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SYNOPSIS
millions of years, when primitive humans had to face
four major problems: (1) arrest of posttraumatic loss of
History shows that almost every possible local flap has been substance; (2) bleeding; (3) infection; and (4) pain.
described in the past and that the ingenuity of plastic surgeons
was unlimited.
Attempts to transform a defect that heals slowly by
The lesson drawn from history reveals that the so-called new flaps secondary intention into one healing quicker by primary
are variations of what has already been published. intention may well account for the first example of a
We have to be humble and recognize that nothing is new under reparative procedure.
the sun. However, this must have been quite complex without
appropriate tools, in the presence of hemorrhage and
without anesthesia. There is no documentation of stitch-
Gaspare Tagliacozzi (15451597), from Bologna, Italy,
ing of wounds among primitive people.2 We may
defined plastic surgery as the art devoted to repairing
extrapolate from what was reported in ancient Hindu
congenital or acquired defects (to restore what Nature
medicine, where wound edges were sewn with simple
has given and chance has taken away), and which has
means like fibers or strips of tendon, or pinned together
as its primary goal the aim of correcting a functional
using insect mandibles.
impairment, but also re-establishing an appearance as
close as possible to normality (the main purpose of this
procedure he writes is not the restoration of the In Ancient Egypt
original beauty of the face, but rather the rehabilitation
We are well informed about Egyptian surgery thanks to
of the part in question).1 The term plastic comes from
the Smyth papyrus, the most ancient medical text. The
the Greek (plastics), moldable.
papyrus is a later transcription (about 1650 BC) of an
original manuscript dating from the Old Kingdom
Origin of plastic surgery (between 3000 and 2500 BC). It describes 48 surgical
cases, including wounds, fractures, dislocations, sores,
The distant past and tumors, and suggests their potential management.
Fresh wounds were treated conservatively with the
The ancient origin of plastic surgery relates to the application of grease and honey using linen and swabs.
healing of wounds. Management of wounds caused by Adhesive strips of cloth, stitches or a combination of
stones, weapons, arrows, and animal bites goes back clamp and stitches were advocated to bring together the
In Rome
Fig. 2.1 Indian forehead flap nasal reconstruction. (Reproduced from BL. Letter to In Rome, surgery was well developed, at least judging
the editor. Gentlemans Magazine 1794;64:891892.) from the rather sophisticated bronze instruments dis-
covered in Pompei and now kept at Naples National
the high level of surgery reached by the Indians in car- Museum. Many were stored in traveling kits to be used
rying out an operation, without anesthesia, in a very by surgeons for emergency or in the battlefields.
similar way to what we perform nowadays. The two most representative figures of Roman medi-
cine were Celsus and Galen.
In Greece Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BC50 AD) was probably
not a physician, but a writer from a noble family and
Greek medicine was influenced by Hippocrates, the the author, in about 30 AD, of De Medicina (On Medicine)
greatest physician of his time. Historians consider that in eight volumes. In book seven, chapter nine, vessel
Hippocrates was born in the island of Kos around ligature and lithotomy as well as lip closure (cleft lip or
the year 460 BC, and probably trained in medicine at the lip tumor) by means of flaps are reported. It explains
Asklepieion of Kos. In ancient Greece and Rome, the how defects of the ears, lips and nose can be cured
14 2 History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery
Fig. 2.2 Lip repair according to Celsus. (Reproduced from Nlaton C, Ombredanne Plastic surgery after the decline
L. Les Autoplasties. Paris, Steinheil, 1907.) of the Roman Empire
Byzantine surgery
(curta in auribus, labrisque ac naribus, quomodo sarciri et
Oribasius (325403 AD) wrote a collection of medical
curare possint), followed by a description of wound
texts entitled Synagogae Medicae in which reconstructive
closure by advancement flap.10 The defect should be
procedures for cheek, nose, ears, and eyebrow defects
converted into a square (in quadratum redigere). Then,
are described.12 Paulus of Aegina (625690 AD), surgeon
from the inner angles transverse incisions are made
and obstetrician, was the author of a medical encyclo-
(lineas transversas incidere), so that the part on one
pedia (Epitome) in seven volumes. In book 6, which
side is fully divided from that on the opposite side.
deals with surgery, a description of tracheotomy, tonsil-
After that, the tissues which have been undermined,
lectomy, and lip repair is supplied.13,14 Defects [Greek,
are brought together (in unum adducere). If this is
colobomata] of the lips and ears are treated in this way.
not possible two additional semilunar incisions are
First the skin is freed on the underside. Then the edges
made at some distance from the original (ultra lineas,
of the wound are brought together and the callosity is
quas ante fecimus, alias duas lunatas et ad piagam conversas
removed. Finally, stitches holding them into position
immittere), but only sectioning the outer skin. [] These
are applied. This technique closely resembles that of
latter incisions enable the parts to be easily brought
Celsus.
together without using any traction (Fig. 2.2). Celsus
holds a key role in the history of plastic surgery, as
he is considered the earliest writer on this topic. He The Middle Ages
is responsible for introducing the four cardinal signs
of acute inflammation, redness and swelling with
Arabian surgery
heat and pain (rubor et tumor, cum calore et dolore).
A copy of Celsuss manuscript was discovered in Arabian medical writers came from different nations,
Milan in 1443, and printed for the first time in 1478 such as Persia, Syria, and Spain. Their only common
in Florence.11 De Medicina went through more than 50 denominator was the language. The most representative
editions. figure was Abu-l-Qasim or Albucasis (c. 9361013 AD),
Claudius Galen (c. 129201 AD) was born in Pergamon whose famous treatise, Al Tasrif (On Surgery), was trans-
(Turkey), studied medicine at the Asklepieion (see lated into Latin and first published in 1500. It was the
Plastic surgery after the decline of the Roman Empire 15
Fig. 2.4 Portrait of Ambroise Par (15101590). Fig. 2.5 Cleft lip repair. (Reproduced from Par A. Les Oeuvres. Paris: Buon,
1575.)
of cautery was unnecessary (La mthode de traicter les Catania (Sicily). Gustavo (early 15th century) used skin
playes). He wrote extensively on surgery and his works taken from the cheek. His son, Antonio, made consider-
are collected in Les Oeuvres, published in 1575.16 To dem- able improvements to the operation. He selected the arm
onstrate relationships between anatomy and surgery, he as the donor site, to avoid further scars on the face.
borrowed images from De Humani Corporis Fabrica, About 1460, at Antonios death, the Branca method,
issued a few years earlier, in 1543, by Andreas Vesalius which was kept as a family secret and passed on by
(15141564). He sutured cleft lip, whereas he closed the word of mouth, was discontinued in Sicily.
cleft of the palate using obturators (Fig. 2.5). To approxi- In the late 15th century, nasal reconstruction was
mate scars he stitched adhesive on the outside of the resumed by Vincenzo Vianeo in Calabria (southern
wound margins (Fig. 2.6), and supported Tagliacozzis Italy). His sons Pietro (about 15101571) and Paolo
work on nasal reconstruction. (about 15051560) established a flourishing clinic for
rhinoplasty in Tropea (Calabria). Evidence of their
reconstructive work comes from the Bolognese army
Nasal reconstruction in the western world
surgeon Leonardo Fioravanti (15171588) (Fig. 2.7), who
In the western world the first attempt to restore the nasal assisted in Vianeos operations and published an accu-
pyramid dates back to the first half of the 15th century. rate report in Il Tesoro della Vita Humana (Treasure of
It was performed by members of the Branca family from Human Life) issued in Venice in 1570.17
Plastic surgery after the decline of the Roman Empire 17
Fig. 2.7 Portrait of Leonardo Fioravanti (15171588), who was the first to describe
the arm flap procedure for nasal reconstruction. (Reproduced from Fioravanti L.
Il Tesoro della Vita Humana. Venice: Sessa, 1570.)
Fig. 2.6 Facial wound suture. A piece of linen is stitched to the skin to facilitate
wound edge approximation. (Reproduced from Par A. Les Oeuvres. Paris: Buon,
1575.)
I moved to Tropea where at that time there were two Then follows the description of the arm flap
brothers Pietro and Paolo, who made a nose for anyone procedure.
who had lost his by some accident []. I went every day Possibly Fioravantis book came under the eyes of
to the house of these surgeons, who had five noses Gaspare Tagliacozzi (15441599) from Bologna, Professor
scheduled for repair and when they wanted to perform of Surgery at Bologna University, who successfully
these operations they called me to watch and I, pretending applied the technique on some patients. In 1597, he
I had not the courage to look at, I turned my face away, published in Venice a textbook De Curtorum Chirurgia
yet my eyes saw perfectly. Thus, I observed the whole per Insitionem (On the Surgery of Injuries by Grafting),1,18
secret from top to toe, and learned it. in which the nasal reconstruction operation is shown
18 2 History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery
A B C
Fig. 2.8 Nasal reconstruction with the arm flap. (A) Preoperative view of the patient. The missing nose and flap are outlined; (B) the flap sutured into position; (C) final
result. (Reproduced from Tagliacozzi G. De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem. Venice: Bindoni, 1597.)
step by step and skillfully illustrated. The instruments difficult to perform, became obsolete for almost two
necessary for the operation are presented first, followed centuries. Sporadic cases were reported in 17th- or
by the indications, flap outlined on the arm, flap inset, 18th-century literature. Instead of recommending autol-
the bandage necessary to secure the arm into position, ogous tissue for restoring a missing nose, surgeons
flap severed, trimmed, outcome of nasal repair, as well like Fallopio (15231562), Heister (16831758), Camper
as different clinical applications for lip and ear (Fig. 2.8). (17221789), and others advocated the application of an
The book was well received and was reprinted in a epithesis, convinced that noses made out of wood or
pocket edition at Frankfurt the following year, directed silver were far superior to those of skin.
specifically at military surgeons who were often
confronted with the problems of nasal repair in the The rebirth of plastic surgery
battlefields.
Although Tagliacozzi was not the discoverer of rhi- The 1794 letter to the editor of the Gentlemans Magazine
noplasty, and the arm flap operation is now rarely per- (see above) holds a key position in the revival of plastic
formed, he deserves credit for being the first to make a surgery. The English surgeon Joseph Constantine
work of art out of a surgical practice, for systematizing Carpue (17641846) read it and made practical and suc-
and promulgating nasal reconstruction. He is rightly cessful use of its contents. In 1814, he carried out the
considered the founder of plastic surgery. first forehead flap rhinoplasty of modern time at St.
Bartholomews Hospital, London, on an officer of His
Majestys Army, who had his nose amputated during
The decline of plastic surgery
a battle. The operation lasted 35 minutes, it was no
After Tagliacozzis death, apart from his pupil GB childs play, extremely painful the officer said but it
Cortesi (15541634), who published a book on nasal was no use complaining. At the end he exclaimed: my
reconstruction in 1625,19 the operation, which was God, there is a nose!
The 19th century 19
A B
Fig. 2.9 Nasal reconstruction with the forehead flap. (A) Preoperative view; (B) the flap transposed into position. (Reproduced from Carpue J.C. An Account of two
Successful Operations for Restoring a Lost Nose from the Integuments of the Forehead, in the Case of two Officers of his Majestys Army. London: Longman, Hurst, 1816.)
In 1816, Carpue issued an account of nasal recon- (17771832), chief surgeon at Montpellier, wrote
struction, which marks the prelude to the rebirth of Chirurgie Clinique de Montpellier in 1828, with a detailed
modern plastic surgery (Fig. 2.9).20 section on rhinoplasty.23 Outstanding works on the
rediscovered art were presented by Pancoast (1805
The 19th century 1882)24 in the US, Balassa (18141868)25 in Hungary, and
Sabattini (18101864)26 in Italy. A review of the state of
The golden age of plastic surgery the art of nasal reconstruction in Europe in the mid 19th
century was published by Nlaton and Ombrdanne in
Carpues work was immediately translated into German, 1904,27 and more recently by McDowell,28 Rogers,29 and
and Carl Ferdinand von Grfe (17871840), Professor Mazzola.30
of Surgery at Berlin University, promptly initiated With the advent of anesthesia (1846) and the possibil-
the operation. In 1818, he published Rhinoplastik oder ity of closing the donor site primarily, leaving a scar that
die Kunst den Verlust der Nase organisch zu ersetzen was often unnoticeable, forehead rhinoplasty became
(Rhinoplasty: or the Art of Reconstructing the Nose), where the procedure of choice due to its simplicity, good color
he compared the Italian and Indian procedures.21 Von match, and excellent results.
Grfe supported the arm flap, as he was unhappy about The first attempt to close a cleft palate goes back to
forehead donor site scar morbidity. the second decade of the 19th century. The priority is
The publications of Carpue and von Grfe stimulated shared between Carl Ferdinand von Grfe31 and Philibert
the interest of European surgeons to carry out nasal and Roux (17801854) from France.32 However, the greatest
other reconstructions. In Germany, Johann F Dieffenbach advance was made in 1862 by Bernard von Langenbeck
(17941847), head of surgery at La Charit Hospital in (18101887), who outlined two mucoperichondrial
Berlin, performed rhinoplasty, facial restorations, and flaps obtaining a more reliable closure.33 Refinements
cleft palate and cleft lip repairs. He reported his contri- in cleft lip repair were published by the Frenchmen
butions in Chirurgische Ehrfahrungen (Surgical Experiences), Joseph Malgaigne (18061865)34 and Germanicus Mirault
issued in 1829.22 In France, Jacques Mathieu Delpech (17961879) in 1844.35
20 2 History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery
A B
Fig. 2.10 The lip switch technique for upper lip repair: (A) flap outlining; (B) final result. (Reproduced from Sabattini P. Cenno storico dellorigine e progressi della
Rinoplastica e Cheiloplastica seguita dalla descrizione di queste operazioni praticamente eseguite sopra un solo individuo. Bologna: Belle Arti; 1838.)
A B
C D
Fig. 2.12 (AD) Upper and lower eyelid repair with a temporal and cheek flap respectively, according to Fricke. (Reproduced from Fritze HE, Reich OFG. Die plastische
Chirurgie. Berlin, Hirschwald, 1845.)
A B C D
Fig. 2.15 Sequelae of facial burn from World War I. Repair using the tubed flap: (A) preoperative view of the patient; (B) outlining of the tubed flap; (C) the flap in position;
(D) final result. (Reproduced from Gillies H. Plastic Surgery of the Face. London: Frowde, Hodder and Stoughton, 1920.)
The 20th century 23
A B
Fig. 2.16 Cheek flap transposition for closing of an orbitopalpebral defect. (Reproduced from Esser JFS. Die Rotation der Wange. Leipzig: Vogel, 1918.)
Fig. 2.18 Fernand Lematre and Eastman Sheehan at the International Clinic in Fig. 2.19 Executive Council members of the Socit Europenne de Chirurgie
Paris, in 1927. Structive, Brussels, 1936. From left to right: Sir H Gillies, JFS Esser, M Coelst, P
Kilner, G Sanvenero Rosselli.
as course director (Fig. 2.18). The 2-year fellowship coined by Johannes Esser, as he considered it more
included an intense program of lectures and practical appropriate than plastic to emphasize the repairing
surgical demonstrations. Attendees from various parts concept.
of Europe and the US were numerous. Among them was In 1937, Vilray Blair organized the American Board to
the Italian Gustavo Sanvenero Rosselli, later appointed certify real plastic surgeons.
head of the Plastic Surgery Clinic in Milan. In the US
the first training program was organized by Vilray Blair The scientific journals
at Washington University in St. Louis.
At the time of the foundation of the American Society
The birth of the scientific societies (1931), the Belgian Maurice Coelst established and
edited the Revue de Chirurgie Plastique (Fig. 2.20). The
The aim of the scientific societies was to improve the journal, the first one on this topic, played an important
scientific level of the specialty and to defend the public role in the history of plastic surgery between the
from charlatans. The first society was the American two wars. Thanks to an international editorial board,
Association of Oral and Plastic Surgeons, established which included the most important plastic surgeons,
in 1921 by Truman Brophy (18481928), who strongly the journal published high-quality papers written by
supported close cooperation between oral and plastic Gillies, Maliniak, and Rethi, the proceedings of the
surgeons. Initially membership required the MD and American Society of Plastic Surgery and those of the
DDS degrees. Socit Franaise de Chirurgie Rparatrice Plastique et
In Europe, the first society was the Socit Franaise Esthtique.53 Papers appeared in the authors preferred
de Chirurgie Rparatrice Plastique et Esthtique, estab- language and were summarized in English, French, and
lished in 1930 by Charles Claou (18971957) from German.
Bordeaux and Louis Dartigues (18691940) from Paris. In 1935, the Revue de Chirurgie Plastique changed its
It only lasted 2 years. name into Revue de Chirurgie Structive, becoming the
In 1931, Jacques Maliniak (18891976) founded the official journal of the Socit Europenne de Chirurgie
American Society of Plastic Surgeons. Structive. The Revue lasted until the end of 1938 (8
The first supranational society was the Socit years), when it ceased publication, due to the advent of
Europenne de Chirurgie Structive, created in 1936 by World War II.
the Belgian Maurice Coelst (18941963) (Fig. 2.19), with In 1946, the Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Journal
the aim of gathering annually all those specialists inter- was established and Warren B Davis was appointed as
ested in the new discipline.52 The term structive was editor.
Aesthetic surgery 25
Fig. 2.20 The first issue of the Revue de Chirurgie Plastique, established by M
Coelst in 1931.
A B C
Fig. 2.22 The latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap according to Tansini. (A) Flap outlined; (B) flap transposition; (C) final result. (Reproduced from Tansini I. Sopra il
mio nuovo processo di amputazione della mammella. Gazz Med It 1906;57:141.)
Development
The importance given to personal appearance pro-
duced, in the early 20th century and especially during
The problem of the beauty doctors
the interwar period, a horde of quacks, charlatans,
However, the real explosion of aesthetic surgery took and beauty doctors often working in beauty salons,
place in Europe and in the US between the two world exclusively on a commercial basis. They advertised in
wars. newspapers, womens magazines, and yellow pages
Aesthetic surgery 27
as cosmetic surgeons. They appealed to popular imagi- President of the American Association of Plastic
nation by promising a more attractive look with simple, Surgeons in 1935, despite the controversial view of
fast procedures on an outpatient basis, at relatively high him of many of his American colleagues, who regarded
cost and by insisting on how beautiful faces and noses him as a publicity-seeking skilled operator. Maliniak
were crucial in creating a favorable first impression for is best remembered as the founding member of the
finding a job, or expanding social relationships.62 American Society of Plastic Surgeons in 1931. He was a
For this reason trained surgeons practicing recon- prolific writer, publishing Sculpture in the Living (1934)65
structive as well as aesthetic procedures established and Rhinoplasty and Restoration of Facial Contour, (1947)66
plastic surgical societies in the interwar period (see and had an important aesthetic surgical practice in New
above) in an attempt to isolate purely cosmetic sur- York, mainly for nose and breast. Webster was one of
geons. The idea was to draw a separating line between the founding fathers of US plastic surgery and a talented
beauty doctors and true plastic surgeons. However, surgeon in the reconstructive as well as aesthetic field.
it was not an easy task because the general public was Smith was course director at Lematres International
more interested in the successes of cosmetic surgery Clinic in Paris, and author of Reconstructive Surgery of
than in the outcome of reconstructive procedures. the Head and Neck, issued in 1928 with a section devoted
An example is given by Charles C Miller (18801950), to aesthetic rhinoplasty.67
regarded as an unscrupulous charlatan by some In Paris, Suzanne Nol (18781954) established a
or the father of modern cosmetic surgery by others successful solo practice in the very exclusive 16th
for having published in 1907 The Correction of Featural arrondissement. Her operations were simple, but effec-
Imperfections, a pioneering work on aesthetic proce- tive, mainly related to facial rejuvenation and entirely
dures, where facial operations, such as double-chin performed on an outpatient basis (Fig. 2.24). Major
excision and eyelid and nasolabial fold modification, surgery, such as abdominoplasty or mammoplasty was
were illustrated.63 Miller made extensive use of paraffin executed in a private clinic. In 1926, she published La
injections, considered the panacea for improving Chirurgie Esthtique. Son Rle Sociale, one of the first text-
saddle nose. When paraffin was abandoned because of books on this topic and the first written by a woman.68
devastating local (paraffinomas) and systemic sequelae Raymond Passot (18861933), a leading Parisian aes-
(pulmonary embolism, phlebitis), he replaced it with thetic surgeon, added innovative techniques for breast
crude rubber mixed with gutta-percha and ground ptosis and abdomen and facial rejuvenation. His book
in a mill.64 La Chirurgie Esthtique pure, dating from 1931, shows
Another borderline cosmetic surgeon was Henry J a wide range of operations in the field of aesthetic
Schireson (18811949), who knew a moment of fame in surgery69 (Fig. 2.25). Julien Bourguet (18761952),
the US having successfully operated on a British actress. another Parisian cosmetic surgeon, became renowned
Apart from this episode, he faced a series of lawsuits for for having first presented the transconjunctival approach
malpractice which culminated in having his licence for baggy eyelid correction in 1929 at an international
revoked for a period of time. In 1944, Time defined him meeting. The detailed description was published
as the king of quacks. sometime later.70
Trained surgeons made considerable efforts to create In Berlin, in addition to Joseph, who carried out cos-
a positive view of plastic surgery. Their talent con metic operations other than rhinoplasty, such as facelift
tributed to transform a field regarded with suspicion or reduction mammoplasty,61 Eugen Hollnder (1867
into an accepted branch of surgery. Eastman Sheehan 1932) practiced. Hollnder was known for the first
(18851951), Jacques Maliniak (18891976), Jerome P account of a facelift done in 1901 at the request of a
Webster (18881974), Vilray Blair (18711955), Ferris noble lady, who urged him to perform an elliptical exci-
Smith (18841957), and others all played important roles sion of skin in front of her ear, believing that youth
in forming plastic surgerys professional and public could be retained through surgery.71 In the same paper,
image during the specialtys organizing years as a Hollnder shows two cases of facial atrophy he had
recognized medical branch. Sheehan, course director treated with fat injection, the first report of this type of
at Lematres International Clinic in Paris, was elected procedure.
28 2 History of reconstructive and aesthetic surgery
Fig. 2.24 Result of a facelift carried out by Suzanne Nol (18781954) about
1925. (Reproduced from Nol S. La Chirurgie Esthtique. Son rle sociale. Paris:
Masson, 1926.)
An account on the life of the Renaissance Bolognese surgeon 57. Rogers BO. A Chronologic History of Cosmetic Surgery.
Gaspare Tagliacozzi, who wrote the first textbook on plastic Bull NY Acad Med. 1971;47:265302.
surgery in 1597. Besides all the documents concerning Originated at the end of the 19th century, cosmetic surgery
Tagliacozzi, his life and technique for nasal reconstruction, developed rapidly in the US and in Europe. Blair Rogers
the work brings together a detailed history of plastic surgery traces the birth of this new branch of surgery by quoting the
from the remote ages to the 19th century. pioneers in this field like Miller, Joseph, Passot, Noel, and
29. Rogers BO. Nasal Reconstruction 150 Years ago: others, and highlighting their contributions.
Aesthetic and other Problems. Aesth Plast Surg. 5:283 62. Haiken E. Venus Envy. A History of Cosmetic Surgery.
327, 1981. Baltimore: Hopkins University Press; 1997.
Blair Rogers acquired an international reputation as the
The author describes the quest for perfection through surgery
historian of plastic surgery. He wrote numerous papers on
from the beginning of the 20th century until the present time
this topic during his life. The present work highlights the
in the US. Supervised by the late Robert Goldwyn, the book
history of nasal reconstruction in the early 19th century.
offers a brilliant overview about perception of the different
30. Mazzola RF. Reconstruction of the Nose. A historical cosmetic surgery procedures in American culture.
Review. Handchir Mikrochir Plast Chir 2007;39:181188.
65. Maliniak JW. Sculpture in the living. New York: Pierson,
It is well known that plastic surgery started as the art of 1934.
reconstructing noses. The present paper traces the history of
nasal reconstruction from its remote origin in India through 66. Maliniak JW. Rhinoplasty and Restoration of facial contour.
the 19th century. A complete overview of the different Philadelphia: Davis, 1947.
techniques available. 67. Smith F. Reconstructive Surgery of the Head and Neck. New
56. Tessier P, Guiot G, Rougerie J, et al. Ostotomies York: Nelson, 1928.
cranio-naso-orbito-faciales. Hypertlorisme Ann Chir Plast. 70. Bourguet J. La vritable Chirurgie Esthtique du visage.
1912:669712. Paris: Plon; 1936:56.
References 29.e1
33. Langenbeck BRC. Die Uranoplastik mittelst Ablsung 53. Rogers BO. U.S. plastic surgeons who contributed to the
des mucs-periostalen Gaumenberzuges. Arch kl Chir Revue de Chirurgie Plastique and the Revue de
1862;2:205287. Chirurgie Structive (19311938): Giants in our
34. Malgaigne JF. Nouvelle Mthode pour lopration du specialty. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 1999;23:252259.
bec de livre. J Chir 1844;2:16. 54. Manchot C. Die Hautarterien des menschlichen Krpers.
35. Mirault G. Lettre sur lopration du bec de livre. J Chir Leipzig: Vogel; 1889.
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der chirurgischen Krankheiten und der zu ihrer Heilung Originated at the end of the 19th century, cosmetic surgery
erforderlichen Instrumente, Bandagen und Operationen. developed rapidly in the US and in Europe. Blair Rogers
II Abt. Kau- u. Geschmaks-Organ. Tbingen: Laupp; traces the birth of this new branch of surgery by quoting the
18571860. pioneers in this field like Miller, Joseph, Passot, Noel, and
39. Fricke JCG. Die Bildung neuer Augenlider (Blepharoplastik) others, and highlighting their contributions.
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Besser; 1829. 621623.
40. Klasen HJ. History of free Skin Grafting. Berlin: Springer; 59. Roe JO. The correction of Angular Deformities of the
1981. Nose by a Sub-cutaneous Operation. Med Rec. 1891;40:
41. Baronio G. Degli Innesti Animali. Milan: Stamperia del 5759.
Genio; 1804. 60. Weir RF. On Restoring sunken noses without scarring
42. Baronio G. On Grafting of Animals. Translated by J. Bond the face. NY Med J. 1892;56:449454.
Sax. Boston: Boston Medical Library; 1985. 61. Joseph J. Nasenplastik und sonstige Gesichtsplastik nebst
43. Reverdin JL. Greffe Epidermique. Exprience faite dans einem Anhang ber Mammaplastik. Leipzig: Kabitzsch;
le Service de M. le Docteur Guyon lHpital Necker. 1931.
Bull Soc Imp Chir Paris. 1870;2 sr, 10:511515. 62. Haiken E. Venus Envy. A History of Cosmetic Surgery.
44. Ollier LXEL. Greffes Cutanes ou Autoplastiques. Bull Baltimore: Hopkins University Press; 1997.
Acad Md. 1872;1:243250. The author describes the quest for perfection through surgery
45. Thiersch C. ber die feineren anatomischen from the beginning of the 20th century until the present time
Vernderungen bei Aufheilung von Haut auf in the US. Supervised by the late Robert Goldwyn, the book
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cosmetic surgery procedures in American culture.
46. Wolfe JR. A new method of performing plastic
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47. Filatov VP. Plastika na kruglom steb (Plastic procedure
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1920. Philadelphia: Davis, 1947.
50. Esser JFS. Die Rotation der Wange und allgemeine 67. Smith F. Reconstructive Surgery of the Head and Neck. New
Bemerkungen bei chirurgischer Gesichtsplastik. Leipzig: York: Nelson, 1928.
Vogel; 1918. 68. Nel S. La Chirurgie Esthtique. Son rle sociale. Paris:
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Institut Esser de Chirurgie Structive; 1935. 69. Passot R. La Chirurgie Esthtique pure. Technique et
52. Mazzola RF, Kon M. EURAPS at 20 years. A brief Rsultats. Paris: Doin; 1931.
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Association of Plastic Surgeons (EURAPS). J Plast 71. Hollnder E. Die kosmetische Chirurgie. In: Joseph M,
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Further reading 29.e3