Basic Instrumentation Part 1

INTRODUCTION
How do you define

Instrumentation Instrumentation?
What is
instrumentation?
Instrumentation Basic E m e r s o n
INTRODUCTION
What is Instrumentation?
The root word of instrumentation is INSTRUMENT.
According to the Webster Dictionary: An INSTRUMENT is
Any mechanical device
A tool implement, or apparatus
A device for producing music
A formal legal document
An apparatus for measuring distance
Others
INTRODUCTION
What is Instrumentation?
The root word of instrumentation is INSTRUMENT.
Others definition of Instrument
It is a device that is used to extend the capabilities of man to

know the nature & magnitude of a process variable.
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation and Control affects and interacts with Science and Technology
INSTRUMENTATION DIVISION
Computers, communications,
telecommunications, data handling, telemetry
Aerospace, avionics
Marine science, marine biology
Metrology
Automation - mechanical
Automation - process
Analytical
Biomedical
Cryogenics
Nuclear
Power
Others
APPLICATIONS OF INSTRUMENTATION
Process Industries
Power Plant
Manufacturing/Factory Automation
Bio-Medical
Building Management System
Application in Oil and Gas Industry
Process Optimization
Minimizing Cost
Maximizing throughput and/or efficiency
Product Quality
Maintaining the standard
Satisfying the customer/client
Safety
To the Plant
To Life
To Environment
Oil Production
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL
WHAT IS A PROCESS?
It is the event or changes of events that takes place in

manufacturing, or processing of materials or products.
A change of state of energy, such as hot to cold, liquid to

gas, etc.
A change in composition, as in mixing different materials.
Process
Any operation or sequence of operations involving a

change of energy, state, composition, dimension, or
properties that may be defined with respect to a datum.
- ISA
Requirement of a Process
1. Process Space A space where accumulation and

exchange of energy takes place.
2. Environment The contributor and benefactor of the

accumulation and exchange. It is
composed of materials and/or energy.
The Process Blocks
Units operation , e. g., boilers, chemical reactors,

chillers, clean rooms, compressors,
cooling towers, fans, heaters,
reboilers, heat exchangers, pumping
stations, blending tanks, holding tanks
Inputs: Mass and energy, disturbance

Process: chemical and physical changes
Outputs: reaction products, heat
The Process Blocks
Automatic controllers, i. e., digital, analog

continuous controllers,
programmable controllers
Inputs: setpoints, measurements

Process: control law
Outputs: control valves, heaters. motors
The Process Blocks
Transducers, sensors and signal conditioners,

i. e., transmitters and receivers, filters,
small signal amplifiers, power amplifiers
Inputs: millivolts, milliamps

Process: amplification and power gain
Output: volts, amps, watts
The Process Blocks
Simple and complex plants, i. e., a sequence of series

or parallel activities
Inputs: energy, raw material, policy, disturbance

Process: milling, drying, extraction, boiling, evaporating
WHAT IS PROCESS CONTROL?
The technology of controlling a series of events to transform

a material into a desired end product is called process
control.
Is the manipulation of energy input/output relationship, so as

to keep process variable to within desired limit.
Industrial process control was originally performed manually by

operators. Their sensors were their sense of sight, feel, and sound,
making the process totally operator-dependent.
To maintain a process within broadly set limits, the operator would
adjust a simple control device.
Process control can take two forms:

(1) sequential control, which is an event based
process in which one event follows another until
a process sequence is complete; or (2)
continuous control, which requires continuous
monitoring and adjustment of the process
variables.
Continuous process control comes in many forms, such as

domestic water heaters and heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC), where the variable temperature is not
required to be measured with great precision.
In complex industrial process control applications, such as in the

petroleum or chemical industry, where many variables have to be
measured simultaneously with great precision. These variables can
vary from temperature, flow, level, and pressure, all of which can
be interdependent variables in a single process requiring complex
microprocessor systems for total control.
The Variables Involved
Controlled Quantities or Controlled Variables

These are physical quantities or conditions which the
practioner wishes to control or to maintained at some desired
level. The variables whose control is the end purpose of
automatic control.
Examples: Temperature, pressure, level, flow, composition,
density, viscosity, speed, thickness, weight, mass, moisture
Manipulated Quantities or Manipulated Variables

Quantities or conditions which are varied as a function
of the actuating signal so as to change the value of the
controlled variable. Also refers to the controller output
controller output signal.
Examples: Steam, fuel, reagent feed
Setpoint
An input variable which sets the desired value of
the controlled variable. Sometimes called the reference
input, reference or desired value.
Disturbances
A physical quantity other than the system
command signal, generated independently of the closed
loop itself, which affects the control system. It tends to
drive the controlled variable away from setpoint
conditions.
Control inputs are also known as manipulated variables

The outputs (controlled variables) are the process
variables to be controlled
Process Disturbance
Supply Load
Demand Load
Environmental Condition
STEAM
HEATED
WATER
Setpoint
Dynamic Variable
Any physical parameter that can change either

spontaneously or because of external influences.
The word DYNAMIC conveys the idea of a time

dependence that can result from a number of unspecified
or unknown influences; the word VARIABLE simply
relates the capacity to vary from these influences. In
process control we are interested in those dynamic
variables that requires regulation in some industrial
application.
Process Dynamics
First Order Lag
Often referred to as linear lags, capacity lags or

exponential transfer lags.
These components are characterised by the capacity to

store materials or energy and the dynamic shape of these
response curves is described by a time constant.
Process Dynamics
Time Constant, (tau)
The time constant is defined for such a first-order processes

by the following:
The time required, measured from the point where the

output first begin to change, for a first-order process to reach
63.2 percent of its final total change after step change input.
The basis why 63.2 percent is used in the definition of the

time constant is because of the mathematical solution of the
first-order differential equation for a step change.
Process Dynamics
First order
response
Process Dynamics
Response of a First-Order Lag to a Step Change
Elapsed Time Percent of Response Percent of

Total Response Remaining Response Remaining
1 63.2 36.8 23.2
2 86.4 13.6 8.6
3 95.0 5.0 3.16
4 98.16 1.84 1.16
5 99.32 0.68 0.429
Process Dynamics
PROCESS DELAY CURVE
62.3%
Process Dynamics
DEAD TIME
Definition: The time required after an upset is introduced into a process

and before there is any observable change in the process output. Dead
time may also be called pure delay, transport delay, or distance/velocity
(d/v) lag.
This type lag occurs because a material requires a finite time to travel
from one point to another. It is present in many control systems since
movement of fluids is involved.
Process Dynamics
A long conveyor system giving an excessive deadtime to the control loop
DEAD TIME Process Dynamics
GATE
WT
GATE D = T
POSITION
D
T = -----
WEIGHT
DEAD
TIME T sec*
TAKES Tsec before
NEW effect TAKES PLACE
Process Dynamics
1 PROCESS 2
2
Combined Dead Time and Process Lag
T t
1 DEAD 2 TIME 3
TIME CONSTANT
Process Dynamics
HIGHER ORDER LAGS
Higher-order system can be the results of several different situations:
Several first-order lag processes may be encountered in series.
The installed feedback controller may introduce a characteristic

differential equation which, when considered in series with other system
components, makes the overall description of the system higher order.
Mechanical or fluid components of the system may be subject to

acceleration, i. e., to inertial effects (usually this is minor possibility).
The process may be a distributed process which gives a response

curve that can be described only by higher-ordered differential equations
or by partial differential equations.
Process Dynamics
Two-capacity process Reaction curve for two-capacity process
Reaction curve for three-capacity process
Process Dynamics
Reaction curve showing short, medium and long deadtimes
Process Variables
1. Pressure
2. Level
3. Flow
4. Temperature
5. Analytical (composition)
6. Others
a. Specific gravity, density

b. Viscosity, consistency
c. Speed, rpm
d. Thickness
e. Weight, mass, moisture
Regulation
The primary objective of process control is to cause

some controlled variable to remain fixed at/or near some
desired specific value. As the variable itself is dynamic,
we must constantly provide corrective action to keep the
variable constant. The term REGULATION defines this
operation of values maintenance. We say the PROCESS
CONTROL REGULATES A DYNAMIC VARIABLE.
Process Control Objectives
1. Keeping industrial processes at their most efficient

operating points.
2. Preventing runaway conditions in the process that might
endanger people or equipments.
3. Displaying information for plant operators so they can
keep the process running safely and efficiently.
Process control is a technique of regulating and directing an activity

or set of activities by balancing supply and demand. Instrumentation
is closely related with process control. It may be defined as the
application of instruments (devices that measure and display) to a
process in order to measure and control its activity.
The specific level of process control can be classified into
four different categories of control:
1. Feedback regulation
Deals with the control of some variable, either measured

or calculated, at a setpoint.
2. Feedback improvement or stabilization
This is designed to improve the operation of basic

feedback control using techniques such as feedforward,
cascade, ratio, multivariable decoupling, and adaptive
control.
3. Control of events
This includes the handling of emergency situation,

startup, shutdown, and batch process sequencing.
4. Optimization of operations
This calculates the plant operating conditions that will

result in the highest profit, lowest cost, or minimum
energy consumption, are just a few examples, and take
into account the limitations and operating constraints
for the plant.
Automatic Control
WHAT AUTOMATIC CONTROL?
The manipulation of energy input/output relationship,

so as to keep process variable to within desired limit.
A technique of balancing supply (materials or energy)

against demand over a period of time so as to maintain
a process at some predetermined level of operation
called setpoint (SP).
In order to attain this, the controller compares the measured variable

(PV) with the set point and then makes an adjustment in the final
control element based on the difference between the set-point and the
measured variable and this is the error (e).
Advantages of Automatic Control
1. The process operator are relieved of the more onerous

tasks thus making better use of manpower.
2. Steady conditions reduce the waste of raw materials and
fuel.
3. Plant can be operated nearer to its maximum capacity
that it be with manual control.
4. The superior control improves the quality of the product.
5. A more uniform product is obtained and thus it can
conform closer to a given specification.
6. Processes can be operated which could not be manually
controlled.
7. It makes production facilities flexible enough to suit a
different production task with little time and effort.
Automatic Control (Process Control)
Evolution of Automatic Control

(Process Control)
Manual Control with Indicating Instruments
Automatic Control
Manual Control

Automatic Control
Controller
Converter
Transmitter
Final Control
Element
Sensing Element
TERMINOLOGIES
Transmitter is a device that changes the value of

a measured variable to a standard signal that can
be easily sent to other instruments or devices. It
is the combination of transducer, amplifier, and
signal conditioning.
Controller is a device having an output that varies

to regulate a controlled variable in a specified
manner. A controller may be a self-contained
analog or digital instrument, or it may be the
equivalent of such an instrument in a shared-
control system.
TERMINOLOGIES
Signal conditioning is the processing of a

transducer signal from the point of measurement
to the point of display. e.g., square root extractor,
linearizer, etc.
Converter/Transducer is the system component

that converts a signal into another kind of signal.
Final Control Element is a device that converts

the signal generated by a process controller into
action needed to correctly control the process.
Electro/Pneumatic Flow control
How do we control a process?

1st Step -
gather data - transmitters, switches
2nd step -
processing the data controllers
Finally -
causing a control action - control valves
Three basic operations:
1. Measurement. Measuring the variable to

be controlled
2. Decision. Based on the measurement, the

controller decides what to do to maintain
the variable at its desired value.
3. Action. As a controllers decision, the

system must take an action. This is usually
accomplished by the final control element.
ELEMENTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL (AUTOMATIC CONTROL)
UPSETS OR DISTURBANCES
MANIPULATED CONTROLLED
VARIABLE VARIABLE
PROCESS
FINAL CONTROL SENSOR

ELEMENT
TRANSMITTER
CONTROLLER
RECORDER
INDICATOR
ALARMS
INTERLOCK
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A PROCESS CONTROL LOOP

Example of Process Control Loop (Temperature Control Loop)
Automatic Process Control Example
(1) Measure the outlet

SP temperature of the process
stream by a sensor
TC
Controller (thermocouple, resistance
Final control temperature device,
element
Steam thermistors, etc
(2) Transmitter transmits the
Transmitter
Process TT
signal to the controller
fluid (3) Controller compare the signal
Ti(t) T(t)
Sensor
to the desired value, and
T decides what to do to
Condensate
return
maintain the temperature at
its desired value.
Heat exchanger control loop (4) The controller sends a signal
to the final control element to
manipulate the steam flow.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
Types of Signal
1. Electrical Signals
The value of current or voltage represents the value of
the measured variable.
2. Pneumatic Signals
The value of the air or gas pressure represents the value
of the measured variable.
3. Hydraulic Signals
The value of the fluid pressure represents the value of
the measured variable.
4. Telemetered Signals
The value of certain frequencies or amplitude of radio
signals represents the value of measured variable.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
Standard Signal Ranges
1. Current - 4 20 mA
2. Voltage - 1 5 VDC
3. Pneumatic - 3 15 psi
Note that the lower value represents zero percent

( 0% ) and the upper value represents one
hundred percent ( 100% ) of full scale ( F.S. ).
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
VARIOUS CONVERTERS
I/P current to pneumatic

P/I pneumatic to current
E/I voltage to current
I/E current to voltage
I/I current to current (isolator)
A/D analog to digital
A/A analog to analog
J/I power to current
D/A digital to analog
TRANSMITTER
A transmitter is a device for converting the response of a

primary element into a useable signal, which then
transmitted either to an indicating instrument or to a
controller. Thus, transmitters can be regarded as being forms
of secondary element.
A device that senses a process variable through the medium

of a sensor and has an output whose steady-state value
varies only as a predetermined function of the process
variable. The sensor may or may not be integral with the
transmitter (Instrument Society of America).
An instrument which changes a sensor output to a standard

signal is properly designated as a transmitter not a converter.
TRANSMITTER
Standard Signal
Electrical: 4 20 mA (DC current)

Span = 20 mA 4 mA = 16 mA
Others: 10 50 mA, 1 5 mA (DC current)

0 5 V, 0 10 V (DC voltage)
AC voltage
Digital transmission
Pneumatics: 3 15 psi (20 to 100 kPa) gauge pressure range

Span = 15 psi 3 psi = 12 psi
Others: 3 27 psi
6 30 psi (more force)
TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER
Pneumatic signal vs percent process
TRANSMITTER
Electronic signal values vs percent process measurement
TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER
The advantages arising from using a current as an electrical signal

for transmission purposes are as follows:
very often, the power source for the transmission circuit can be
sited within the receiver, so that only a two-wire connection then
need be used;
several loads at varying locations can be connected in series, up
to a specified limit on the total resistance, with the transmitter
behaving as a current source;
the length and resistance of the transmission circuit does not
affect the signal sensitivity. Provided that the upper limit on circuit
resistance is not exceeded;
electrical signal travels greater distance and less time lag;
signal can be made compatible with master digital computer;
handle multiple-input signal
Advantages in the Use of Transmitters
1. Signal can be transmitted for a long distance.

Example: Controller to be in centralized control room
Distance between sensor and controller is 900 ft.
2. Transmission of signals is possible even if the process and its variable is located in
a hazardous location, e. g., corrosive, toxic environment.
3. Process variable which many not be readily usable is converted to standard

electrical or pneumatics signal.
4. The actual controller themselves can be exactly alike, and therefore readily
interchangeable. In fact for pneumatic transmitters, all the controllers become
pressure controllers with an input range of 3 15 psi. When electronic
transmitters are used the controller will have a variable milliampere range input.
5. The transmitters are generally designed in such a way that the full range of output .
can be obtained for a variable range in the controlled variable.
In all cases the same controller can be used no matter whether the controlled
condition is pressure, temperature level, flow, etc. This standardization has great
advantages from a design, maintenance and supply point of view.
Two-wire (loop-powered)Transmitter
Note that only two wires are required (again not

including the input leads). These 2 wires both power the
transmitter and transmit the output signal. Thus, the two-
wire transmitter has an advantage in not requiring a
local power source.
It is possible to convey electrical power and

communicate analog information over the same two
wires using 4 to 20 milliamps DC, if we design the
transmitter to be loop-powered. A loop-powered
transmitter connects to a process controller in the
following manner:
Two-wire (loop-powered)Transmitter
Power supply can be

located far away from
the transmitter
Power + Signal
Four-wire (self-powered) Transmitter
DC electric current signals may also be used to

communicate process measurement information from
transmitters to controllers, indicators, recorders, alarms,
and other input devices. The simplest form of 4-20 mA
measurement loop is one where the transmitter has two
terminals for the 4-20 mA signal wires to connect, and two
more terminals where a power source connects. These
transmitters are called 4-wire or self-powered. The
current signal from the transmitter connects to the process
variable input terminals of the controller to complete the
loop:
Four-wire (self-powered) Transmitter
Power
Signal
SMART Transmitters
SMART Transmitters transmits digital intelligent information

superimposed on the 4 20 mA signal. Using the smart field
communicator (SFC), the following information can be accessed
anywhere along the transmitters 2-wire line.
Instrument ID
Lower Range Value ( LRV )
Upper Range Value ( URV )
Span
Measured value
Calibration range
Above data can be changed anytime using the SFC. A unique advantage
of a Smart transmitter is its fieldbus communications application for use
with Distributed Control Systems (DCS).
SMART Transmitters
375 HART Communicator
SMART Transmitters
Loop Check for HART Transmitter
SMART Transmitters
Loop Check for HART Transmitter
CONTROLLER
Function of a controller
The standard controller compares that manipulated variable

value (4-20 mA, 3-15 psi or digital data) input signal from
the transmitter continuously with the set value (setpoint)
and gives an output (4-20 mA, 3-15 psi or digital data)
dependent on the deviation (error) and the control action
CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER
BASIC IDEAS
1. The response of an automatic controller must be

chosen to oppose any change in the measurement
that moves it (the measurement) away from the
setpoint.
2. A controller holds the measurement at a constant
value by balancing the supply against the load on the
system.
3. A controller must react to changes in measurement
caused by changes in:
- load
- setpoint
- supply
CONTROLLER
Electronic controller Pneumatic controller
OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM/CONTROL
Open-loop control simply involves making an estimate of

the form or quantity of action to accomplish a desired
objective. Its basis is in prediction.
In open-loop control, no check is made to determine

whether or not the corrective action taken has
accomplished the desired objectives.
Open-loop control is capable of perfect control if the

prediction is absolutely correct in all aspects. If, however,
any one of the variables affecting the desired outcome
deviates from the quality or quantity upon which prediction
was based, open-loop control will not give perfect control.
Since open-loop control makes no final comparison of the
actual (controlled) and desired results, any error in
prediction (the fixed program) will produced a difference
between the desired and actual result.
Advantages: Relatively simple, resulting in cost, reliability,

maintainability advantages
Inherently stable
Disadvantages: Relatively slow in response to demand

changes
Inaccurate, due to lack of corrective

action for error
Example of Open Loop Control
TYPICAL OPEN LOOP PROCESS
Setpoint
TYPICAL OPEN LOOP PROCESS
Open Loop
CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM/CONTROL
In a closed-loop system, the set point and the value of the

controlled variable are compared to each other in a comparer
(or comparator or error detector). The output of a comparer
represents the difference between the two values. The
difference signal then feed into the controller, allowing the
controller to affect the process.
error = measured value - set point
All closed-loop system are characterized by the ability to

compare the actual value of the controlled variable to its
desired value (or set point), and automatically take action
based on that comparison; they are self-correcting
Advantages: Relatively fast in response to demanded changes
Relatively accurate in matching actual to desired

value
Disadvantages: Relatively complex
Potentially unstable, under fault condition
Example of Closed Loop Control
TYPICAL CLOSED LOOP PROCESS
Setpoint
Open Loop Control vs Closed Loop Control
Open loop system
Closed loop system
Pressure Control Loop
In gas or vapor systems we regulate inventory as pressure.

A typical system is shown below. Both the inlet and outlet
are gas or vapor. Therefore if the control valve is shut then
the pressure in the tank will rise and vice versa
Pressure Control Loop
Level Control Loop
Consider simple feedback control of the level in a tank. This being the
case it is necessary to measure the level directly and adjust the flow into
or out of the tank to keep it constant.
As can be seen the control system

consists of
A Level Transducer denoted by LT in

the diagram.
A Control Valve.
A Level Controller denoted by LC.
Level Control Loop
Level control system
Temperature Control Loop
To change the temperature of something it is necessary to add or take

away energy. This can be achieved in one of two ways.
Transfer energy indirectly, using a second stream, through coils, tubes,

jackets etc. The second stream could be, for example, steam, cooling
water, another process stream or even a source of power as in an
electric element.
Mix in a second stream directly. This stream will have a different energy
content from the original.
There are advantages and disadvantages for both methods. With the
first there is the problem of transferring heat through the walls of the
'coil'. In the second the energy is absorbed directly but with the
additional problem of increased flowrate/volume.
Temperature Control with Steam Heating
Flow Control Loop
The most basic requirement in any chemical plant is to be able

to make the flow through a pipe take a particular value.
Consider first therefore the simplest item of plant equipment,
namely a pipe, as shown below
Flow Control Loop
The basic pipe has had the following parts added to it, to make a control system.
A flow measuring device or Flowmeter. This consists of two parts
- Firstly an Orifice Meter. This is shown in the diagram by two parallel lines.
- This is connected to a sensor or Flow Transducer labeled FT in the
figure.
An adjustable valve or Control Valve which alters the flowrate. This is shown
by its conventional flowsheet symbol.
Finally these are connected by the Controller itself identified by the element
FC.
This completes a control system to regulate the measured quantity, here the
flow, by adjustment of the valve position. Compare this with the block diagram
which we used earlier to introduce the feedback control system.
Flow Control Loop
Electro/Pneumatic Flow control
Flow Control Loop
All Electric System Pump Speed Control
FEEDBACK CONTROL
The feedback concept consists of three parts:
1. The variable that is to be controlled is measured

(or calculated from measurements).
2. The measurement is compared with desired or set point

value. The difference between measurement and the
set point is the error signal.
3. A process variable is adjusted or manipulated to

decrease the error signal perhaps even to zero.
The feedback concept implies a complete circle or loop.
Manual Control. Feedback
A manual control system is one in which a process operator

performed the function of a controller and nearly all process
variables can be controlled manually when the necessity
arises. One advantage of this
method is that the process
operators can usually take
effective action in abnormal
circumstances such as when
large variations in load or
changes in reaction rates
occur. It is fairly common
practice to start-up a plant
on manual control since it is
usually possible to establish
stable conditions in a
reasonably short period of
time.
Closed-Loop Control. Automatic Feedback Control
In a closed-loop control configuration, a measurement is

made of the variable to be controlled, and is compared
with a reference point. If a difference, or error, exists
between the actual and desired levels, the automatic
controller will take the necessary corrective action.
Inlet Flow
TIME
A Level control
Vessel Level
system
TIME
Controller Output
TIME
Response of feedback control

TYPICAL FEEDBACK LOOP PROCESS
Setpoint
TYPICAL FEEDBACK LOOP PROCESS
Tsp MV STEAM
TIC
SP PV
HX HOT
OUT
TT
COLD
IN
TA
Closed Loop
FEEDFORWARD CONTROL
Feedback control worked to eliminate errors but

feedforward control operates to prevent errors from
occurring in the first place.
Feedforward control does escalate tremendously, however, the requirements of the

practitioner. The practitioner must know in advance what disturbances will be
entering the process, and there must be adequate provisions to measure these
disturbances. In addition, the operator must know specifically when and how to
adjust the manipulated variable to compensate exactly for the effects of the
disturbances. If the practitioner has this specific ability and if this ability is perfectly
available, then the controlled variable will never vary from its desired value or
setpoint. If the operator makes a mistake or does not anticipate all of the
disturbances that might affect the process, then the controlled variable will deviate
from its desired value and, in a pure feedforward control, an uncorrected error will
exist.
Manual Feedforward Control
In this situation, as disturbance enters the process the operator

observes an indication of the nature of the disturbance and, based on
the entering disturbance, the operator adjusts the manipulated variable
in such a manner as to prevent any ultimate change or variation in the
controlled variable due to the disturbance.
Closed-Loop Control. Automatic Feedforward Control
Control operates forward in the anticipation that its effect will

produce the desired effect.
General conceptual frame work of automatic feedforward control
Disturbances are shown entering the process and there are available sensors to
measure these disturbances. Based on these sensed or measured values of the
disturbances, the feedforward controllers then calculates the needed values of the
manipulated variables. Setpoints, of course, which represent the desired values of
the controlled variables are provided to the feedforward controllers.
A feedforward level control system
CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER
The two main parts of the controller:
the control station

the controller
These two main parts may be mounted:
integrally mounted; together in one instrument

case
rack mounted; the controller is close to the
control station on a rack behind the control panel
field mounted; the controller being mounted close
to the correcting element
CONTROLLER
Deviation indicator
Typical control station
CONTROLLER
Classification of Automatic Controllers
1. According to controlled condition
These are pressure, flow, temperature, liquid level,

speed, quality (pH, CO2, viscosity, etc.), etc.
Note: A pressure controller is composed of pressure

transmitter and a standard controller. Measured
conditions is translated by the transmitter to
standard signals and fed to a standard controller.
2. According to control action
a. Discontinuous
1)Two-step (two-position) or on/off
The output signal alternate between two values.
2)Multi-step (multi-position)
The output signal varies to predetermined values.
b. Continuous
The output signal varies is continuous function of the
input signal.
These are classified into:
1) Single term (Single mode)

Proportional (P)
2) Two term (Two mode)

Proportional + Integral (PI)
Proportional + Derivative (PD)
3) Three term (Three mode)

Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID)
3. According to power source
a. Self-operating controllers or self-acting controllers (or

patterns) or self-contained controllers (Regulators)
Do not use auxiliary power.
Self-acting patterns obtain the power necessary for their

operation from the processes they are controlling. Most
self-acting controllers have a fairly narrow, fixed width
proportional band.
ELEMENTARY LOOP CONCEPTS
Reverse Acting Type
Direct Acting Type
THE PROCESS BLOCK
TWO POSITION CONTROL
Type of control action in which the manipulated variable is

quickly changes to either a maximum or a minimum value
depending on whether the controlled variable is greater or
less than the set point or some band with about the set point.
The minimum value of the manipulated variable is usually
zero (off). By definition, two-position control means that the
final operator is either in the open or the closed position. The
controlling unit will never maintain the operator in an
intermediate of throttling position.
On-Off Control
On-off control is the most common two-position control. As soon as

the measured variable differs from the desired control point, the final
operator is driven to one extreme or the other. This control action is
also known as open/shut or bang-bang control.
On-off control is best applied to a large capacitance process that

has essentially no dead time such as a large tank or bath or batch
type processes. The rate -of- rise (or fall) of the output curve is small
because the energy inflow is small compared with the large
capacitance of the system. A system where dead time is short and
rate-of rise is slow can be handled adequately by on-off control.
On-Off Control
Example of On-Off Control
On-Off Control
Hysteresis
On-Off Control
A high value of hysteresis

results in an increased in
amplitude but decreased in
frequency of the controlled
variable
On-Off Control
The main advantages of on/off control are simplicity and

low cost. This is why it is frequently found on domestic
applications such as oven toasters and AC units.
Its major disadvantage is that the operating differential

might fall outside the control tolerance required by the
process. For example, on a distillation column, product
separation is achieved through precise temperature control,
on/off would be unsuitable.
If accurate temperature control is required, the next option

Process control.
is continuous
Control

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INTRODUCTION

How do you define

Others definition of Instrument

It is a device that is used to extend the capabilities of man to

Building Management System

It is the event or changes of events that takes place in

A change of state of energy, such as hot to cold, liquid to

A change in composition, as in mixing different materials.

Any operation or sequence of operations involving a

1. Process Space A space where accumulation and

2. Environment The contributor and benefactor of the

Units operation , e. g., boilers, chemical reactors,

Inputs: Mass and energy, disturbance

Automatic controllers, i. e., digital, analog

Inputs: setpoints, measurements

Transducers, sensors and signal conditioners,

Inputs: millivolts, milliamps

Simple and complex plants, i. e., a sequence of series

Inputs: energy, raw material, policy, disturbance

WHAT IS PROCESS CONTROL?

The technology of controlling a series of events to transform

Is the manipulation of energy input/output relationship, so as

Industrial process control was originally performed manually by

Process control can take two forms:

Continuous process control comes in many forms, such as

In complex industrial process control applications, such as in the

Controlled Quantities or Controlled Variables

Manipulated Quantities or Manipulated Variables

Control inputs are also known as manipulated variables

Any physical parameter that can change either

The word DYNAMIC conveys the idea of a time

First Order Lag

Often referred to as linear lags, capacity lags or

These components are characterised by the capacity to

Time Constant, (tau)

The time constant is defined for such a first-order processes

The time required, measured from the point where the

The basis why 63.2 percent is used in the definition of the

Response of a First-Order Lag to a Step Change

Elapsed Time Percent of Response Percent of

PROCESS DELAY CURVE

Definition: The time required after an upset is introduced into a process

A long conveyor system giving an excessive deadtime to the control loop

HIGHER ORDER LAGS

Higher-order system can be the results of several different situations:

Several first-order lag processes may be encountered in series.

The installed feedback controller may introduce a characteristic

Mechanical or fluid components of the system may be subject to

The process may be a distributed process which gives a response

Two-capacity process Reaction curve for two-capacity process

Reaction curve for three-capacity process

Reaction curve showing short, medium and long deadtimes

a. Specific gravity, density

The primary objective of process control is to cause

1. Keeping industrial processes at their most efficient

Process control is a technique of regulating and directing an activity

Deals with the control of some variable, either measured

2. Feedback improvement or stabilization

This is designed to improve the operation of basic

This includes the handling of emergency situation,

This calculates the plant operating conditions that will

WHAT AUTOMATIC CONTROL?

The manipulation of energy input/output relationship,