Body Tissues and Membranes

A tissue is composed of similarly specialized cells that perform a common function in the body.

Tissue is any group of cells of similar structure that perform a common function. They also have a nonliving material between
the cells called the extracellular matrix which we will discuss in detail later.
There are 4 basic tissue types:

o Epithelial (covering)
o Connective (support)
o Muscle (movement)
o Nervous (control) tissue

Epithelial tissue covers a body surface or lines a body cavity and is present on almost all glands.

Functions of Epithelia

o Protection of underlying tissues

o Sensory reception via nerve endings/receptors
o Diffusion (movement of molecules down their concentration gradients)
o Absorption (taking molecules into cells)
o Note role of Microvilli in pic above (to absorb)
o Secretion (releasing molecules from cells)
o Ion transport (moving charged ions across the tissue)
o Filtration (removal of molecules from fluid)
o Forms slippery surfaces (production of mucus)
o Note role of Cilia in pic above (to propel)

Special characteristics of Epithelia

o High Cellularity (cells separated by minimal amounts of ECM)

o Specialized contacts (cells joined by special junctions)
o Polarity (Apical surface differs from basal surface)
o Supported by layer of connective tissue (includes a basement membrane)
o Avascular (has no blood vessels) but innervated (has nerves). It receives nutrients from underlying connective tissue
where capillaries lie.
o Regeneration (lost cells are quickly replaced by mitosis)

How to Classify Epithelia

First name of tissue indicates number of cell layers

o Simpleone layer of cells

o Stratifiedmore than one layer of cells

Last name of tissue describes shape of cells

o Squamouscells are wider than tall (plate-like) squashed

o Cuboidalcells are as wide as tall, like cubes
o Columnarcells are taller than they are wide, like columns

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues cover the body surface, line most cavities, and form glands.

Functions include protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration.

They may be classified according to cell shape (i.e., squamous, cuboidal, or columnar) and whether or not they form layers:
unstratified (simple), stratified, or pseudostratified.

Special Characteristics of Epithelium

Composed of closely packed cells with little extracellular material between. Cells secrete a thin, underlying sheet of material
(primarily glycoproteins) called the basal lamina or basement membrane. The basal lamina acts both as a filter that
determines which molecules can diffuse from the deeper connective tissue and as a scaffold.

Adjacent epithelial cells are bound together by specialized contacts such as desmosomes and tight junctions.

Exhibits polarity by having an apical surface (free) and a basal surface (attached).

Supported by the underlying connective tissue.

Innervated (has nerves) but avascular (blood supply is in supporting connective tissue).

Has a high regeneration capacity.

Absorptive cells may have microvilli on their apical surface to increase the absorptive surface area.

Some epithelial cells are ciliated; the cilia of respiratory epithelium moves mucus over the surface of the cells, ciliated cells in
the female reproductive tract move oocytes into and down the uterine tubes.

Squamous Epithelium
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Columnar Epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Transitional Epithelium

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue has relatively few cells separated by a large amount of extracellular matrix (as opposed to epithelial
tissue which exhibits high cellularity). The matrix of blood is not fibrous though and is the plasma.
All have a common embryonic origin known as mesenchyme. Mesenchymes are undifferentiated loose connective tissue that
are capable of developing into connective tissue, such as bone and cartilage.

The suffix -BLAST roughly means immature cell or tissue and is involved in making something, in this case, the
matrix. Anything with a -cyte suffix means CELL and is maintaining or involved with the final product.

Cells in Connective Tissue (mostly secrete ECM)

1. Fibroblasts are cells in connective tissue that make fibrous proteins and secrete the molecules that form ground
substances and collagen.
2. Chondroblasts secrete matrix in cartilage (to make chondrocytes).
3. Osteoblasts secrete matrix in bone to help create bone.
4. Blood cells dont produce matrix. In blood, the ECM is plasma.
5. Fat cells, white blood cells and mast cells may also be present in connective tissue.

Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

Extracellular Matrix = Ground substance that has a lot of sugar-proteins and large sugars. Extracellular matrix is composed
of ground substance (ranges from gel-like to hard in texture) and protein fibers (collagen, reticular, elastic). It provides
cushioning and protection such as the kidneys, which are surrounded by fat.

Protein fibers such as

Collagen fibers: very strong, comparable to iron or steel but they are very tiny. These are the thickest and strongest of the 3
fibers.

Reticular fibers are found in organs that have lots of mesh-like internal structure. The spleen for example is full of these
because it acts like a filter.

Elastic fibers stretch and recoil and contain a rubberlike protein called elastin.

Classification of connective tissues

o Loose connective tissue (areolar, adipose and reticular)

o Dense connective tissue (regular, irregular, elastic)

Three types of loose connective tissue

1. Areolar connective tissue is soft and gel like with some elasticity and holdsinterstitial fluid which carries and delivers
nutrients or waste. It helps facilitate the passage of these molecules for the most part. This is also where so many of our
defenses wait. Macrophages, mast cells and white blood cells gather here. It wraps and cushions organs and is widely
distributed under epithelia of the body. This contains all 3 fiber types in its matrix secreted by fibroblasts.

2. Adipose (fat) tissue are required to protect your organs and help maintain your body temperature. For example, lots of this
is found in womans breasts and under our skin.

3. Reticular connective tissue forms the soft internal skeleton of something. Thespleen and lymphoid organs for example, is
full of these because it acts like a filter that catches all sorts of things.

Three types of dense connective tissue

1. Dense regular connective tissue attaches muscle to bone and with the cells organized in one direction so that it pulls in
one direction, like a tendon that connects to the bicep. It is made primarily of parallel collagen fibers, a few elastic fibers and
the major cell type is the fibroblast.

2. Dense irregular connective tissue are like capsules for organs and joints that wrap around them. Irregular allows for
movement in different directions, like the shoulderor under the skin or the fibrous capsule of an organ or joint. Its made
primarily of irregularly arranged collagen fibers, some elastic and the major cell type is the fibroblast.

3. Elastic connective tissue has the ability to receive a relatively large amount of blood all at once with a lot of pressure. The
aorta for example has to expand and recoil RIGHT AWAY because the next heart beat is on the way. Its just like a dense
regular connective tissue but with a high proportion of elastic fibers instead.

Connective tissues bind structures together, provide support and protection, fill spaces, and store fat. The cells of connective
tissues are separated by a nonliving, noncellular matrix which often contains fibers.

Fibers of the connective tissue provide support.

Collagen fibers are extremely strong and provide high tensile strength to the connective tissue. Their strength and ability to
withstand twisting makes collagen fibers excellent choices for construction of "cables" that attach bone to bone (ligaments)
and muscle to bone (tendons).

Elastic fibers contain elastin, which allows them to be stretched and to recoil. They're great for keeping your skin taut (watch
the wrinkles appear when the elastin goes way), allowing blood vessels to stretch when blood is pumped through, and
allowing your ear to pop back into shape after your mom uses it to pick you up off the floor when you misbehave at the
grocery store, but they aren't really very strong, certainly not compared to collagen.

Reticular fibers are fine, collagenous fibers that form networks.

Each major class of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that exists in immature and mature forms.

Connective tissues include loose connective tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood.

Loose

(Areolar) Connective Tissue

Areolar connective tissue serves to bind body parts together while allowing them to move freely over one another, wraps
small blood vessels and nerves, surrounds glands, and forms the subcutaneous tissue.

Adipose

Adipose (fat) tissue is a richly vascularized tissue that functions in nutrient storage, protection, and insulation.

Fibrous (Dense) Connective Tissue

Dense regular connective tissue contains closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction and makes
up tendons and ligaments.

Dense Regular
Dense irregular connective tissue contains thick bundles of collagen fibers arranged in an irregular fashion, and is found in
the dermis and fibrous capsules of joints and some organs.

Dense Irregular

Reticular Connective Tissue

Reticular connective tissue forms the internal framework of the lymph nodes, the spleen, and the bone marrow. Reticular
fibers work a bit like spider webs, allowing leukocytes to attach and sample lymph or blood as it flows through lymphoid
organs.

Cartilage

Cartilage lacks nerve fibers and is avascular.

Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage providing firm support with some pliability.
 Hyaline

Elastic cartilage is found where strength and exceptional stretchability are needed, such as the external ear and epiglottis; the
extracellular matrix contains elastin fibers for flexibility.

Fibrocartilage is found where strong support and the ability to withstand heavy pressure are required, form intervertebral
discs and meniscii; the extracellular matrix contains dense collagen fibers.

Bone

Bone (osseous tissue) has an exceptional ability to support and protect body structures due to its hardness, which is
determined by the additional collagen fibers and calcium salts found in the extracellular matrix.

Two forms, compact and spongy (more later).

Blood

A type of connective tissue in which the extracellular matrix is liquid and contains soluble proteins that aren't made by the
cells of the tissue (exception: some leukocytes secrete gamma globulins, or antibodies).
Muscular Tissue

Muscular tissue is composed of fibers (cells) that contract. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control and functions to move
body parts. Both smooth and cardiac muscle are under involuntary control. Smooth muscle is found in blood vessels and
visceral organs, and cardiac muscle is found in the heart.

Skeletal
Smooth

Cardiac
Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is composed of conducting cells called neurons and supporting cells called neuroglia.

Neurons initiate and/or conduct nerve impulses.

Neuroglia of the CNS

Astrocytes - provide nutrients to neurons, recycle some neurotransmitters, control the chemical environment around neurons,
and secrete glia-derived growth factor, which supports the growth and health of neurons.

Microglia - phagocytes, related to macrophages, clear debris in the CNS.

Oligodendroglia - form myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the CNS.

Ependymal cells - filter plasma to make cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Neuroglia of the PNS

Schwann cells - form the myelin sheath around axons of neurons in the PNS, gaps between Schwann cells are nodes of Ranvier

Extracellular Junctions
Glands

Composed of epithelial cells

Exocrine - secrete through ducts onto surfaces

Endocrine - ductless, secrete hormones into body fluids

Goblet cells - unicellular glands, secrete mucin onto mucous membranes

Membranes

Mucous membranes line the interior walls of tubes that open to the outside of the body.

Serous membranes cover organs and line body cavities.

Synovial membranes line freely movable joint cavities.

Meninges cover the brain and spinal cord.

The cutaneous membrane (or skin) covers the body surface.