ESM 1234 PHYSICS III SEM II 08/09

CHAPTER 6: ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Resistors in an ac circuit
6.3 Capacitors in an ac circuit
6.4 Inductors in an ac circuit
6.5 Resistors and Capacitors in Series
6.6 Resistors and Inductors in series
6.7 Resistor, Capacitors and Inductors (RCL) in series
6.8 Resonance
6.9 Power in an ac circuit

6.1 Introduction
What is alternating current (AC)?

Most students of electricity begin their study with what is known as direct current (DC),
which is electricity flowing in a constant direction, and/or possessing a voltage with
constant polarity. DC is the kind of electricity made by a battery (with definite positive
and negative terminals), or the kind of charge generated by rubbing certain types of
materials against each other.

As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only kind of electricity in
use. Certain sources of electricity (most notably, rotary electro-mechanical generators)
naturally produce voltages alternating in polarity, reversing positive and negative over
time. Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back and
forth, this kind of electricity is known as Alternating Current (AC): Refer to Figure 1.

Figure 1: Direct vs alternating current

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Whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a generic symbol for any DC voltage
source, the circle with the wavy line inside is the generic symbol for any AC voltage
source.

One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as AC. It is true that in
some cases AC holds no practical advantage over DC. In applications where electricity is
used to dissipate energy in the form of heat, the polarity or direction of current is
irrelevant, so long as there is enough voltage and current to the load to produce the
desired heat (power dissipation). However, with AC it is possible to build electric
generators, motors and power distribution systems that are far more efficient than DC,
and so we find AC used predominately across the world in high power applications.

A waveform is a representation of how alternating current varies with time. The most
familiar AC waveform is the sine wave, which derives its name from the fact that the
current or voltage varies with the sine of the elapsed time. Other common AC waveforms
are the square wave, the ramp, the sawtooth wave, and the triangular wave. Their general
shapes are shown below.

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Figure 2-various types of output waveforms of ac sources

The principles you have learned for direct current, such as Ohms law, Kirchhoffs laws
and the principles used for resistors in series and parallel are also applicable to alternating
current.

The Sinusoidal AC Waveform

The most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform.

Figure 3

The vertical axis represents the amplitude of the AC current or voltage, in

amperes or volts.
The horizontal axis represents the angular displacement of the waveform. The
units can be degrees or radians.

A complete change of current or p.d. from a particular value and back to the same
value in the same direction is known as a cycle.
The time taken for a complete cycle is known as the period T of the alternating
current or p.d.
The number of complete cycles in one second is known as the frequency of the
alternating current or p.d. In most countries, the frequency of the alternating
current is 50 Hz.
Peak amplitude is the height of an AC waveform as measured from the zero
mark to the highest positive or lowest negative point on a graph. Also known as
the crest amplitude of a wave.

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Figure 4 Peak voltage of a waveform.

Peak-to-peak amplitude is the total height of an AC waveform as measured from

maximum positive to maximum negative peaks on a graph. Often abbreviated as
P-P.

Figure 5 Peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform

Phasor Diagram
To account for the different phases of the voltage drops, vector techniques are
used
Represent the voltage across each element as a rotating vector, called a phasor
The diagram is called a phasor diagram
Phasor diagram-to visualize the phase of alternating quantities I and V.
A phasor is a rotating vector used to represent a quantity that varies sinusoidally
with time.

Figure 6

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6.2 Resistors in an ac circuit

An AC circuit consists of a combination of circuit elements and an AC generator
or source
Consider a circuit consisting of an AC source and a resistor.

Figure 7

The sinusoidal current in the circuit can be represented by the equation

I I 0 sin 2ft (6.1)

The potential difference across the resistor of resistance R is

V IR ( I 0 sin 2ft ) R ( I 0 R) sin 2ft V0 sin 2ft

V V0 sin 2ft (6.2)

The graph shows the variation of the current I and the potential difference V with
time t.

Figure 8
Graph (b) shows variation of I and V with time
Both achieve max at same time =in phase with each other

Phasor diagram (c) -to visualize the phase of an alternating quantities I and V.

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I and V are in phase, hence their phasors are drawn parallel to each other and they rotate
about the point O with the same frequency f.

The power dissipated in a resistor of resistance R when a current I flows is given by,
P I 2R (6.3)

For a complete cycle, mean Power = mean value of I2R = (mean value of I2) x R
mean P I rms
2
R (6.4)
where I rms mean value of I
2 2

Hence I rms mean value of I 2 Irms=root mean square current of the ac

I 02 I
I rms 0 (6.5)
2 2
V02 V0
Vrms (6.6)
2 2

AC ammeters and voltmeters are designed to read rms values

Example 6.1
An ac voltmeter, when placed across a 12 resistor, reads 117 V. What are the
maximum values for the voltage and current?

Solution:

Vmax 2Veff 1.414(117 V); Vmax = 165 V

117 V
I max 2 I eff 1.414 ; Imax = 13.8 A
12

Example 6.2
An ac current of rms value 4.0 A and frequency 50 Hz flows in a circuit containing a
resistor. What is the (a) peak current and (b) the value of the current 6 x 10-4 s after it
changes direction?

Answer: (a) Using I 0 2 I rms I0 =5.66A

(b) Using I I 0 sin 2ft I=1.06 A

6.3 Capacitors in an ac circuit

Pure capacitor no resistor & no self induction

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Figure 9

o The current starts out at a large value and charges the plates of the capacitor
There is initially no resistance to hinder the flow of the current
while the plates are not charged
o As the charge on the plates increases, the voltage across the plates increases and
the current flowing in the circuit decreases
o The current reverses direction
o The voltage across the plates decreases as the plates lose the charge they had
accumulated
o The voltage across the capacitor lags behind the current by 90
o The impeding effect of a capacitor on the current in an AC circuit is called the
capacitive reactance and is given by:

Suppose that the alternating p.d. applied to the capacitor is given by

V V0 sin 2ft (6.7)

On capacitor, Q CV CV0 sin 2ft

From I
dQ

d
CV0 sin 2ft CV0 d sin 2ft CV0 (2ft ) cos(2ft )
dt dt dt
The current in the circuit

I I 0 sin(2ft ) (6.8)
2

where I 0 CV0 (2f ) is the peak current.

Compare (6.7) and (6.8): V and I not in phase

Phase difference between V and I radians
2

Current I lead V by rad or V lag behind the current by radians
2 2

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Figure 10

From graph (a) Imax at t = 0 and Vmax at t = T/4

phase diff = rad
2
From phasor diagram (b) when both the phasors are rotated in the direction shown at

the same frequency f I always ahead by rad
2

From I0 =CV0 ( 2f )
V0 1
where V0 = 2 Vrms and I0 = 2 Irms
I0 2fC
V0 2Vrms Vrms 1
X c reactance of the capacitor
I0 2 I rms I rms 2fC

1
Xc (6.9)
2fC

Xc

frequency

Figure 11 Variation of Xc with frequency

From Ohms law, V =IR

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Ohms Law for a capacitor in an AC circuit

Vc I rms X c (6.10)

Example 6.3

A 6-F capacitor is connected to a 40-V, 60 Hz ac line.

(a) What is the reactance?
(b) What is the effective ac current in the circuit containing pure capacitance?

Solution:
1 1
(a) X C ; XC = 442
2 fC 2 (60 Hz)(6 x 10-6 F)

Veff 40 V
(b) I eff ; Ieff = 90.5 mA
XC 442

6.4 Inductors in an ac circuit

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o Consider an AC circuit with a source and an inductor

o The current in the circuit is impeded by the back emf of the inductor

Figure 12

Current flow in an inductor: I I 0 sin 2ft (6.11)

When a charging current flows in the inductor, a back emf is produced.

dI
back L
dt
Applying Kirchoffs 2nd Law to the circuit,
dI
back L 0
dt
dI d
V L L ( I 0 sin 2ft ) 2fLI 0 cos( 2ft )
dt dt

V V0 sin 2ft (6.12)
2
Where the peak voltage, V0 2fLI 0 (6.13)

Compare (6.11) and (6.12); I I 0 sin 2ft

V V0 sin 2ft
2

Voltage V leads the current I by rad
2

Figure 13

V0 Vrms
From (6.13); V0 2fLI 0 X L 2fL
I0 I rms

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rad
2
I
Figure 14-a phasor diagram

The effective resistance of a coil in an AC circuit is called its inductive reactance and is
given by XL

Ohms law for inductor: Vrms I rms X L (6.14)

Example 6.4

A 50-mH inductor of negligible resistance is connected to a 120-V, 60-Hz ac line.

(a) What is the inductive reactance?
(b) What is the effective ac current in the circuit?

Solution:
(a) X L 2 fL 2 (60 Hz)(0.050 H) 18.85 ; ; XL = 18.9

Veff 120 V
(b) I eff ; Ieff = 6.37 A
XL 18.85

6.5 Resistors and Capacitors in Series

Figure 15

R & C in series the same I flows in R & C

Across R VR=IR VR and I in-phase

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Across C VC=IXC VC lags behind I by rad
2

VC lags behind VR by rad
2

Resultant V across R & C, V V R VC I ( R X C )

2 2 2 2 2 2

1
V I R2
2fC 2
V 1
R2 Z = impedance of the circuit
I 2fC 2

1
Z R2
2fC 2 Unit: (ohm) (6.15)

Figure 16
Figure 16 shows the variation of the impedance Z with frequency. For a very high
frequency (f ), the impedance Z equals the resistance R of the resistor.

Phase difference between I & V :

VC IX C 1
tan (6.16)
VR IR 2fCR

Example 6.5
An ac current of rms value 1.5 mA and angular frequency =100 rad/s flows through a
resistor of 10 k and a 0.50 F capacitor joined in series. Calculate
(a) the rms voltage(potential difference) across the resistor
(b) the rms voltage across the capacitor
(c) the total rms voltage across the resistor and the capacitor
(d) the rms voltage across the resistor when the current is maximum
(e) the impedance in the circuit

Solution
(a) VR =IR=15 V
(b) VC = IXC =30 V
(c) Using V 2 VR2 VC2 Vtotal = 33.5 V

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(d) Across resistor, V and I in phase, where as across the capacitor, V lags behind

the current by rad.
2
Therefore, when the current is maximum, the voltage across the capacitor is
zero and the voltage across the resistor is maximum. Hence the voltage across
the resistor when the current is maximum
V=I0R= 2 I rms =21.2 V
Vrms
(e) Impedance, Z 2.23 10 4
I rms

6.6 Resistors and Inductors in series

Figure 17

Across R VR=IR VR and I in-phase

Across L VL=IXL=I(2 fL ) VL leads I by rad
2

VL leads VR by rad
2
Resultant V across R & L, V 2 VR2 V L2 I 2 ( R 2 X L2 )

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V I R 2 ( 2fL) 2
V
Impedance of the circuit Z R 2 ( 2fL) 2 (6.17)
I

VL IX L 2fL
Phase angle between I & V : tan (6.18)
VR IR R

Example 6.6
A solenoid has inductance 2.5 H and resistance 6.0 .
(a) Sketch graphs to show how the resistance R and the reactance X of the solenoid varies
with the frequency.
(b) At what frequency is the resistance of the solenoid equal to 1% of its reactance?

Solution:
(a)

XL

R=constant

frequency

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(b) When R=1% of reactance

1
6= 2 f 2.5 f=38.2 Hz
100

6.7 Resistor, Capacitors and Inductors (RCL) in series

Figure 18

When a resistor of resistance R, a capacitor of capacitance C and an inductor of

inductance L are connected in series with an ac supply, the potential difference
across R, C and L are, respectively,
Across R VR=IR VR and I in-phase

Across C VC=IXC VC lags behind I by rad
2

Across L VL=IXL VL leads I by rad
2

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The magnitude of VL can be greater or less than VC.

Phasor Diagram for RLC Series Circuit:

o The voltage across the resistor is on the +x axis since it is in phase with
the current
o The voltage across the inductor is on the +y since it leads the current by
90
o The voltage across the capacitor is on the y axis since it lags behind the
current by 90

Magnitude VL can be greater or less than VC

1
Resultant V across R, C & L, V V R (V L VC ) I [ R (2fL 2fC )
2 2 2 2 2 2

V 1
Impedance of the circuit Z R 2 (2fL )2 (6.19)
I 2fC

2fL 1
Phase angle between I & V : tan (VL VC ) 2fC (6.20)
VR R

Ohms Law can be applied to the impedance

Vmax = Imax Z (6.21)

6.8 Resonance

In the RLC circuit, if XL = XC then the impedance becomes Z=R.

1
Since X L 2fL and X C 2fC , there would be a certain frequency known as the
resonance frequency f0 where the value of XL = XC.

When this happens, the impedance Z will have the smallest value and the current will be
maximum.

The resonance frequency can be determined as follows:

1
When XL = XC 2f 0 L 4 2 f 02 LC 1
2f 0 C
1
f0 (6.22)
2 LC

resonance frequency of the RLC series.

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Figure 19

Figure 19 shows the variation of the impedance with the frequency f and (b) shows the
1
variation of the current I with the frequency. When f 0 , the impedance is least
2 LC
and the current is maximum. The frequency f0 is known as the resonance frequency of the
series RLC circuit.

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Figure 20

Figure 17 Current amplitude vs angular frequency for series RLC circuit with various R
values.

Example 6.8

A 300- resistor, a 3-F capacitor, and a 4-H inductor are connected in series with a 90-
V, 50 Hz ac source. What is the net reactance of the circuit? What is the impedance?
What is the resonant frequency?

Solution:
1
XC 1061 ; X L 2 (50 Hz)(4 H) 1257 ;
2 (50 Hz)(3 x 10-6 F)

Net Reactance: XL XC = 196

Z R 2 ( X L X C ) 2 (300 ) 2 (1257 1061 ) 2 ; Z = 358

1 1
fr ; fr = 45.9 Hz
2 LC 2 (4 H)(3 x 10-6 F)

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6.9 Power in an ac circuit

o No power losses are associated with capacitors and pure inductors in an AC

circuit
o In a capacitor, during one-half of a cycle energy is stored and during the other half
the energy is returned to the circuit
o In an inductor, the source does work against the back emf of the inductor and
energy is stored in the inductor, but when the current begins to decrease in the
circuit, the energy is returned to the circuit
o The power in any component in an electric circuit is given by:P=IV

From I I 0 sin 2ft

V V0 sin 2ft

P IV I 0V0 sin 2 (2ft )

Figure 21

o Mean power, P = mean value of I 0V0 sin 2 ( 2ft )

1 V2
P I 0V0 I rms
2
R rms (6.23)
2 R
o In a resistor, the power dissipated in the form of heat.

Example 6.9:

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An inductor dissipates heat at a rate of 10 W when an alternating current of 0.5 A flows in

it. If the reactance of the inductor at the frequency of the supply is 30 , what is its
impedance?

Solution:
Since heat is dissipated from the inductor, the inductor is not a pure inductor and has a
resistance R. Power is dissipated due to this resistance.
Using P I R R= 40
2

Impedance Z R 2 X L2 50

Example 6.9
A series ac circuit consists of a 100- resistor, a 0.2-H inductor, and a 3-F capacitor
connected to a 110-V, 60 Hz ac source. What are the inductive reactance, the capacitive
reactance and the impedance for the circuit?

Solution:
1
XC 884 ; X L 2 (60 Hz)(0.2 H) 75.4
2 (60 Hz)(3 x 10-6 F)

Z R 2 ( X L X C ) 2 (100 ) 2 (75.4 884 ) 2 ; Z = 815

Example 6.10

When a 6- resistor and a pure inductor are connected to a 100-V, 60 Hz ac line, the
effective current is 10 A. What is the inductance? What is the power loss through the
resistor and what is the power loss through the inductor?

Solution:
110 V
Z 11.0 ; X L Z 2 R 2 (11.0) 2 (6 ) 2 ;
10 A

XL (9.22 )
XL = 9.22 L ; L = 24.5 mH
2 f 2 (60 Hz)

P = I2R = (10 A)2 (6.00 ); P = 600 W;

No Power lost in inductor: 0

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

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1 What are the peak voltages of a 120-V ac line and a 240-V ac line?
2 An ac circuit has an rms current of 5.0 A. What is the peak current?
3 The maximum voltage across a resistor in an ac circuit is 156 V. Find the resistors
rms voltage.
4 How much ac rms current must be in a 10 resistor to produce an average power of
15 W?
5 An ac circuit contains a resistor with a resistance of 5.0. The resistor has an rms
current of 0.75 A. (a) Find its rms voltage and peak voltage. (b) Find the average
power delivered to the resistor.

6 Sketch a series RLC circuit with the following values:

R = 250
L = 0.6 H
C = 3.5 F
= 377 s-1
Vm = 150 V
Find a) impedance,
b) maximum current,
c) phase relationship between the current and voltage (construct a phasor diagram,
assume that VR is in the first quadrant),
d) peak voltage across each element,
e) instantaneous voltage across each element.

7. Draw the phasor diagram of an RC and LC circuit

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