-based synthesis, polymer
nanofibres have been fabricated in past decades [36]. In addition, as the dimension of graphene is reduced to narrow
ribbons with a width of 1-2 nm, a distinctive band gap can be generated producing semi-conductor with potential
application in transistor [37]. Few applications of polymer/graphene nanocomposite have been demostrated as
electromagnetic interference shielding, electrically conducting polymers, and antistatic coating polymers. Due to low
permeability of gas molecules such as N2, O2, moisture and carbon dioxide, graphene-based polymer nanocomposite
may find application in packaging for food, medicines, electronic, electrodes, and dyes-sensitized solar cells with

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conducting polymers [38-40]. Several other potential applications of polymer/graphene composites have also been
explored. GNP are short masses of single layer of graphite that are newly developed low cost material that often
enhances the composite tensile modulus. GNP has similar layered structure compared to clay but had better mechanical
properties. With the help of GNP, the light weight polymer nanocomposite may serve as alternative to metals or fiber
reinforced composite. Thus they have wide reange of applications in various fields of life. Over the last two decades,
polymer/graphene nanocomposite have gained research attention in material science and engineering. Due to industrial
leaning for high performance composite, material have been employed in space-craft, air-craft, automobiles, military,
and sports facilities. In industries, however, some of these nanocomposite have already been commercialized. In
polymer nanocomposite, there are number of challenges needed to be addressed including provision of functionality and
strengthening or effective toughening [41]. Polymer nanocomposite would be expected to substitute more predictable
composite with ease of manufacturing and improved properties. For applications in high performance polymer
structural composites such as production of automotive, marine, and air craft parts, property improvement has been
obtained at low filler content making polymer nanocomposite the ideal candidates. Infact the automotive and aerospace
industries are investigating GNP polymer nanocomposite as potential candidate for structural materials of 21st century
[42]. In spite of wide interest and high performance from research, the commercial influence of nanocomposite is still
not achieved. Thats why future research to produce a combination of excellence in performance and cost efficiency in
superficial production is always considered. Epoxy/GNP potential applications comprise coatings, adhesives, electronic
packaging, sports equipment, and advanced composite. For future automotive applications, these nanocomposites are
solutions for instance in gas tanks, interior and exterior panels and aircraft applications such as high performance
component and flame retardant panels. In golf clubs, tennis racket and hockey sticks some of them are already
commercially employed [43].

5. Application of conducting polymer/graphene hybrid in energy and electronics

Thermally conductive composites have become striking candidate for various applications mainly for thermal
management of electronics. Due to the exceptionally high power densities, modern microelectronic chips need very
high conductivity from materials employed as heat spreader, gap-filler pastes, thermal pads, and thermal interface
materials. These are essential components of the whole thermal management packages and are critical to ensure good
thermal contact between the chips and the metal heat sinks [44]. The aforesaid materials are usually polymers filled
with metal (aluminum and silver) or ceramic (boron nitride, aluminum nitride, silicon carbide) particles to improve their
thermal conductivity. Such conservative materials accomplish the limits of performance and thermal management
applications in search of higher thermal conductivity polymeric materials. Another attractive quality of polymeric
materials utilized in the thermal management of electronics, mainly consumer electronic devices such as cell phones
and laptops, is their lightweight [45]. Advanced electrical conductivity is the most significant feature of graphene.
Conductive polymer composites have been formed by filling of insulating polymer matrix with graphene. Numerous
polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS) and polyamide 12 (PA12) have been utilized as matrices to synthesize electrically
conducting polymer/graphene composite. Such composite materials usually display a non-linear enhancement of the
electrical conductivity as a function of the filler concentration. The two parameters, percolation threshold and electrical
conductivity, are interconnected. At a definite filler loading fraction, which is recognized as the percolation threshold,
the fillers form a set of connection leading to a rapid rise in the electrical conductivity of the composite [46, 47].
Sometimes addition of a very less quantity of conducting particles may develop filler contact to form efficient
conducting paths. Ruoff et al. [48] prepared PS/graphene composites and at 0.1 vol.% of graphene, they examined a low
percolation threshold (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. (a-c) Tunelling effect in conducting polymer/graphene.

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The variation of electrical conductivity in composites occurs in three stages. The conductivity is slight low at first
stage, as shown in Fig. 6. Because of small amount of additives, large aggregates steadily instigate with minor
enhancement in conductivity. At this stage, tunneling effects arise between neighboring graphene flakes, thus making it
significant in sensing materials. As the graphene flakes content was enhanced, a complete conducting path was created
by the contacting flakes at the percolation. Further raise in the conducting particles improves the number of conducting
linkage, until the conductivity levels off [49].

Fig. 6. Conductivity range of conducting polymers.

5.1. Sensors
One of the most technologically capable intrinsically conducting polymer (ICPs) is polyaniline (PANI). Its significance
comprises easy environmental stability, synthesis, low cost, controllable electrical conductivity, and fascinating redox
features [50]. In order to prevail over some of the above-mentioned restrictions of ICPs, PANI is utilized
heterogeneously along with different equipment to form conductive polymer nanocomposites (CPCs with ICP matrix).
It has been discussed that the features of any CPC largely depend on the surface-to-volume ratio and aspect ratio of the
filler [51]. Graphene, being a 2D material, comprises outstanding surface-to-volume ratio. In addition to this, it has
some of the excellent properties such as exceptional carrier mobility (10,000 cm2V1s1), thermal conductivity (3000-
5000 Wm1K1), high surface to volume ratio (theoretically 2630 m2g1), Young's modulus (0.5-1 TPa), critical
strength of 130 GPa, and low Johnson as well as 1/f noise (switching). It is amazing material that has fascinated
researchers worldwide. Based on the literature, the pristine graphene is not appropriated for gas sensing applications
due to low adsorption energies of test gas molecules on the graphene surface [52]. Hence, graphene is functionalized
with elements such as B, N, Al, Si, Cr, Mn, Pd, Pt, Ag, Au, or other common gas sensing materials such as ZnO,
WO3 and TiO2,. In addition to this, for sensing application, graphene GR also utilized with polymer ionic liquid (PIL).
To get best of both materials, graphene and polymer, the integration of graphene in polymer/graphene nanocomposite
(Gr-PnC) is a way. A composite is a grouping of multiple materials in which the property might be a completely new
one or a weighted average of the components. The current studies discussed various applications along with optical,
structural, thermal and electrical features of Gr-PnC [53]. These composites comprise graphene with different polymer
matrices. The polymers employed in these matrices can be either essentially conducting polymer (ICP) or non-
conducting polymer (NCP). Depending on the kind of polymer matrix, the interface between these composites and
analyte vapor varies. Because the conductance changes as a function of large specific area, degree of surface adsorption,
and low Johnson noise, graphene has proved to be a capable candidate for detection of a wide range of molecules such
as gases to biomolecules. Moreover its application grows to pressure, pH, and temperature sensors. Conducting polymer
nanocomposite generally comprises a positive temperature co-efficient. However polyvinylidine flouride (PVDF)
nanocomposite filled with thermally reduced graphene revealed the opposite behavior (negative temperature
coefficient) [54]. This makes it appropriate for employement as temperature sensor. The photo-induced electron transfer
between modified graphene materials, and tetra-phenyl-porphyrin (TPP), hydroxypropyl-b-cyclo-dextrin (HPCD)
grafted with GO (HPCD-GO) have been studied [55-57]. The HPCD-GO/TPP modified electrode comprises an
outstanding electro-catalytic activity towards the oxidation and reduction of hemoglobin (Hb).

5.2. Energy storage

Li ion battery (LIB) is recognized as one of the most capable storage systems due to its high absolute prospective beside
the standard hydrogen cell (3.04 V) and low atomic weight (M = 6.94 g mol-1 ). Graphene/CNT composites have also
been synthesized by solution blending in-situ chemical vapor deosition (CVD) and have been utilized in lithium ion
batteries [58]. By linking graphene with two ideal polymer cathode materials, cathode polyimide and poly-
(anthraquinonyl sulfide), the efficiency of rechargeable lithium batteries (RLB) has been enhenced [59]. Another type
of electro-chemical energy storage device is Ultracapacitor, as shown in Fig. 7. It is a supercapacitor that provides short
charge/discharge time, high power density [10 KW.kg-1], along with cycling life in comparison to battery devices.

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Fig. 7. Schematic representation of an ultracapacitor.

In terms of their operation mechanism, the super capacitors are generally of two types [60]. First the pseudo-
capacitor, which is dependent on the rapid redox reaction of the chemical species present in the electrode and other is a
electrical double layer capacitor which stores energy by electrostatic process. Conducting polymers and graphene
derivatives are united and employed as the hybrid type of supercapacitor. Conducting polymers like PANI is one of the
most utilized polymer to be integrated with GO sheets for supercapacitors (Fig. 8) [61]. Moreover polymer tailored GO
sheets have been mixed with acid-oxidized multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) to make hybrid carbon film at an
average specific capacitance of 120 Fg-1 and high scan rate of 1 Vs-1. Microbial fuel cells are of huge attention as a
capable green energy source to produce electricity from numerous organic matters. A monolithic and macroporous
anode-based on polyaniline hybridized three-dimensional graphene has been established for high-peotential microbial
fuel cell [62]. Applications of graphene polymer nanocomposite are shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 8. PANI/GO composite.

5.3. Solar Cell

Organic optoelectronic devices such as organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells, organic photodetectors, and organic light-
emitting diodes, have fascinated attention because they can be deposited on light-weight flexible, substrates by
employing low-cost fabrication methods. An essential feature of optoelectronic thin-film devices is the transparent
conducting electrode by which light couples out or in of the devices. Indium tin oxide (ITO) is extensively employed
but may be too costly for an application such as solar cells [63]. Moreover metal oxides (such as ITO) are delicate and
therefore they are of restricted use on flexible substrates. An alternative for ITO, with a comparable potential but lower

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cost, is clearly required. Thus the two-dimensional conductor graphene is a capable transparent conductor due to its
electrical and optical features [64]. In principle, electrons in single graphene sheets delocalize over the complete sheet,
which present ballistic charge transport in a one-atom-thick material. Currently, such graphene thin films were utilized
as an anode in dye-sensitized solar cells [65]. An easy approach for the manufacture of transparent, conducting and
ultrathin graphene films from exfoliated graphite oxide was offered by thermal reduction. The achieved graphene films
with a thickness of ca. 10 nm comprises a high conductivity of 550 S/cm. It is similar to that of polycrystalline graphite
(1250 S/cm) with a transparency of greated than 70% over 1000-3000 nm. The significance of graphene films is
displayed as window electrodes in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells [66, 67].

Fig. 9. Applications of graphene nanocomposites in various fields.

6. Conclusions
In this chapter we have focused on conducting polymers, the types of conducting polymers, structure and properties.
The most widely investigated polymer in practical applications is of polythiophene (PT), polypyrrole (PPy), and
polyaniline (PANI). The interaction of conducting polymer with graphene-based fillers was also discussed. The
essential features of graphene have gained research attention due to feasible performance in numerous devices. These
comprises future generation of high speed and radio frequency logic devices, ultra-thin carbon films, electrically and
thermally conducting resistant nanocomposite, sensors, electronic circuits, and flexible and transparent electrodes for
displays and solar cells. Thus applications of graphene-based filler in numerous fields such as electronics, energy
storage, sensors and solar cell have also been discussed.

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