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reject unwanted frequencies. would be equal and the shape factor would be 1.
However, this value is impossible to achieve in a practical
Instead, it is better to give the receiver bandwidth circuit.
at two levels of attenuation: -3 dB and -60 dB. A radio receiver must be capable of separating the desired
channels signals without allowing interference from an
adjacent channel to spill over into the desired channels
passband.
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Recall that thermal noise is directly proportional to Sensitivity of a receiver is the minimum RF signal
level that can be detected at the input to the receiver
bandwidth. and still produce a usable demodulated information
Bandwidth improvement is the noise reduction signal. (Although the quality of a usable information
ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth. signal is arbitrary.) It is also known as the receiver
threshold.
The sensitivity of a receiver is usually stated in
microvolts (V) of received signal.
The sensitivity of an AM receiver depends on:
where BI is the bandwidth improvement, BRF is the RF the noise power present at the input to the receiver,
bandwidth and BIF is the IF bandwidth. the receivers noise figure,
minimum input level necessary to discern a system to produce, at the output of the receiver, an
signal and the input level that will overdrive the exact replica of the original source information.
receiver and produce distortion. Any frequency, phase, or amplitude variations that
In other words, the dynamic range is the input are present in the demodulated waveform that
power range over which the receiver is useful. were not in the original information signal are
considered distortion.
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Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver There are three distinct disadvantages of the TRF:
One of the earliest types of AM receiver was the 1. Its bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with center
frequency when tuned over a wide range of input
tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver. frequencies. This is caused by skin effect.
The TRF includes an RF stage, a detector stage and an 2. It is unstable due to the large number of RF
audio stage. amplifiers all tuned to the same center frequency. High-
frequency, multi-stage amplifiers are susceptible to
breaking into oscillations. This can be reduced by a
technique called stagger tuning wherein each amplifier
is tuned to a slightly different frequency, slightly above
or below the desired center frequency.
3. Its gain is not uniform over a very wide frequency
range due to the non-uniform L/C ratios of the
transformer-coupled tank circuits in the RF amplifiers.
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Mixer/converter section includes a RF oscillator stage IF section consists of a series of IF amplifiers and
(local oscillator) and a mixer/converter stage (first bandpass filters and it is often called the IF strip. Most
detector). of the receiver gain and selectivity is achieved in this
section.
Local oscillator can be any oscillator circuit The IF center frequency and bandwidth are constant for
depending on the required stability and accuracy. all stations and are chosen so that their frequency is
Mixer stage - is a nonlinear device the purpose of less than any of the RF signals to be received.
which is to convert RF to intermediate frequencies (IF). Why at a lesser frequency than RF?
Despite the frequency translation (most common IF used It is easier and less expensive to construct high-gain,
in AM broadcast-band receivers is 455 kHz), the shape stable amplifiers for the low-frequency signals.
of the AM envelope remains the same. (IFs range from IF amplifiers are less likely to oscillate than their RF
450 kHz to 460 kHz.) counterparts.
Detection section its purpose is to convert the IF Frequency Conversion in an AM Superheterodyne Receiver
signals back to the original source information. It is Frequency conversion in the mixer/converter stage is
identical to the frequency conversion in the modulator stage
generally called an audio detector or the second of a transmitter except that in the receiver, the frequencies
detector. The detector can be as simple as a single are down-converted rather than up-converted.
diode or as complex as a phase-locked loop (PLL) RF signals are combined with the local oscillator frequency
or balanced demodulator. in a nonlinear device. (Caveat: The local oscillator frequency
is not the same as the carrier frequency, since a
Audio amplifier section comprises several superheterodyne receiver is the noncoherent-type.)
cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more The output frequencies of the mixer include the sum and
speakers. The number of amplifiers used depends difference frequencies between the desired RF carrier and
on the audio signal power desired. local oscillator frequencies.
The local oscillator is designed such that its frequency of
oscillation is always above or below the desired RF carrier
by an amount equal to the IF center frequency.
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As a consequence, the difference between the RF and Mathematically, the local oscillator frequency is
the local oscillator frequency is always equal to the IF.
For high-side injection
The adjustment for the center frequency of the
For low-side injection
preselector and the adjustment for the local oscillator
frequency are gang tuned. Where fLO = local oscillator frequency (hertz)
Gang tuning means that the two adjustments are
fRF = radio frequency (hertz)
mechanically tied together.
When the local oscillator is tuned above the RF, it is fIF = intermediate frequency (hertz)
called high-side injection or highbeat injection.
When the local oscillator is tuned below the RF, it is
called low-side injection or lowbeat injection.
In AM broadcast-band receivers, high-side injection is
always used.
EXAMPLE:
For an AM superheterodyne receiver that uses high-
side injection and has a local oscillator frequency of
1355 kHz, determine the IF carrier, IF upper side
frequency, and the IF lower side frequency for an RF
wave that is made up of a carrier and upper and
lower side frequencies of 900 kHz, 905 kHz and 895 Note: Sideband inversion occurred during the
kHz, respectively. heterodyning process.