ce ee Cir Earp) feCONTENTS 17 Digital Computers 12 1B Types of Computers 13 Summary 14 Questions 13 ‘NUMBER SYSTEMS 161 21 ‘The Decimal Namber Sysiem 17 22 ‘The Binary Namber System 20 ‘Coumting ia Bizary 20 Binary to Decimal Conversion 21 Decimal to Binary Conversion 23 Binary Addition 26 inary Subtraction 26 Binary Muliplication 28 Computer Med of Mipenion, 38 cay 1..01.2010 14:204. Loic cares 41 Ineoduetion 49 42 The AND Gate 90 43. The OR Gate 91 44 The NOT Gate 93 43. The Univeral Gates 94 The NAND Gate 94 The NOR Gate 95 45° The ExclusiveOR (KOR) Gate 98 47 The Encluive:NOR (NOR) Gate 99 48° Inhibie Cicuit. 100 ‘10 ANSUEEE Sand Lope Syiban_168 ‘11 Ped Operon ef Lops Gs Toe Seman) 16 Quan 7 Fett 19 2.6 Miscellasous Examples $5 Summary 56 Questions 58 Problems 38 3. BINARY CODES 3A Weighted and Non-ncighied Codes 62 12mass 62-88 Absorption Contensus Theorem (locluded Facer Theorem) 129 ‘Transposition Theorem 130 De Morgan's Theorem 130 “44.01.2010 14:21 Duals 16isean 43 Parallel Binary Adders 240 7 The Leok-abesd Cory Adie: 282 11.01.2010 14:2111.01.2010 14:21(Gidrctionaly Counter 411 ons Cascadcd IC Counters ith Trincited Sequences 454 Gounter Applicasons 355 Parlie-o-Senal Dats Conversions 455as le Lape Atay (EPLAY Fropammabic ROM (KONO s ter PLD Fess “618, Magic Mewotes. be Core Mercy “617 ee Disk Memory 618 Magnetic Recontiog Format 619 Floppy De 62? Hard Dat Syeoms_ 2 Mice Tape Memery 625 Magis Bible Mama "2s 1410 Opteat Bik Nemo 7 M1 Chargecoiped Dovecs 28 Sammary 628 Quesom 630 Appentic: Commonly Used Tih tex Glossary Arcoers to Problems Inder PREFACEData process: requires conversion of signals from a iil to unalog form. Various types of analog to iia Sonvertes are explained in Chapter 13 ‘author will gratefilly acknowledge suggestions from both suderis and leschers for further improvement of this book. : A. Amand Ke Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 4.1 DIGITAL AND ANALOG systems‘dein LOGIC LEVELS AND PULSE Wal Fig. 14 Meal positve and negatve pulses 11.01.2010 14:224 Fimdameniats of Dig Coes 4.4 FUNCTIONS OF picITAL LocIC etme mtease tt OT 2070 14:22 rm lic refer to something which ca fo tenss , the problems and processes tht we enoumer, ean beThis the process of swing information from several ines onto Alopicctcuit ws 1 smpare two guaiies nd ge a Seraaenpaan'e a esr cio ee are ‘0p quanti ee +T:01 “5(a Teeconserme Fig. 1.7. The comparator and the code converter. code Conversion (0) The ade corer regency division. To divide signal of eaucney The oxi ofthe coumtr al be of feqacney Edingra of trequcnty dialer 2 EE) Corp] Races Aspe 7]. GbE patron Serceen Lh TT (epepafe pon rele Marea cate Le]: bor [epopepep oun (© Tamaat an, Fig. 1.8 Storage and ranster of dota IN Blea mfr |u B ye cour (2) Te rary er Fig. 1.9. The counter and the frequency over10 Sundamenals of Digual Crents Set ste te mars Gt ee : a fet and : faa | a St tment Fla. 110. Paralel and sera data tanemiscon 1.5. DIGITAL INTEGRATED eiReUITS nae ei MAES of low cv ow power, smaller ie Sirealty (except in very specidlized applications where a the nique requirentens). ‘tt eat compeny mend by te tre Thee ae carey fe sand rch of 11s with less than 12 gate cirewits ra of the = |: SERESESAL Gore ta 2012 Pandomcntts of Digital rcv ‘1.7 DicITAL computers Topo wit: Trough this uni, complete set fisractone uit to be sed thre wll ended on pea exes eye aby Fig. 1.12. Block diagram ofthe cigtal computer. ‘Memory unit. Ip sition to the instactions and data reccived from the input unit be ‘memory stores the results of arithmetic and logi operations received from the ailimetic amt logic unit. It also supplies information to the output unit. ‘Comtrot unit, This writ takes instructions from the memory init one atte and interprets ‘them. It then seade the appropiate sgrale 0 al the other units to eause the specific insraction 1 be execated. “Avitemetie and lgie wait. All srithmctc eaiclations and logical dessins are performed i his une It chen sends the resulls to tbe memory unit 10 be stored tere. Fig. 1.13 Block dagram of tne microm 11.01.2010 14:2314 Fundamentals of Digital Cruits SUMMARY Analog circuit are those in which voluges and cx ti we HaSe4 and cmrents vary coniswousy though he * Digital circits are thoe in which the voltage levels can assur distinct values '» Digital systems are more versatile, casir to design, les affected and precise than analog systems T Benatyene MI aback of iia ches i ta, eal wr is iia, ‘+ Hybrid systems employ both analog and digital ‘+ tn a postive logic system, the HIGH volage voltage level logic 0. ‘© The amplitude of « pulse i the ‘+ Rise time isthe time taken by the ‘+ Fail time isthe time taken by the fom 90% to 10% of ‘= Pulte wid is the time itera! beten te $0% points on the leading and walng ge, ‘Pulse wavefarms may be periodic or non periodic, “© -Aperiodie pulse waveform repeats tse at regular intervals of time called the period (7). * A norperiodic pulse wavefirm doesnot repeat itself a regular intervals of ine and may bbe composed of pulses of differing pulse widths andor difering tne intervals the pulses. ‘+ Duty ysie fa periodic pulse waveform isthe ratio ofthe ON time ta the pei of he waveform. 1» Encoding isthe process of converting » familar number or symbol to some eaded fom. ‘Am encoder isa digital device that peforms encoding. “# Decoding isthe process of converting binury coded information to 8 ‘symbol. A decoder isa digital device tha performs decading. * proces of ewiching information rom ere input Fs cc tgntee ee ie na it over several outpat lines, ey eae seal wa opr vo ii nd he cpt ml ng wheter wo input quanis as eal or no, and if ot . in one foe ae terre iran deem ‘QUESTIONS| | > nda ttn Pte ae ct an epee yea Waar do you mean by ion and negtive, ton oF puke? i. CS “ites acto nezstve going trassiton ofa pute Chapter 2 eens, one ts: () trae cre, Digat 1, (6) Analog 1c, ang (2) Monotihi IC = aa ge tic SUMBER SYSTEMS 12. What are the wt eins ot vce? Why Ts seas al ey tg Term te same OF ICH Why TCs cet handle vary tage 1S Discuss the difercot levels of integrtion of 1x, M4. Nume the wo commonly sed IC packages 18. What isa microprocessor? 24 THE DECIMAL NUMBER sySTEM NE Name the five major fonction units of dig emp, 17. Name she three clases of computers bused on physical nn “17.01.2010 14:28(Consider another 639269 ~ 6 x Note the ditference in positions Nine’s and Ten’s Complements ‘The 9°s complement of is obtained by plement of dec EXAMPLE 21 Find the 9's complement of the following decimal numbers (a) 3465 (oy 792.54 (5) 4526075 9998 999.99 bier ataniss a. ae vote me Seu (©) 9999.999 <4526.075 SATS. 924 O's complement of 4526075) EXAMPLE 22 Find the 10's complemant ofthe following decimal number (2) 4069 ey 1056074» Pamtamentats of Digital Crews 2.2 THE BINARY NUMBER System ae GXP)+ de x 2h + Ty x2) 8x Oy sox Dex +@xd) 0x2 01.2010 14:232 Fandom of Digs! Circus EXAMPLE 26 Conv 270835, EXAMPLE 27 Convert 1001011, to decimal Solution fs ime nary mae an ao be conve 1 a Sting wih he exwene ck ie Madea ‘the next bit to the right. Mult eh taeda be previous spy 2 an a te ps 10 the right. 7 ‘Coctinge tits process as shown below till all the bi , ¥ mee me ined t= —- Wx 1S, ‘The shove steps can be writen down as follows: EXAMPLE 28 Solution “The given decimal aber a mixed number. We, pans sparatsly The eger part is ‘The largest mumber, rt exceeding 11.01.2010 14:23The remainder iy The latgest number, ans Therefore, 0875, = 0.100 © 00 Te final real is, 163.875, ~ 104000 EXAMPLE 29 Convert 52,10 binary ssing the double-dibbie method Solution We divide te given decimal miner successively by 2 and read the remainders vpwonss 10 get the equivalent binary number. Suceesive division Renainder In str to tp, 5p = 2101001 = 750, cts my be it 1 Neen 1 — 11.01.2010 14:23ee _| 36 Findamenais of Digital Circuits The rules for binary ation ae Ptlosing FORK 141 2 10 5a 0 with a canyon EXAMPLE 212 Add the binary numbers 1010 and 111 (Coturam nansbers) ; tn ie in an ia tn ith a cary of umn to 1+ 1=0, with a cacy of 1 to the 16's column. ‘Binary ‘Toe binary subsection i performcd in » manner similar to that in decimal subtraction. The rules for binary subtraction are: Bee I= 1-0-1; 0-1 1, wehsaibomw of | EXAMPLE 2.14 Subtract 10, fom 1000, Solution In the 1's column 0-00. 11.01.2010 14:23=P 1COne. a4 Therefore, 110101.11 + 101 = 1040.11 Computer Method of Division EXAMPLE 221 Divide 32 by 5 in binary using the computer method Solution Dividend = 32 = 100000 = 00100000 Divisor = 5= 101 = 0101 1 (Borrow is required the result is ogative: divinion is valid) AD MQ Shin MO fet Subtract D. MQ Aad D Mo Shit ea ‘Subtrect D Mg Aad | MQ. shi MQ eft ‘Sebtact D MQ ren MO SHA MOKA 0 Subiract D MQ Adi D Result Remainder = 0.01 0 Quotien 2.5 REPRESENTATION OF SIGNED NUMBERS AND BINARY ARITHMETIC IN COMPUTERSoo Sign bit Magne onder the siened-magnitude system, a pret deal of Matpaaon i nescray a postive mumber t2 a negative number. Thus. though th agate te signci-magnitude aurnber syst Representation of signed Numbers (or 1's) | Represe sian Using the 2's (or 1's) complement ‘The 2s (or 1's) complement system for representing sip 41: IF the number is positive, the magnitude is represented + sign but 0 is placed in front of the BSB, ‘and vice versa ‘9f complement ere binary 49 convert true bintry to complement. The repesenation ee cee ea 6. A negative number may be ‘somplemen:| Methods of baining tl be obtained in thes 11.01.2010 14:23SM Pendant Digi! Crews » recs 155: cprine down each bt up 4 and including te ‘Snvounered and complementing the remaining ity, nt "MIME the fat yy EXAMPLE 225° Bepets- 43 in it 2 complement fom, ‘Solution + AS in Sit form is 00101101, First method ‘Oban the 1s complement of OO101101 and then 84d 1 Positive expression of the given number Ps complement of it Add 1 ‘Thus the 2's complement form of — 45 is EXAMPLE 2:27 Add — 4575 jo + 675 wing tbe 12. 47.01.2010 14:2336 Famdamontl of Dial Circuits wi. Soation somplement ium) Selaton 25 4 = +r ‘Therefore, the results postive and isin is tue binary EXAMPLE 251 Add + 40.75 to ~ 40.75 using he 12-bit 2's complement arithmetic. ‘There ia cary, ignore it, The result ic 0.38 Findemencas of Digital Cres There is 9 cary ad the form. The 1's complement of Mander Stems 39 EXAMPLE 299 Add #9275 0 4325 using he 12. 1's coleman meted EXAMPLE 235 Ags — 2 fegislers are used 10 store eact aumbe. This is called trl Hoating Point Numbers In the decimal system, very lange the result is negative and is in its 1° '5:00000000. Therefor, the rest is — EXAMPLE 238 Sulract 2730 fom 68.5 wsig the 12 bit 1+ complemen Solution +1 (Ada the end around’ earry} ~D0To100T.vi00 ‘There are many Formas of oa Some exe tw wats forthe mans antUsefulness of the Octal system ‘The case with which conversions can be made ‘stem more stactive a5. shorthand means in octal azo systems work stxily in binary: we use octal ‘oF the system. Table 2.2 shows octal counting. Decimal to ectal conversion To samen mincd decimal sum ‘To convert a given octal oumber to 2 binary, just replace each octal dig fraction pants separately equivaumber Stems 83 sively divide the given he MSD. The remainder Comersion of 193 t0 octal 053 x8 | 74s Oats 1 332 Os x3 1 416 oisxs 18 esd the integers to the Jef of the octal point downwards Therefore, 095), = O7341,, Hence 37893,, ~ 5727341, ‘Conversion of large desimal numbers o binary and large binary numbers io decimal can be convenieatly and quickly perfermed via octal as shown below. EXAMPLE 248. Conver $497, 0 binary. Sobution Since the given decimal number is large, we frst convert this number to octal end then convert the octal number to binary Successive division Remainders‘octal muitiplication ‘No camry indicates that the result is nega complement of 2606.56, is $171.22, Hence,IFD 1FE 1FF ‘Make groups of bis, and eploce each bit group By a hex digitEXAMPLE 260 Convert 2598675, 10 hes, Solution $e Bes desinal mabe isa mised number, Conve the integer and the Gracion pas Sepurrcly to hex Comersion of 25585 Suecesive division Reminder 16 | 206 16 [ie 6 is 2 o wo ‘esting the remainders upwards, 2598, ~ A26,, Conversion of 0575, esting he iiezers fo the left of Dexadecinal point downmards, 0675 = ACCC), ‘Therefore, 2595-675 9 = AIACCC,,5 As 3M Mexadecimal adaition Adio in Bexadecimal is péforbed in a manner similar otha in desimal. To addin ben all he cigs in each colurm along with the cary if any, af added in decimal and its he ‘quivalest obtained. The sum term in hex is recorded i that column, and the cary term scared wo the next column, EXAMPLE 265 Add 2A7C.30D, and 80980, Solution 16 16 tee! 16? 16? ek ees OD + '§ po Es 2 3305 6 wire Staring from the LSD D+B= 13,4 Ores dee cr9+ 7+D+ Ares Teves, ae ‘The result is 3356,198,., EXAMPLE 266 Add 3BCA.S078,, + 95HD97F3,, + $P8.E2C,, Hexadecimal Subtraction Subtraction in hexsdeci EXAMPLE 2.67 Solcion “The hex subtract Sblracton i hexadecimal can asoS Fenton the number exnesesd f the numer EXAMPLE 248 7% a ae (13's complement of 76) (aad 1) (16% complemeat of 76) (16's complement of 448) plement of 7B.A) complement of 7A) ‘complement of £20 3AE) i ‘complement of F20-3A) EXAMPLE 269 Subiract 448 68, Settion 5074.56 5074, 56 eee ee PSA +4 "iss vomplencn wr Gia) +aBC8. ER esect EA & +t #pci ee ‘The camry lodicaes that the rest obtained is posiive and is in ex stele hom S07456,, using int 15's complement method (Bad around carry) eumplement ofthe equ EXAMPLE 2.71 Sabirast he ariel (a) 4% in he ene it othe mind- 4 Fandamemal of Distal Cute ~ 1000 1101 = 846 The 2's plication: To perform mult a anc canvert each produit tem into be jod cat he cay hrm fo We nat Ses EXAMPLE 273. Matiply 248, by 86, Solaton das Bx 6= 484 = 30, x B6 Ax6=10x6 = Fro 2x6 12, ipsa BxB-ann- Ter70 AxB=i0x 11> 2xB=24 11-2 Hexadecimal Division Headesinal division is simile to decimal division Neer Stems 8 EXAMPLE204. Dinsde 2008 by 24,, AN)ACOBECLOCT 925 2A 2A(42,) ean go 4 vm 2.6 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES Ino, ind the value oF EXAMPLE 276. Evch of the umber sytem, Determine the poser sytem wih base 2 7 (ine he eget ies in desimal ) Let the ase be B. Eapeess BH eos o the above equation thes = abe Since the Ingest digit in he number is 3. The hase can (@) Ler the ase be. Expresing in decimal, Bests e4ebese sea ays The tlton i therefore (6) Let the base be b. Expres Bes P4520 we bes Solving for b, we yet 8 = 4 (F Let the base be, Expressing in decimal, FETT = ‘Sguting Both des, 4b + 1-25 oc SUMMARY Osean tab ta cna ner staan pox) weigh, which seams that the vals stached 19 the epend on thei locaton wi ome in ‘mibols depead on thee locaton with reaper F Fraat spac C8 Mtb eye inca the mutes of wigue symbols in that system f unique symbols usedSs I binary numbers can be bath very large and very rate of conversant ‘umber snd hex inary aumber system, and (b) the hexadecimal Fwcights method snd successive divison-by-b * uhipiation-y-t methog? 9. Discuss the compuier method of muliplcation and division fe. Mat cio you ican by double pression numbers and Nowing point numbers? 12, Wat do you mean by the “signed magnitude’ farm of representation? Po How @0 s otain he 1s omen sn 2s complencat of « timry munber? Me Compare the I's complement 1nd 2' somplement methods of reprercuation of 45. What ae the characterise of the 2's complement method? 46: How do you peform tnarysubracton using the 1's nad 2's complement mete? 417, What do you mean by end around carry? When docs223 Sublet the following tl numbers by (0) 255 oe (4) EAA loning decimal mumber using the 12-bie 2's complement writhmetc ‘onvert the follrning, hexadeiial numbees 0 3078 — 895 (a) AB () 287 plement aihmetie 4227 Convert the following decimal mn ms (oy 452 eb) 4796 c ) 27 = 75 (@) 957275 bit) sign magitude form, (i) sign 2AM Add the following hexadecimal umber. ‘and (i) sgn 2's complement form (= 45 @-17 229 Subvract the (@) BCS ~ A2B, (a) 684.263 ¢) CDFT.S2 ~ ANS 2.34 Multiply the following hexadecimal numbers (@) BCTOOE (a) 28A xB (b) SAB 7 ing Hexadecimal mus 231 Divide the folio (8) 683408 (a) ABS by C 2.32 Subtract the thos © #08 (6) 9470487 @) 13+ 265 0) 1247+ 89 RCTS ASESB 220 Sublact the following octal numbers, () 64-37 2596+ 1657 (4) 273.50 + 42507 q (0) 462 ~ 175 (©) 1786-427 (2) 3006.05 ~ 265716 221 Maliply the following cts! nubs. G44 2x5 ey 263 x25 eee ce (@) 612 x 34 (9) 20d 5 (hy 2867 by 6 by 7) 5034.62 by 12Chapter 3 eck a ‘ 2 3 “ . 6 . BINARY CODES 3.1. WEIGHTED AND NON-WEIGHTED CODES a iepreent 2 specie rights of those positions where the veh the group represents, There ate several nib nce nego sh a te hs wiped oe bay85 Fandomenil of Digital Cres ey I jaca auethy a turlay oe 2 1000 o_o 10H ort +o110jot form $0 the result is ep) plement of 885.9 fn BCD) legal code, add 0110) ‘There i no samy and, therefore, the ces isin its 9°5 complement fam. The $s complement of 7936 is 2063 ~ 2063. EXAMPLE 34/ Pefoum te following pbtractions method ‘code using the 10's complement (a) 3427 - 1089 (b) 2064 — $076 Bete et aa ag, Coe eh reach earn PB ni 10 copie fm. The 10's complement 4:5 THE EXCESS THREE (XS-3) CODE rected gum in X53)and 000) by adding 0011) by subtracting 0011) (Comecied difference in. XS-3) ‘adding, 0011 and correct ‘by subtracting 0011) (0) 246 — 399 753) cok tnd ts complements are: 1490 8100fovlowing. subtractions: in XS-3 code using tbe: 10%, comet 0101 and 0011 by adding 0011) (Comected difference in XS-3 code) 384 © +328 (10° complement of 672) {Sats Neate and is nis 10's complement frm, The 10's complement BnaryCoder 14 EXAMPLE 29 Peade the decimal +9 by means of weighed codes Sa0t, 421, eeeON Binary Codes 78 Table 33 Retocton of Gray codes inary-to cray Conversion moan “i ote ite 1000 be present at the edges of the sectors, Ifthe disks were coded in ‘mak the dik tobe rend a5 110 instead of 010 causing very ‘ate on the sector O10 and almost ready 1 enter the 110 secur and scad. the postion would be indicated by 110 instead of O10 recult Fipure 3.1 iusrates this operation, sone | Metin Assos i (ite | shied one place i He ht Reo: (2) 01 eote Fig. 31. Positon indicating system. ove“ the subsequent cla sorresponding. sums as the sys shillsd out. The resultant Gray <0‘The conversion procedure is 1. The MSB of the binary mumber isthe same as the MSB of the Gray code number second it 2 Add the MSB of the binary tothe ‘hem record the sum and ignore to the 4th dit of the Gray code, an “Continue tis il all the Gray bis are exhausted. The sequence of bits that has been writen den i the binary equivalent of the Gray eode number. ‘Conver the Gray code 1101 to binary. done as shown below: as 18 KS-3 Gry cota or cacinal apts 0-9 5.5 ERROR-DETECTING CODES When a binary data is twansmited and Binary Coder 78‘Sitale parity cannot detect ro eros wihin the same wort. One ws Aiticuky i to use a som of two-dimensional pry Ax each wore ‘When several biary words ae tranamied or sored in succession, ie resaling colon fits ean be regarded as block of dat, huving rows and colunu Panty Bis cate" rr na ck° ° The Bluinary cose he Bia cee shown ‘ie Not at ac 2 . ERROR : a “CORRECTING CODESBiswry Codes 81 Di Bu Ds Pr Dy Py Dy D; D, D, PD, Py 2, ‘The message below coded inthe 7-bit Hany is wansmited thvowgh w moisy channel Decode the mesioge astuming that at oat» single cron acsored Ineach vode word, ‘The given data i of 28 bits; epi it ino four groups of 7 bits each and eoret forthe ero, if any, in eseh group and write the eomeste da, First groups 1001001 % nacre pt > enor 3 the 2 + wen > 0 inthe 4's positon 1s 10. Go, complement the 2nd bit. Therefor, the corest codes Second grow is 011001 "35700 > meme > 63.6.7 (0010) crop > 1 > ero >Tabla 310. The ASCH case in. Best chy * CooMr Web: and a1 Findamentt of Digital Circa af suMMaRY Bloary codes may be mumetis of alpananerc Dies gr Fe NS We ahaa wrt ead fos sequence Of OF and Is, Teer HY ig ch a oping inl cg iced ute © Maman eos wed to tect deine mer ar called CD cesWhat if the cordon «code to be + ae What ou mcea by » cycle cose? ive ™ Wha § BCD code? What (2087 + () 886+ 277 Wis ae ihe rls of (4) ICD chon ‘baton?J {3 Fandamenals of Digi! Crevits 87 Sabra the flowing in () BCD Chapter 4 LOGIC GATES (©) 100011101 4.1. INTRODUCTION for ot paiey? (©) 1110110 3412 Genrer the following decimal mambery to (i) Zoutot$, (i) biguinary (it) shin ‘evn, and () ig-counter ends. pe Si wow Iss © 6 man "ecole ae Haring cole an vans trough iy ie ek tang a oat Tot in Me sed in eck cade ASCH md EBCDIC. ©) axe$9 Pandamenals of Digi Cros 4.2. THE AND CATE ‘Am AND pe has two of ore pats bot only one ouput The Cul assumes the lopie 1 sae, ony whe each one of put isa logic 1 tate The Capt ABKUMCS the logic TogieO state. The AND gate nay, hereto, be defined tee input AND gates are shown in is only when all he inputs ate 1. The sombol forthe AND gperion is "or we use mo symbol at al (a sept ce AND (0) wo np rats AND ye Fig, 42 Discrete AND gates. In the vansitor AND gate when A = OV and 8Logie utes 93 The 1G 7432 contains four two-npat OR gates, 4.4 THE NOT GATE Find The OR goto, ay be i by ing ides o nse a sw in Figs 44 8) NOT igteatumes the loge 1 stats when #6 input cme. ; to yh xn inp ine The ae Sol and teh ie of a ivener te shown im Figs Sa a 4S, respectively‘M4 Rumdamentaly of Digital Circwits ee eet idnes aeons quran aren beh rh per ar fete tr emreencpemmne tgs ae and 4:7b, respectively: ‘TRE combo! for NOT operation ik“ (han). When the input variable to dhe NOT: gate existe a8 shown in Figs $$e. The pt tansisor Tis reverse biased and, therefor, tage drop occurs across R. Hence, & 5°, Tis ON and the oulpat volage X= Vecguy™ 0'V. The rth table forthe NOT gate sitet i as shown Below. The C7404 Lope eeu of any complenity cam be realized using only AND, OF and NOT gates. Logic circits which use these te gates ony ae called ANDIORINVERT, ie. AOI logs ‘leit Logic cuits which use AND gates and OR gates only are called ANDVOR, i. AO. logic circuits. | 45 THE UNIVERSAL GATES ‘Though logic circuits of any complenity can be realized by using only the three basic gales x= 5B = AND, ie the AND output is NOTed. So, « NAND gate isa combination a aa taNOF me al Teepe rae suet ewe | shee ge writen as X= AGC... and is read a8 °X fs equal to A BC | a ean ie « Fig. 48 bubbled OR gate.98 Fndamenias of Digit! Creuits ‘8 discrete two-mput NAND aie is shown in Fig. 498, When A= +5'V-and = + 5) both the diodes DY and D2 are OFF. The sista T gets enough base dive tom ‘be supply through I and, thceive, T iv ON and the outpat X= Vagus) = 0-V. When ‘A= OV cr B= 0 Vor when both A and B are equ 10.0 the Wansnor Tis OFF an ‘herefore, output = + 5 V. The truth tle is as shown in Fig. 49h. ®) ——_GNAND gate acomotec ere Fig. 49 Discroto Me-input NANO gate ‘The IC 7400 contains four owo-nput NAND: ges the ‘input NAND gates, the IC 7420 coniine two fourinpul an ne enn NAND oe. AND gate cna bee an nvr ying al iin! ternal ater a the siglo be invert fo he earmon terminal Fig. 496), or by competing a is ‘s nna exept one, to Togie 1 and applying the signal to be inverted tothe remaining. _—_etmisal s Soown in Fig 1.98 In he late fort sal oc scone inverter ‘The NOR gate NOT OR, ic the OR oniput is NOTed. So, a NOR gate is « combination of b& NOT pate (Fig 4.108). The expression fr the output ofthe NOR sate and is read a6 "X is equal to A plus B plus lea only when eat one of ts put stacy x logic 0 level. For ara he lp i loge O eve. The mts table oF 3 toning Lewis 99 _re oe ybol and th table foro treeinpt NOR ya are sin in ig ta ams 4118, sapere Looking atthe sruth able of @ then both A and Bare equal 100, te :TNOR gate evant to an AND expression itp X= fnd then ANDing those verted8 Fandamentts of Digital Cras Sranssor TY er 72 or both TH and T2 are ON. Thecfore, rou and equal 19 ON. Thetcore, X apt NOR pie NOR foie: andthe IC 1825 Coins we Rn Fig. 413, Discrete two:input NOR gate. ‘A NOR gate can sso be used aan X-OR gate are shown in Figs. 4.14a and peut mecus pero ic aes 98 sym rete Meat fw NWR AB wt oom ol “The TT IC 786 contains four X-OR ‘pes, High speed CMOS IC 7AHICH6 contains 4.7 THE EXCLUSIVE-NOR (X-NOR) GATE Pe ae sown i Figs 4138 XANOR pie ae sown ia st 49h eet sa aid by hand B ame PH ‘cable by Xe the -expresion Ror the euput of tho ga 6 we = X= A@B=AB+ AB~AOH~ Ae AD fan read a "X Is equa to A exes B cm athe NOE ps enki Neh Sy mo Sodeeys mmumineivie cea ce and cen eet Sabisae tet aba Selon ‘Assume 9.0 state,‘Tos XCNOR of oo varales A and fig the sormplement ofthe KOR of those 199 ‘arabes. Tht ix AOu-KOB [Bet the X-NOK of thre variable A, and C fs not egal to the complement ofthe X-OR BofA Rand C. That The rth lables constructed slow show that A 8 = A lagrams ae also show the comespondig Lope diag‘The th ables constnie’ Below show tht A © B~ AB + AB = AWB = AWK, ‘Ths corresponding logic diagrams are abo shown, EXAMPLE 43 Show that (+B) AB is oquvalent mA @ B, | Solation ‘The tat tables contieted Beiow show that (A + B) AB = A.@ B. The logic diagrams a abo shown, he bina |204 Famdamentas of Digital Chris106 Panamera of Digna Crewe 00 ae once fqnoroms ono cam “NOR cate “ith triangle drawn the eu combina Ths Riven expression is ANDing of four fut Se Okie ofan CB wating © is inversion of G. The logis diagram using A’i eg Ges 109 44, PULSED OPERATION OF LOcic cares a een a tenon to Fla. 420 Logic ciagram (Example 4.8) ‘EXAMPLE 49 Draw a lop diagram using ANSVIEEE wand symbols to implement he tion X=ASHCOD+ACRICOD i s ‘uiput of an X-OR guie, C © D is the output of an X-NOR gate (A @ 8) {© D) is she output of an AND gate whose inputs ae (A © B) and (C © D) A © & ‘oust of am X-NOR gate and C @ D is the output of an X-OR gue (AO B) sate whose iopts ae (A @ B) and (C'® D). Final, = cf an OR gate whose inputs are diagram is shown in Fig. 421 Seara> # 423 ae aplind 2 EXAMPLE 41 tate ioe waveforms A,B, ad Cove in Fi, 423 \hneinpet AND gate, determine the reulting ouput sa Solan ‘The output wavefonm X is shown in Fig. 4236 eee Seige TT OF ge JRAMELE32 Gbiain te cup waveform of 4 oeo736 0 Nb shown ia Fg. 4 2401M Paedamenet of Digital Cents EXAMPLE 4.13, For atwosinput OR gre, determine its caput waveform in cation to the {apts A and B shown in Fig. 4 Selaton {he expat wren We shows in Fi 45, ae LPL - | oma Ei se TL Bite meses LD} em = Let alice pal: F425. Carpio 413, TEASEPLE 6 For secs OR mia, ‘elation 0 the inputs A.B and C shown in Fg. 4 260, Soltis ‘The omtput waveform is showm in Fig, 426, ae ne ’ . =| ene as 391 pxarLe Ais, tCthe navefom shown nF. 4276 pd ine ata iethe hone at 938 Vek Fig. 427 Example 4.15. EXAMPLE 416 Ifthe waveform shown in Fig 428 is sopled to ao ine, deine fae ruling ouipul waveform. Solin ‘Te ouput waveform is shown in Fig, 4286, eee. ee ste FXAMLE 417 The vavefoms A snd B ows Fy 4254 ee ole W mt NAND gate, Determine the outpas waveform. = ‘Peo oa NAND gate is LOW ly weal inputs. ICI, Tes ‘show in Fig, 4.298. aM2 Pandamemas of ital Circats EXAMPLE 4.18. The waveforms A, B and C shown in Fig 4.308 are applied to input NAND gate. Determine the output waveform, Sottion ‘The output waveform is show in Fig, 4200, tee EXAMPLE 419 The wavcfomms A and M shows in Fig. 4.318 ae applied to two-nput INAND gate Detemnine the culpa wayelarm. Solution ‘Ths output waveform is shown in Fig. 4.318. In this eat, the Wo inputs of the NAND ‘tae ae never HIGH sinuliancousty. $0, the ouput is never LOW. It is lwaya HIGH. 428 For he wont NAND gale opening aw neue OR ste. dctmine avefo when th pet ween an aout fig. ode, acve-LOW OR gsc is HIGH, if eer A ip LOW oF Wit LOW or both The output waveform is stown in Fg. 4320, For the teeny! NAND gue operting arate UI 2a he apt wats fc a na an AMPLE 422 Ifthe waveforms [NOK sate, determine the resulting outpve wave Selon ‘The ewipt of a NOR gate is HIGH ooly when alts inpus are LOW, The oxtpt wavelom shown in Fig. 434. ate IU poe Fig 484 rao 422 EXAMPLE 423 inte wavefan A, and C shown in Fig. 4.35 We epies © ‘WL NOR gle, deere the rong oat man Seton Te ug wanetarm fy sboan Fg 450 AND: AD6 The waveforms A and B shown in Fig. 4.360 ae applies 10 a fe Wh win ge ret Sten a ae, The outa NOK gue san ane LOW AND IMG oaly when alls inputs are LOW. The PULfa ENO at is WML aly when hep ae equ The expt wovofoom is shown in Fig. 495, : cia Set ee as ents A th ale Sei _— Fig. 4.39 Example 4.27. Solution ent 2 XO a Cer eg a te Te EXAMPLE 426 Ifthe wavcforms A, B, and C shown in Fig, {40a are X-NORSd, swavefoem & shown ie Fig, 437, etemine the out waselonn. Solution Th NOR ou of ute ii HIGH, be nc arf ert mows in FiM16 Fanamentat of Dig Cire “8 “= Soy a soo i sell Fig. 481 Example 4.29, SUMMARY gales, only when cach one of apts isa I. Kprodocs wh [2 0. it therefore iso acts ws «negative OR wate, ‘Questions ple? Name the base gies.NIE Fammontls of Dig Crows lowe; 8) poiive ops system, and (6 agg lagi levels used im TTL logic syste? the function performed Inpet com the only ND sate? ‘What the only sct.of input condions that will produce a LOW out from a te: “input NAND te? ‘be tied as vere in adtion to the NOT gate and ow? aumbers of the fillowing TTL gates: AND, OR, NOT, X-OR, X-NOR, es ‘number of ups of any lope gate? ‘ealize the following expressions: (a) AGB @ C @_D oie ater 119 PROBLEMS 41 Dua he lg ole md const the has of Sefton se E 4a) AND h) OR (©) NAND (@) NOR 443) ow tn urepene KOR sod NOR he np A,B,C ad {64 Draw the lopie diagram using the AN aaa ee. 2 (ay X= A+BC+ CD) ¥~ AB 48 Drow logic diagram tht implemen WA= HEY) OVD © A= HO) HOG OX, (¢) SAND (0 XNORedChapter 5 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 5.2 LOGIC OPERATIONS 5.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Aay Tasctionl slation in Boolean algabea can be proved by the mcthod of perfect AXIOMS AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA '& method of proof, whcsey a functional relation is veried ‘or every possible combination f Vales that the vaiabley may sates. Thee berionsE22 Rundmemtl of ital Crees eae era ranad seer llamada nan SLOSS on vee fran nr ene MY oe ey ‘The tm complomen simply mean oie eo change sw ean Is to Oh Sie laws of complementation are as follows: ne ‘AND Laws Boot Meira, 123 “his ow sates sha, A-AND B the same a: B AND A, the nde in which he variables sre ANDed te ammateral, Ths mess Gut t makes no dilflrence which input of an AND py vet AOR ORed with Cis the tame &4 A ORot with B OR C. Thi nw ses thatthe way ‘the vrs are gmp ond ORs rams. Te uth bls gs ew ie his126 Pannen of Digital Croats ‘hig aw sates that Ofing of sever varies and ANDing here with single variable is ogivalest to ANDing tb siogle Vaable wih each of the sever! arabes and then A AND B ANDed with C is thé sme at A ANDed with B AND C: This law atts tat ‘he say the variables are groped and ANDed is immaterial, See the tah bles below: ae _A(BED) ~ (ABCD = (AI (CD)‘This low ses that ORIng of variable with the AND. of the complement of that variable swith notice variable, is equal fo the ORing ofthe two variables See the muh ables given felonReece res memes : vith the AND ofthat variable (A) and another Lawes ARS B= is that ANDIng 04 varie (A) with the OR ofthat vriabie (A) wd avon 15-1 tha, vacable self (4), Algobaialy, we have MAYB)“A-ASA-B=A+AB=AU+8)-0.1 = ‘Therefore, NA+ Key tem) = 4 ‘consensus Theorem (included Factor Theorem) Theorem 1: AB+ KO+BC~AB+ XC Proof Lis =aB + KC + pe =aB+ Sipe = AH map Ke = RHs This theorem can be extended to any numberof variables, For example; AB+AC+BCD=AB+ Ke LHS AB + Ke + BCD = AB + AC + BC+ BCD AB+ AC + NC = AB+ AC= RUS SAR sac + nc AD ‘ + Ae Lis i tact ec + AB198, Findomentas of Dil Crean ‘This theorem canbe extended wo any uber of varsbes or amp BXC+ DAF BRC IB+O+C+ == DROW LG ‘ty hs Be agen thats ve ‘pw and transformation fom a or mre varbles ANDed Wythe individual varabien, Schaal, = AB+ ARC + Ac + ABC = a+ ae LHS De Morgan's Theorem ‘De Morgan's theme represents two of the most pawefal Lyin Boolean algcbe shows that she NAND gue is cuvalent oa bubbled OR gate Tis has aso Been sb ‘le simply ty ah bes " ‘This In cme extended 1 amy numberof vansbles er esmbiations of vars. For sxampie, ABO AB> AB AB (6) Look fe & variable and its negation inthe same tee This tom canbe dope For example, A-BB-A-0-0; ABCC =AB-0=—0 (4) Look for pairs of terms tt ane Hemel cicet for one varie which may be ‘mising ia one of the terns, The larger lara can be dropped. For example, ABUD + ABT = ABC(D + 1)= anc «1 (©) Lack for the pai of te ABCD + anc ~ anced AIME + D) + ARETE) = ABLE AMPLE 54. Rese te epresion Sten “The given expreaion is ge + CAB FAC)196 Pendamewsis of Dial Chests (FRC) (AB + ancy (ABE) (AB © ABC) 5.8 BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS AND LOGIC DIAGRAMS Boolean expeesions can be resized 4g harduare using ingle gies Convene. hardware 59 be waniated imo Boolean expression fr the analyse of exsing chews. ‘Converting Boolean expressions to Logic #4 wo wade he put Assume the eon AB ~ ‘mg AO ie Stn wt the fia ersin AB-+ A+ BFC, Sie tis138 Aamdamenat of Dig! Cree hse om it tb he or oft Hresep OR pte $0, dev OR exe i ‘heoe inputs as shown Below: AB mst be he ouput of an invert whose ingut ia AD. And BFE ius be oe cup ofan mere whe input B+ C. Sa, we intoduce twa fers as shown eke Now AB must be the ouput of two-iput AND gate whote inputs are A aad B. And Bs € sms be the cutpot of 4 twosnpur OR gate whose inputs are Hand © Se, ‘we induve as AND gate and an OR ge a shown below Bocken Agetra 139 int abel he ngs The sg Aad B fet he AND pat Theatr af wip oct bef, AB. Th sth pet NOT axe O; The cae te Noe i, este. be AB, The C and D ae fe inpas Wo AND gate G, The supat ot a ie fn: CD: The Fa Fhe na AND tS pt fy therefore, BF. This sigma is the apt to tener Cy ts wap ia theron, EF imeriet Gy it G. $0, Ho oupet is G, Now C. by HF, the ouput ofthe logic cut i, seer, equal to (AB) (CD) (©= DEFT) PLE S10 ine the Bookan expen fir he loge dagam gice bow and Sao ices much psnble od ee x og dapum bat mpemcts te spied oresion ® coe ° Siting fom the inpus side amd ring the expessions forthe oust of the indivi! les, we can easily show tha the Saton140 Fundamental of Dal Cre EXAMPLE S11 7 am = Pe silo rouil ope gram that wplement oupt |ANDVORINOT gates called the AOI logic. nse resanton of Bosiean exprsions, ‘iagram shows 26 A and it complement wre assumed 10 be avaiable: For tase ae SOP a ee ADC + AB + ABC can be implemented in A1O lagi: w shoun below +0 (K+ B+ ycam be implements “The POS expresion (A+ B+ C) (B+ OK (OR and AND gates as shown below. . “Tre lic diagram to implement the simples expresion is shown below. i mano 1 “The expenion ABE + A [= B(A + AC] cn be implemen im htt aims shown below csi he mini! Dosla xenical cn SOP FOS Grductofsume) form Sometime prada hybrid fom. The SOF fom i implemented wg me fal tte FOR fm ingens at , =n Aon The ti a ai esirce %e : ra ic mo be inplomented — ease of an by plemented wing AND and OR paca only cued te 10 bye, ein in neatuniver ogc systems, digital eu i may then be convened to ithe "The procesre is (5 even, att ice at the ouput of each AND ate ang sis to all the OR tate. artes cose ad 8 Crk a the pat each OR stead ne {puts to all the AND gates © at ae ee on each ie ta recived vice sep 3 we 3 wo ogi Gm oF sana on those line rei unchanged Tom uate rigid diagram, lope EE SID" Conver it lowing Atop cto) NAND logic and No Socean Algebra 4 in ins Cand D can be renal iC and De ead by and {ine W vesved two ska. So no thnge Ir eq‘ng aly Ni hpi nal an wb rsh ee, atten eB hs bce eve naw a 8 ee Ne apy PD NOK lope SNH oF the Flowing AOL cit tw (=) NAND loi, ang (0) NOR top3 {ae148 Pandan of Dia Cnr 5.8 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES EXAMPLE S19 Fd he vali fhe abel wie A, BC nd Dy hing 5S of simalnsoar cquitions, K+an-0 AB> AC AB+AC + cD= UD A+ap-0 Ry a+m=0 OR+m~0 A+e-o ‘mat be 0 and B most be 0. Theres, A 1 aad B= 0. ABS AC +eD=tD hort-teo-petsp =D ‘Teeeloe, the vals of A. B,C, an D ae A= 1, B= 0, = 0, and D = EXAMPLE 5.18. Show that NAND and NOR gses ar universal gals, Saluton led ting only NAND gales ing ‘igs given below realization of AND, OR, ani NOT fanctons using eter only NAND gues or only NOR stest a el ge eB emi ing te Hn xen Gt wat of aad fe bat ‘The sme est canbe obtained by wring the opt expesson ang subsitng the values the inate ini Tas, x-REORD,summary ‘Be Morgan's theorem slows removal of variables fom under a tesformation trom SOP form to: POS for on ofan expression, crmplement the ene func all the ORs to ANDs and than sompleme es Boole expresions, bth the variables and th ‘vale A seit having m AND yates feding an OR gas scaled an mide ALO gee AB + RC +BC- AB + Kc p+ Ac-A+O@-B) AeB-AB MB-AGE ‘QuestionsPROBLEMS able method, OA + EK +B) eae AB (ATAA (0 Bae (PsQeRer-R Pipi pre _ KRY Ov (RVR SRY (9 xyz ryz+ ¥Z 4x7, Reduce the following Boolean expresins (a) AIR +A) EYE + ¥2) () NRY-+ Kz) AABABC + BBC) Reduce the folowing Booken espresins (2) AD + AB* + Be+ Dy (c) ABER + ABER + ABEP OHA KBR e FB (@) aBcfap+ Cqne + 4c) () AB+ ABC +AucD+ ABEDE (NA+ H+ KHC GX ¥+x¥ $5.12 Without edscing implement Go) Ae Be = (A+ Be) + 513 Prove thse I A+B=A+C md ASB-A+C thm B~C WW AFRAA TC and ABE AC, Ben BC S14 Given AB + AW~, show mar AC + AC > 8Chapter 6 THE KARNAUGH Map AND QUINE-McCLUSKY METHODS 6.2 EXPANSION OF A EOOLEAN EXPRESSION TO SOP FORM. 6.1 INTRODUCTION an be expressed in sondard ot canonical or ep OR) of products (AND)—SOP form-—or ln 4 standard. conawicel (AND) of sums (OR)—POS form. A sinnard SOP orm is one complenenied ‘equivaiens of this inary word is expressed as a subesipt of lower case m1 7 ‘My My ee. For maxterms, the bury words ave formed by representing each wom= ABCD ~ ABCD + ABCD + ABCD BE = BCA + A) (D+ D) = ABCD + ABCD + ANCD + ABCD ABD = ABB(C+ T) = AUCD + ABCD A+ BE + ABD + ABCD= Anco + ABCD + asCD + ant +ABCD- ABCD + Xatp + aac +m +m = Ems. 5,5, 9, 10, 13,14, 15) I the SOP form, the mintrms 0. 1.2 3,6 7 ae missing. So inthe POS form, th tmasterms 0.1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 willbe prosct Th Taio, 1, 23, 6 2RO Amen Dip eas Therefore, AA+ R= TT Mea, 1, 2) EXAMPLE 64 Expand A(X + B) (A + .9+ C) to mancrms and miners, Sedation ‘The wives expression in fresaraie fiction in te POS foam. The vale B and ‘ar missing inthe fins term A. So, ald BH and CE 10 i Te vale C i mscng i nc second tem (R + B) Se, id CT sai The third tom (X + B > C) sonaing al ths tae apibles So, leave fe a8 it 8 Therclve, ‘ie manems Mead My as ming inte FOS form. So, the SOP (om wil una be ‘asses 6 snl 7 Their, be ger expeion the SOP ha rE mas a, ‘A= 0% = (060 (G0 010 (011) = MyM, MyM, RB 0x (200) 101) = Me My —_ ‘ReB+C-io=M, Becerra sc aks nas) | Writ the ashe tens of fou-varabeexpeson having the filming aia eateries 2 rs Sonnt te AND pats feting th OR eae 1 “ot sate inputs 0) Whe he Sein A HCH THC Bs Recess Came ORepus 0+ 3 0 Fe ‘Coun the OX ges Relig ie AND get 10 +t “etal sie wpe 6.5 TWO-VARIABLE K-MAP ‘A twosariable expression can have 2! ~ 4 powsble com and Bach of thse combina “miter: tnsteod of fee ‘the shorthand meaton the miners may be rereseced in terms of