In heat transfer at a boundary (surface) within a fluid, the Nusselt

number (Nu) is the ratio of convective toconductive heat transfer across

(normal to) the boundary. In this context, convection includes both
advection anddiffusion. Named after Wilhelm Nusselt, it is a
dimensionless number.
A similar non-dimensional parameter is Biot Number, with the difference
that the thermal conductivity is of the solid body andnot the fluid.

A Nusselt number close to one, namely convection and conduction of

similar magnitude, is characteristic of "slugflow" or laminar flow. A larger
Nusselt number corresponds to more active convection, with turbulent
flow typicallyin the 1001000 range.
The convection and conduction heat flows are parallel to each other and
to the surface normal of the boundarysurface, and are all perpendicular
to the mean fluid flow in the simple case.
The mass transfer analog of the Nusselt number is the Sherwood number.
The Prandtl number (Pr) or Prandtl group is a dimensionless number,
named after the German physicist LudwigPrandtl, defined as the ratio of
momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity is dependent only on the
fluid and the fluid state.
As such, the Prandtl number is often found in property tables alongside
other properties such as viscosity andthermal conductivity.
For most gases over a wide range of temperature and pressure, Pr is
approximately constant. Therefore, it can beused to determine the
thermal conductivity of gases at high temperatures, where it is difficult to
measureexperimentally due to the formation of convection currents.
Small values of the Prandtl number, Pr << 1, means the thermal diffusivity
dominates. Pr >> 1, the momentum diffusivity dominates the behavior.
Whereas with large values, In heat transfer problems, the Prandtl
number controls the relative thickness of the momentum and thermal
boundary layers. When Pr is small, it means that the heat diffuses quickly
compared to the velocity (momentum).
This means that for liquid metals the thickness of the thermal boundary
layer is much bigger than the velocityboundary layer.The mass transfer
analog of the Prandtl number is the Schmidt number

Fourier's law
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the
time rate of heat transfer through a materialis proportional to the
negative gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right angles to
that gradient, through which the heat flows.

Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is
proportional to the difference intemperatures between the body and its
surroundings while under the effects of a breeze.

Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the concentration under the
assumption of steady state. It postulates that
the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low
concentration, with a magnitude that is
proportional to the concentration gradient (spatial derivative), or in
simplistic terms the concept that a solute will
move from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration across a concentration gradient.

Fick's second law predicts how diffusion causes the concentration to

change with time.

Raoult's law It states

that the partial vapor pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of
liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the
pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture.
Negative deviation
If the vapor pressure of a mixture is lower than expected from Raoult's
law, there is said to be a negative
deviation. This is evidence that the adhesive forces between different
components are stronger than the average
cohesive forces between like components. In consequence each
component is retained in the liquid phase by
attractive forces that are stronger than in the pure liquid so that its
partial vapor pressure is lower.
Positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law. Maxima
and minima in the curves (if present) correspond to azeotropes
or constant boiling mixtures.
For example, the system of chloroform (CHCl3)
and acetone (CH3COCH3) has a negative
deviation[4] from Raoult's law, indicating an
attractive interaction between the two
components that has been described as a
hydrogen bond.[5]

Positive deviation
When the cohesive forces between like moleculesare greater than the
adhesive forces betweendissimilar molecules, the dissimilarities of
polarityleads both components to escape solution more easily. Therefore,
the vapor pressure is greater than expected fromthe Raoult's law,
showing positive deviation. If the deviation is large, then the vapor
pressure curve shows amaximum at a particular composition and form a
positive azeotrope. Some mixtures in which this happens are (1)benzene
and methanol, (2) carbon disulfide and acetone, and (3) chloroform and
ethanol.

In other words, the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial

pressure in the gas phase. Theproportionality factor is called the Henry's
law constant.

The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the

distance from the body at which the temperature is 99%
of the temperature found from an inviscid solution. The
ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the Prandtl
number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same
thickness. If the Prandtl number is greater
than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary
layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1,
which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary
layer is thicker than the velocity boundary
layer.

Convective heat transfer, often referred to simply as convection, is

the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids.
Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and
gases. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer,
convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of conduction
(heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer by bulk fluid flow).

Two types of convective heat transfer may be distinguished:

Free or natural convection: when fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that result from the density variations due to
variations of thermal temperature in the fluid. In the absence of an
external source, when the fluid is in contact with a hot surface, its
molecules separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less dense.
As a consequence, the fluid is displaced while the cooler fluid gets
denser and the fluid sinks. Thus, the hotter volume transfers heat
towards the cooler volume of that fluid.[2] Familiar examples are
the upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object and the
circulation of water in a pot that is heated from below.
Forced convection: when a fluid is forced to flow over the surface
by an external source such as fans, by stirring, and pumps, creating
an artificially induced convection current.[3]

Terminal velocity is the highest velocity attainable by an object as it falls

through air. It occurs once the sum of the drag force (Fd) and buoyancy
equals the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the
net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.[1]
In fluid dynamics, an object is moving at its terminal velocity if its speed
is
constant due to the restraining force exerted by the fluid through which
it is
moving.
As the speed of an object increases, the drag force acting on the object,
resultant of the substance (e.g., air or water) it is passing through,
increases.
At some speed, the drag or force of resistance will equal the gravitational
pull on the object (buoyancy is considered below). At this point the object
ceases to accelerate and continues falling at a constant speed called
terminal
velocity (also called settling velocity).

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of

friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction)
refers to forces acting opposite to the relative motion of any object
moving with respect to asurrounding fluid.[1] This can exist between two
fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other
resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of
velocity, drag forces depend on
velocity.[2][3] Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar
flow and the squared velocity for a turbulent flow. Even though the
ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is
independent of viscosity.[4]Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity
relative to the solid object in thefluid's path.

Conductance
For general scientific use, thermal conductance is the quantity of heat
that passes in unit time through a plate of
particular area and thickness when its opposite faces differ in
temperature by one kelvin. For a plate of thermal
conductivity k, area A and thickness L, the conductance calculated is
kA/L, measured in WK1 (equivalent to: W/
C).