PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORT PROCESSES

CHAPTER 3. VELOCITY PROFILE OF TURBULENT FLOW IN CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Analyzing a Turbulent Pipe Flow via computational fluid dynamics

INTRODUCTION:
In the previous chapter we discussed laminar flow problems only. We have seen that the differential
equations describing laminar flow are well understood and that, for a number of simple systems, the
velocity distribution and various derived quantities can be obtained in a straightforward fashion. The
limiting factor in applying the equations of change is the mathematical complexity that one encounters
in problems for which there are several velocity components that are functions of several variables.
In this chapter we turn our attention to turbulent flow. Whereas laminar flow is orderly, turbulent flow is
chaotic. It is this chaotic nature that poses all sorts of difficulties. However, turbulence remain a very
important subject. In fact, most flows encountered in engineering are turbulent and not laminar! We are
very far from complete understanding of turbulence so solution to industrial problems are seldom
arrived through neat analyses. For the most part, such problems are attacked empirically: by a
combination of dimensional analysis and fitting to experimental data.
This chapter begins with a short discussion on the nature and intensity of turbulence, how it is
generated. We will also learn of arbitrary zones or regions within circular conduits in turbulent flow
which are crucial in the derivation of velocity distribution. We will also revisit the equations of change
and make simple analysis regarding the basic changes of the equation if applied in the turbulent case.
Then, we will survey various semi-empirical relations proposed so that finally, some expressions of the
velocity distribution in turbulent flow can be formulated. Then, we will also present some simplified
velocity distribution equations in the turbulent case that we can use as approximations and some
convenient graphs to correlate average velocity, maximum velocity and Reynolds numbers in the
turbulent region.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the nature of turbulence and how it is generated in fluid flow
2. Explain the concept of time smoothed velocity and turbulence intensity
3. Apply the concept of fluctuating velocity into the derivations of equations of change for
isothermal system
4. Explain the significance of Reynolds stresses
5. Explain the semi-empirical relations proposed for the Reynolds stresses
6. Discuss the derivation of the universal velocity distribution in turbulent flow
7. Characterize the different layers/regions that are assumed to hold in turbulent flow system
8. Use the universal velocity distribution for turbulent flow figure in plotting turbulent velocity
profiles
9. Write the more common approximations of velocity profiles in the turbulent region

What is turbulence? How is it created?

Turbulent fluid flow is characterized by the formation of eddies. Fluid flow is chaotic and is largely
fluctuating in all directions. In a turbulent flow the fluid and flow variables vary with time. The
instantaneous velocity vector, for example, will differ from the average velocity vector in both magnitude
and direction.
Turbulence can be generated by contact of two layers of fluid moving at different velocities or by a fluid
in contact with a solid boundary or when a jet of fluid from an orifice flows into a mass of fluid.
In turbulent flow at a given location in the fluid continuum and time, large eddies are continually being
formed which break down into smaller eddies and finally disappear. Flow inside an eddy is said to be
laminar.

Time-smoothed equations of change for incompressible fluids

We begin by considering a turbulent flow in a tube with a constant imposed pressure gradient. If at one
point in the fluid we observe one component of the velocity as a function of time, we find that it is
fluctuating in a chaotic fashion as shown in Fig. 1 (BSL).

Fig. 1. Sketch showing the velocity component vz, as well as its time-smoothed value v z & and its
fluctuation vz: in turbulent flow (a) for "steadily driven turbulent flow" in which v z does not depend on
time, and (b) for a situation in which v z does depend on time.
The fluctuations are irregular deviations from a mean value. The actual velocity can be regarded as the
sum of the mean value (designated by an overbar) and the fluctuation (designated by a prime). For
example:
v x v x vx , v y v y v y , v z v z vz Eqn. (1)

1 t Eqn. (2)
t 0
vx v x dt , same integration-based time smoothing applies to vy and vz

The time average of the fluctuations v are zero, however, the values of v are not zero. v is what we
2

call the time-smoothed velocity value.

It should be understood that these conditions (fluctuations, averages) also apply to other flow properties
such as pressure.

Intensity of turbulence
The time average of the fluctuating components vanishes over a time period of a few seconds.
However, the time average of the mean square of the fluctuating components is a positive value. The
level of turbulence intensity is quantified as:

1
v
x
2
v y 2 v z 2
I
3

v
Eqn. (3)
v x 2

where x-component of I is I x , and so on.

vx

Iz v

Figure 2. Relative representation of

turbulence intensity in the x
(perpendicular) and z (parallel)
directions with respect to the flow
z direction (along z).
Ix
x

Solid wall CL

The intensity of turbulence, may have values from 1 to 10% in the main part of a turbulent stream and
values of 25% or higher in the neighborhood of a solid wall. Fluctuations in the direction of flow (Iz) are
greater than those in the direction perpendicular to flow (Ix). There is also a tendency for the two
fluctuations ((Ix and Iz) to be very nearly the same at the center of the duct.
Hence, it must be emphasized that we are not necessarily dealing with tiny disturbances; sometimes
the fluctuations are actually quite violent and large.
Turbulent Shear or Reynolds Stresses

It must be remembered that the equations of change are still valid for turbulent flow. However,
additional terms (Reynolds stresses) arise when the said equation are applied to turbulent flow. To
show the development of the so-called Reynolds stresses, we need to go back to the continuity and
motion equations for a fluid of constant density and viscosity:

v x v y v z
0
x y z

v x v x v x v x 2vx 2vx 2vx p

vx vy vz 2 2 g x (for x-component)
t x y z x y 2 z x
The last equation can be also written as:

( v x ) ( v x v x ) ( v x v y ) ( v x v z ) 2v 2vx 2vx p
2x 2 g x
t x y z x y 2 z x
Replacing the velocity quantities according to:
v x v x vx , v y v y v y , v z v z vz and p p p Eqn. (1)

(v x vx ) (v y vy ) (v z vz )
0
x y z
( [v x v x ]) ( [v x v x ][v x v x ]) ( [v x v x ][v y v y ]) ( [v x v x ][v z v z ])

t x y z
( p p )
2 v x v x g x
x
Time-smoothing these equations, it would be directly given that the equations above will reduce to:

v x v y v z
0 Eqn. (4)
x y z

( v x ) ( v x v x ]) ( v x v y ) ( v x v z ) v x v x

v x v y

v x v z v
2

p
g x Eqn. (5)
t x y z z x
x
x y

It can be seen that time-smoothed values ( v , p ) replace the instantaneous values everywhere.
However, new terms arises (with overbars) which are clearly associated with turbulent velocity
fluctuations. For convenience, we use notation:

xxt vx vx , yxt vx vy , zxt vx vz Eqn. (6)

These are the components of the turbulent momentum flux and are called Reynolds stresses.

EMPIRICAL EXPRESSIONS FOR THE TURBULENT MOMENTUM FLUX

To obtain the velocity profiles for turbulent flow, simplifications must be made for the Reynolds stresses.
A number of empirical equations have been used.
A. Eddy diffusivity model of Boussinesq
By analogy to the equation for shear stress in laminar flow:
dv x Eqn. (7)
yx
dy
The turbulent shear stress can be written as:

dv x Eqn. (8)
yxt t
dy
Where t is a turbulent or eddy viscosity, which is a strong function and flow. This equation can also
be written as follows:
dv x Eqn. (9)
yxt t
dy

where t t and t is eddy diffusivity of momentum in m2/s by analogy to the momentum

diffusivity for laminar flow. The difficulties in analytical treatment still exist, however, as the eddy
diffusivity, t , is a property of the flow (specifically turbulence intensity and position) and not of the fluid.

B. Prandtl Mixing Length

Ludwig Prandtl proposed in 1925 that eddies move in a fluid in a manner similar to the movement of
molecules in a gas. The eddies or lumps of fluid move a distance called the mixing length L before
they lose their identity and absorbed in the host region.

Fig. 3. The Prandtl mixing length.

Prandtl assumed that the velocity fluctuation v x is due to a lump of fluid moving a distance L in the y
direction and retaining its mean velocity. At point L, the lump of fluid will differ in mean velocity from the
adjacent fluid by v x yL
v x y . Then, the value of v x y is:

vx y
vx vx y Eqn. (10)
yL

The length L is small enough so that the velocity difference can be written as:
 dv x
v x y
vx vx y
L Eqn. (11)
yL dy
Hence:

dv x
v x L Eqn. (12)
dy

Prandtl also assumed v x v y . Then the time average, vx vy is just analogous/made equal to the square
of v x :

dv x dv x
v x v y L2 Eqn. (13)
dy dy

Here we have another major empiricism: the minus sign and the absolute value were used to make
the vx vy quantity agree with experimental data. Relating this equation to Reynolds stress yx
t
vx vy
:

dv x dv x
yxt L2 Eqn. (14)
dy dy

dv x
Comparing with the proposition of Boussinesq, yx t
t
; we can assert that:
dy

dv x
t L2 Eqn. (15)
dy

At first glance it appears that little has been gained in going from the eddy viscosity to the mixing length.
There is an advantage, however, in that assumptions regarding the nature and variation of the mixing
length may be made on an easier basis than assumptions concerning the eddy viscosity.

Velocity distribution from the mixing-length theory

One of the important contributions of the mixing-length theory is its use in correlating velocity profiles
at large Reynolds numbers.
Consider a turbulent flow as illustrated in Figure 3. In the neighborhood of the wall the mixing length is
assumed to vary directly with y, and thus L= Ky, where K remains a dimensionless constant to be
determined via experiment. The shear stress is assumed to be entirely due to turbulence and to
remain constant over the region of interest. The velocity v x is assumed to increase in the y direction,
dv x dv x
and thus . Using these assumptions, we may write the turbulent shear stress as:
dy dy

dv x dv x
yxt L2 Eqn. (16)
dy dy

but L Ky , and absorption of the negative sign to K, so:

2
dv
t
yx K y x
2 2
0 (a constant, taken to be the shear stress at the wall). Eqn. (17)
dy
By simple algebraic manipulation:
 dv x
0 Eqn. (18)
dy Ky
The quantity 0 is observed to units of velocity. Integration of the above equation yields:

0
vx ln y C Eqn. (19)
K
The constant of integration C may be evaluated by setting v x v x max at y = h (point of maximum velocity
in the region of interest) whereby:

v x max v x 1 y
ln h
Eqn. (20)
0 K

As a show of how this proposition fits with actual systems, the constant K was evaluated by Prandtl
and Nikuradse from data on turbulent flow in tubes and found to have a value of 0.4. The agreement
of experimental data for turbulent flow in smooth tubes with last equation is quite good, as can be seen
from Figure 4.

20

Figure 4. Comparison of data for flow in smooth tube according to Eqn. (20).

C. Universal velocity distribution in turbulent flow

To determine the velocity distribution for turbulent flow at steady state inside a circular tube, we divide
the fluid inside the pipe into the following regions:
A thin, viscous sublayer adjacent to the wall where the shear stress is due only to viscous shear
and the turbulence effects are assumed negligible
A central core where the Reynolds stress approximately equal the shear stress
Buffer zone inbetween the two layers where both stresses are important. Other authors would
subdivide these zone into two: buffer and inertial layers
For turbulent flow in smooth tubes, Eqn. (19) may be taken as a basis for a more general development.
Recalling that the term 0 has the units of velocity, we may introduce a dimensionless velocity
vx 0 . Defining:

vx
v Eqn. (21)
0

( p0 p L ) R
Where 0 , an equation we derived in laminar flow. This applies in the thin, viscous
2L
sublayer because clearly flow is laminar at this region. We can rewrite Eqn. (19) as:

vx 1
v ln y C Eqn. (22)
0 K

The left-hand side is dimensionless and so the right-hand side must also be dimensionless. A pseudo-
Reynolds number is found useful in this regard. We define:

0
y y where (kinematic viscosity)

Eqn. (23)
0
y y

Eqn. (22) becomes:

1 y
v ln C
K 0

1 Eqn. (24)
v ln y C
K
where the constants are absorbed into the parameters K and C.

The validity of this velocity distribution equation in turbulent flow was checked by Nikuradse and
Reichardt (see Figure 6):
 27

25

26

Figure 6. Velocity correlation for flow in circular smooth tubes at high Reynolds number (H. Reichardt,
NACA TM1047, 1943).

As shown, the constants in Eqn. (24) have different values in each flow region. Best fit values of the
constants were determined and the following are the accepted universal velocity distribution in turbulent
flow:
For viscous/laminar layer:

v y (0 < y < 5) Eqn. (25)

For the buffer layer:

v 5.0 ln y 3.05 (5 < y < 30) Eqn. (26)

For the turbulent layer:

v 2.5 ln y 5.5 ( y > 30) Eqn. (27)

FURTHER EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR TURBULENT FLOW

Two important experimental results that are helpful in studying turbulent flows are:
the power-law relation for velocity profiles and
the turbulent-flow shear-stress relation due to Blasius.
Both of these relations are valid for flow adjacent to smooth surfaces.

A. Power Law Relation

For flow in smooth circular tubes, it is found that over much of the cross section the velocity profile may
be correlated by:
1
vz r n
1 Eqn. (28)
v z max R
where R is the radius of the tube and n is a slowly varying function of Reynolds number. The exponent
n is found to vary from a value of 6 at Re 4000 to 10 at Re 3,200,000. At Reynolds numbers of 105
the value of n is 7. This leads to the frequently used one-seventh-power law:
1
vz r 7
1 Eqn. (29)
v z max R

The power-law profile has obvious difficulty: the velocity gradient at the wall is incorrect. This expression
indicates that the velocity gradient at the wall is infinite. In spite of this shortcoming, this approximation
still has practical applications.

Figure 7. Qualitative comparison of laminar Figure 8. Average vs. maximum velocity in pipes
and turbulent velocity profiles. (Geankoplis).

Most of the time, we are given or can measure the average velocity in pipe and could be required to
estimate the maximum velocity. Conversely, some instrumentation makes it easier to measure the
maximum velocity (through the use of pitot tube). This can be easily computer if a velocity distribution
is available. In turbulent flow conditions, this may not be convenient. For facilitated work, we can use
the graph below.

B. Blasius correlation for shear stress

For pipe-flow Reynolds numbers up to 105, the wall shear stress in turbulent flow is given by:
1
4
0 0.0225 v 2
max
R = radius of pipe Eqn. (30)
max
v R

ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS:
1. Pressure drop needed for laminar-turbulent transition. A fluid with viscosity 18.3 cp and
density 1.32 g/cm3 is flowing in a long horizontal tube of radius 1.05 in. (2.67 cm). For what
 pressure gradient will the flow become turbulent? Give the answer in atmosphere per 1 km
length of tube. Read on what minimum NRE value that corresponds to turbulent flow.

2. Velocity distribution in turbulent pipe flow. Water is flowing through a long, straight, level
run of smooth 6.00 in. i.d. pipe, at a temperature of 68F. The pressure gradient along the length
of the pipe is 1.0 psi/mi.
(a) Determine the wall shear stress 0 in psi and Pa.
(b) Assume the flow to be turbulent and determine the radial distances from the pipe wall at
vz
which = 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.7, 0.85, 1.0.
v z max
vz
(c) Plot the complete velocity profile vs. y = R - r.
v z max
3. For the fully developed flow of water in a smooth 0.15-m ID pipe at a rate of 0.006 m3/s,
determine the thickness (in mm) of
a. the laminar sublayer;
b. the buffer layer;
c. the turbulent core.