Geophysics plays a big role in petroleum industry, especially in petroleum exploration,

because of the planning step it does for determining the precise location of the reservoir. Before
we drill for the oil and gas, firstly we have to do some prospecting whether the drilling and all
other processes worth the cost or not. This prospecting can be done in several ways; two of them
are geological prospecting and geophysical prospecting. Sometimes, people call it simply G&G
sector in oil and gas industry. Thats why geophysical engineers are important in oil and gas
industry.

Exploration
During the exploration, there are geological and geophysical aspects that we need to be
concerned upon. Geology cant stand alone without geophysics, and so is geophysics.

Geological Aspect

In petroleum industry, we know that there exists a petroleum system:

Usually, black shale acts as source rock. The characteristics of source rock (the rock from
which the hydrocarbons are generated) are as following:

1. It has a lot of organic content (TOC);

 2. It has a high value of porosity to store organic content;
3. Quality capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbons (proportions of individual kerogens
and prevalence of long-chain hydrocarbon)
4. Thermal maturity
After being migrated upward due to the lower density compared to the groundwater,
hydrocarbons are kept within reservoir rocks. Reservoir rock has the following characteristics fro
geologys point of view:
1. It has a high value of porosity. Porosity is the ratio of pore space volume to the total rock
volume. High value of porosity indicates there are many pore spaces within the rock.

2. It has a high value of permeability. Permeability is the rocks capability to flow fluids
within its pore space. Usually, porous rocks are permeable too. But, in some cases where
the pores are not interconnected, the rock may be porous but not permeable.

The common examples of reservoir rocks are sandstone, carbonate sedimentary rock
(limestone, dolomite).
 Beneath the sedimentary layer in petroleum system, there are basement rocks. Those are
composed of igneous or metamorphic rock where storing oil and gas is not possible due to the
poor value of porosity and permeability.

What affects porosity and permeability?

Primary causes (related to the rock formation process and deposition):

1. Grain sorting: a well-sorted rock with larger overall pore volume is more porous than
one that is poorly sorted.

2. Shape of the grains: grains with high sphericity tend to pack themselves well to make
a minimum pore space, the fact which increases angularity and hence pore space
volume increases.

Secondary causes (related to the external forces):

1. Fracture and vugs: it may enhance the value of permeability as the pore space
increases.
2. Compaction and overburden process: The more grains are compacted, more the
volume of void spaces decreases. However, the compaction of sand is less effective
than the way clay does.

Petroleum system needs traps to ensure that the hydrocarbons dont migrate somewhere
else. A trap forms when the buoyancy forces driving the upward migration
of hydrocarbons through a permeable rock cannot overcome the capillary forces of a sealing
medium. The timing of trap formation relative to that of petroleum generation and migration is
crucial to ensuring a reservoir can form.

There are several types of trap:

 1. Structural traps

Fold (structural) trap

Fault (structural) trap

Structural traps are formed as a result of changes in the structure of the subsurface due to
processes such as folding and faulting, leading to the formation of domes, anticlines,
and folds. Examples of this kind of trap are an anticline trap, a fault trap and a salt dome trap.

They are more easily delineated and more prospective than their stratigraphic
counterparts, with the majority of the world's petroleum reserves being found in structural traps.

2. Stratigraphic traps

Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral and vertical variations in the thickness,
texture, porosity or lithology of the reservoir rock. Examples of this type of trap are
an unconformity trap, a lens trap and a reef trap.

3. Hydrodynamic traps

Hydrodynamic traps are a far less common type of trap. They are caused by the
differences in water pressure, that are associated with water flow, creating a tilt of the
hydrocarbon-water contact.

The seal is a fundamental part of the trap that prevents hydrocarbons from further upward
migration. A capillary seal is formed when the capillary pressure across the pore throats is
greater than or equal to the buoyancy pressure of the migrating hydrocarbons. They do not allow
fluids to migrate across them until their integrity is disrupted, causing them to leak. There are
two types of capillary seal whose classifications are based on the preferential mechanism of
leaking: the hydraulic seal and the membrane seal.
 The membrane seal will leak whenever the pressure differential across the seal exceeds
the threshold displacement pressure, allowing fluids to migrate through the pore spaces in the
seal. It will leak just enough to bring the pressure differential below that of the displacement
pressure and will reseal.

The hydraulic seal occurs in rocks that have a significantly higher displacement pressure
such that the pressure required for tension fracturing is actually lower than the pressure required
for fluid displacement for example, in evaporites or very tight shales. The rock
will fracture when the pore pressure is greater than both its minimum stress and its tensile
strength then reseal when the pressure reduces and the fractures close.

Geophysical Aspects

In geophysical exploration, there are three steps: (1) acquisition, (2) processing, and (3)
interpretation. Geophysics concerns with the study of subsurface condition and the content within
it. For oil and gas industry, below are several methods used to estimate the location of
hydrocarbons:

1. Seismic method: one of the most frequently used method in geophysical exploration for its
versatility. This is a set of geophysical methods of exploration based on a study
of artificially induced waves of elastic vibrations propagating in the Earth crust. It is one
of the geophysical exploration methods leading in terms of diversity of tasks to be solved,
as well as in resolution characteristics and operation depth. There are two types of seismic
method: seismic reflection and refraction
Physical principles used in this method: Snells Law, wave equation, body wave and
surface wave elastic properties of rock.
What parameter is measured: travel times of seismic waves
Physical properties obtained: density and elastic moduli, which determine the velocity in
each geological layer.
Other prominent variables: acoustic impedance (Z=density*velocity), reflection
coefficient (R= (Z2-Z1)/(Z2+Z1))
Seismic reflection: is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles
of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface
from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of
 energy, such as dynamite or Tovex blast, a specialized air gun or a seismic
vibrator, commonly known by the trademark name Vibroseis. Reflection
seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation. This method can be done on land
(onshore) or marine environment (offshore). To interpret the mechanical signal into
electrical signal, seismic transducer is used. On land, it is called geophone. On
marine, it is called hydrophone. This method is useful for the field with great depth.
Seismic refraction: Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle governed
by Snell's Law. Used in the fields of engineering geology, geotechnical
engineering and exploration geophysics, seismic refraction traverses (seismic
lines) are performed using a seismograph(s) and/or geophone(s), in an array and an
energy source. The seismic refraction method utilizes the refraction of seismic
waves on geologic layers and rock/soil units in order to characterize the subsurface
geologic conditions and geologic structure. The methods depend on the fact that
seismic waves have differing velocities in different types of soil (or rock): in
addition, the waves are refracted when they cross the boundary between different
types (or conditions) of soil or rock. The methods enable the general soil types and
the approximate depth to strata boundaries, or to bedrock, to be determined. It is
useful for keeping the cost at minimum. But, the disadvantage is that it needs a lot
of horizontal space.

After acquisition, the data is processed further so we can get the imaging of subsurface.
Then, we can interpret the image by picking horizon (drawing lines to know the
geological structure in the image).
 After data processing and interpretation using Petrel software, this is the result.
2. Gravity method: The purpose of gravity surveys is to aid in the detection and delineation
of subsurface geological features. Gravity meters measure the differences in gravitational
attraction between points of measurement. Non-geological effects are removed from the
measured values to produce gravity anomalies that are caused by rocks having anomalous
density in comparison with the density of the surrounding rocks.
The unit of gravity measurement is the Gal, named after Galileo, and is equal to 1
cm/sec2. The earth's gravity field is typically about 980 Gal. Field instuments are capable
of detecting differences in the earth's field between 0.000001 and 0.0001 Gal (or between
1 Gal and 0.1 mGal), depending on the instrument. Other factors, such as errors in
positioning data or the movement of the meter, usually cause larger uncertainties in the
observations than those inherent in the gravity meter itself. Measurements are made on
 the ground surface, on the water bottom, in ships on the sea surface, in aircraft, and in
boreholes. Even though seismic method has been used widely for hydrocarbon
exploration, gravity method is still used to cover the uncertainty in seismic data. Many
geophysicists use these two methods subsequently to get better results.
Measured parameter: variation of gravity strength
Physical properties obtained: density
Physical principles used: gravitational law
3. Magnetic method: The magnetic method measures variations in the Earth's magnetic
field. Surveys are typically conducted by measuring the magnetic field strength along
survey transects, or on closely spaced lines forming a grid over the area of interest.
Variations in the Earths magnetic field occur for a variety of reasons, and may be
strongly influenced by the underlying geology. In addition, daily (diurnal) variations
occur in the field strength, due to interaction of the solar wind with the ionosphere. After
the data are processed, the data are plotted either as line profiles or contour maps.
Localized variations or distortions in the magnetic field within a survey area are
considered magnetic anomalies. Anomalies may be caused by subsurface geologic
conditions, surface cultural features, or buried ferromagnetic objects. The character of the
anomalies is evaluated as to shape, size, and amplitude, and an interpretation is made for
the suspected cause. Compared to other geophysical methods, magnetics can offer an
advantage in ease of deployment in rough terrain, and in areas where vegetation may
obstruct larger instruments, such as electromagnetic coils.
Measured parameters: variation of geomagnetic field
Physical properties obtained: magnetic susceptibility and remanence
Physical principles used: magnetic field law