INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 1 BASIC ENGINEERING SCIENCE

This tutorial provides minimal engineering science necessary to complete the rest of the
tutorials. Greater depth of the individual topics can be found on the web site. It is useful to
anyone studying measurement systems and instrumentation but it is provided mainly in
support of the EC module D227 Control System Engineering. This tutorial is very basic.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to explain and use the following basic
relationships used in mechanical and electrical engineering science.

Basic units.

Displacement, velocity and acceleration.

Newtons Second Law of Motion.

Springs.

Pressure and flow.

Resistance, current, capacitance and inductance.

Stress and strain.

Resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistance.

D.J.Dunn 1
1. UNITS

There are only 5 basic units used in engineering. These are

mass kilogramme (kg)

length metre (m)
time seconds (s)
current Ampere (A)
temperature Kelvin (K)

Also used in phys ics is luminous intensity Candela (Cd). All other quantities used are multiples of these
units.

2. FUNDAMENTAL MECHANICAL LAWS

2.1. VELOCITY

Linear Velocity = rate of change of distance (m/s)

v = distance moved/time taken for constant velocity or x/t.
v = dx/dt for instantaneous velocity.

Angular Angular velocity = rate of change of angle (rad/s)

= angle turned/time taken for constant velocity or /t.
= d/dt for varying conditions.

2.2 ACCELERATION

Linear Acceleration = rate of change of velocity (m/s2).

a = dv/dt = d2 x/dt2

Angular Angular acceleration = rate of change of velocity (rad/s2)

= d/dt = d2 /dt2

2.3. NEWTON'S 2nd LAW OF MOTION

This concerns the force required to overcome the inertia of a body. Inertia (or mass) is that property of a
body which opposes changes to its motion.

Linear Angular

Force = Mass x acceleration Torque = Moment of inertia x angular acceleratio n

F = M dv/dt T = I d/dt
F = M d2x/dt2 T = I d2 /dt2

2.4. SPRING

Linear Force = constant x change in length (N)

F = kx

Angular Torque = Constant x angle (N m)

T=k

D.J.Dunn 2
2.5. PRESSURE
Pressure = Force per unit area (N/m2)
p = F/A
1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 10 5 Pa

2.6. FLOW RATE IN PIPES

Flow rate = Cross sectional area x mean velocity

Q = A dx/dt

3. FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL LAWS

3.1 CURRENT i = dq/dt (Coulomb/s or Amperes)

3.2 RESISTANCE V=IR (Ohm's Law)

3.3 INDUCTANCE

This law is equivalent to the 2nd. law of motion. Inductance (L Henries) is that property of a component
that resists changes to the flow of current. The emf (E) produced is

E = L di/dt
E = L d2q/dt2
3.4. CAPACITANCE

This law is equivalent to the spring law. Capacitance (C Farads) is the property of a component which
enables it to store electric charge.
Q = C V (Coulombs)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A spring is compressed 30 mm by a force of 50 N. Calculate the spring constant. (1.67 N/mm)

2. A mass of 30 kg is accelerated at a rate of 4 m/s2. Calculate the force used to do it. (120 N)

3. A flywheel is accelerated at a rate of 4 rad/s2 by a torque of 10 Nm. Calculate the moment of inertia.
(2.5 kg m2 )

4. A force of 5000 N acts on an area of 400 mm2. Calculate the pressure in Pascals. (12.5 MPa)

5. A pipe 100 mm diameter carries oil at a mean velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate the flow rate in m3 /s.
(0.0157 m3 /s)

6. The current in an inductive coil changes at 30 A/s and the back emf is 3 V. Calculate the inductance
in H. (0.1 H)

7. A capacitor has a charge of 2 Coulombs at 24 V stored on it. Calculate the capacitance in F.

(83.3 F)

8. A flywheel turns 120 radians in 3 seconds at a constant rate. Calculate the angular velocity. (40 rad/s)

D.J.Dunn 3
4. STRESS AND STRAIN

4.1. DIRECT STRESS

When a force F acts directly on an area A as shown in figure 1, the resulting direct stress is the force per
unit area and is given as
= F/A.
where
F is the force normal to the area in Newtons
A is the area in m2
and (sigma) is the direct stress in N/m2 or Pascals.

Since 1 Pa is a small unit kPa , MPa and GPa are commonly used also.

If the force pulls on the area so that the material is stretched then it is a tensile force and stress and this is
positive.
If the force pushes on the surface so that the material is compressed, then the force and stress is
compressive and negative.

4.2. DIRECT STRAIN

Consider a piece of material of length L as shown
in figure 1. The direct stress produces a change in
length L. The direct strain produced is
(epsilon) defined as =L/L

The units of change in length and original length

must be the same and the strain has no units.

Figure 1

Strains are normally very small so often to indicate a strain of 10-6 we use the name micro strain and
write it as .
For example we would write a strain of 7 x 10-6 as 7.

Tensile strain is positive and compressive strain is negative.

4.3. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E

Many materials are elastic up to a point. This means that if they are deformed in any way, they will spring
back to their original shape and size when the force is released. It has been established that so long as the
material remains elastic, the stress and strain are related by the simple formula

E= /

and E is called the MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. The units are the same as those of stress.

D.J.Dunn 4
ELASTIC LIMIT

A material is only elastic up to a certain point. If the elastic limit is exceeded, the material becomes
permanently stretched. The stress-strain graph for some metals are shown below. The modulus of
elasticity does not apply above the elastic limit. Strain gauges should not be stretched beyond the elastic
limit of the strain gauge material which is approximately 3000.

Figure 2

A typical value for the elastic limit of strain gauges is 3000 .

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A metal bar which is part of a frame is 50 mm diameter and 300 mm long. It has a tensile force acting
on it of 40 kN which tends to stretch it. The modulus of elasticity is 205 GPa. Calculate the stress and
strain in the bar and the amount it stretches.

SOLUTION
F = 40 x 103 N.
A = D2/4 = x 502/4 = 1963 mm2
= F/A = (40 x103 )/(1963 x 10-6) = 20.37 x 106 N/m2 =20.37 MPa
E = / = 205 x 109 N/m2
= /E = (20.37 x 106)/(205 x 109) = 99.4 x 10-6 or 99.4
= L/L
L= x L = 99.4 x 10-6 x 300 mm = 0.0298 mm

4.4. POISSONS' RATIO

Consider a piece of material in 2 dimensions as shown in figure 2. The stress

in the y direction is y and there is no stress in the x direction. When it is
stretched in the y direction, it causes the material to get thinner in all the other
directions at right angles to it. This means that a negative strain is produced in
the x direction. For elastic materials it is found that the applied strain ( y) is
always directly proportional to the induced strain ( x) such that

( x)/( y) = -

where (Nu)is an elastic constant called Poissons' ratio.

The strain produced in the x direction is x= - y
Figure 3
D.J.Dunn 5
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. A metal wire is 1 mm diameter and 1 m long. It is stretched by a force of 2 N. Calculate the change in
diameter. E = 90 GPa and = 0.3 (Answer -8.5 x 10-6 mm).

Explain what happens to the resistance of the wire.

2. Explain the significance of Poisson's ratio to the behaviour of strain gauges.

5. RESISTIVITY

The resistance of a conductor increases with length L and decreases with cross sectional area A so we
may say R is directly proportional to L and inversely proportional to A.

R = Constant x L/A
The constant is the resistivity of the material hence R = L/A Ohms

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire 5 m long and 0.3 mm diameter. The resistivity is 1.7 x 10-8
Ohm metre. (Answer 1.202 )

2. Calculate the resistance of a nichrome wire 2 m long and 0.2 mm diameter given = 108 x 10-8
(Answer 68.75 )

6. TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

The resistance of conductors changes with temperature. This is a problem when strain gauge devices are
used. Usually the resistance increases with temperature. The amount by which the resistance changes per
degree per ohm of the original resistance is called the temperature coefficient of resistance and is denoted
. The units are Ohms per Ohm per degree.

Let the resistance of a conductor be Ro at 0oC.

Let the resistance be R1 at 1 oC. The change in resistance = 1 Ro
The new resistance is R1 = Ro + 1 Ro
Let the resistance be R2 at 2 oC. The change in resistance = 2 Ro
The new resistance is R2 = Ro + 2 Ro
If the temperature changes from 1 to 2 the resistance changes by
R = R2 - R1 = (Ro + 2 Ro ) - ( Ro + 1 Ro ) R = Ro

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1. A resistor has a nominal resistance of 120 at 0 oC. Calculate the resistance at 20oC. Calculate the
change in resistance when the temperature drops by 5 degrees. = 6 x 10 -3 / oC
(Answers 134.4 and - 3.6)

D.J.Dunn 6
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 2 SENSORS AND PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS

This tutorial provides an overview of instrument sensors used in process and automatic
control. It is useful to anyone studying measurement systems and instrumentation but it is
provided mainly in support of the EC module D227 Control System Engineering. This
tutorial is mainly descriptive.

Control is a broad concept and the following might apply to an automated system such as
a robot or to a process control system such as a pneumatic valve controlling the flow of
steam in a pipe.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

Explain a basic measurement system.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of temperature sensors.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of pressure sensors.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of speed transducers.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of flow meters.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of force gauges.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of displacement gauges.

Explain the basic working principles of a variety of level (depth) gauges.

Explain in some detail the theory and use of strain gauges.

In order to complete the theoretical part of this tutorial, you must be familiar with basic
mechanical and electrical science.

D.J.Dunn 1
1. INTRODUCTION

A basic instrument system consists of three elements:

i SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE

ii SIGNAL PROCESSOR
iii RECEIVER or OUTPUT DEVICE

This tutorial is devoted to input devices but you can never separate it from the rest of the system as in many cases
they are all integral (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge incorporates all of these elements). A block diagram of a
basic system is shown but they are usually more complex.

Figure 1

Most modern analogue equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.
Electric 4 to 20 mA
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V. Increasingly the instruments are digital with a binary digital encoder
built in to give a binary digital output. Pneumatic signals are commonly used in process industries for safety
especially when there is a risk of fire or explosion.

The advantage of having a standard range or using digital signals is that all equipment may be purchased ready
calibrated. For analogue systems the minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on ) is
represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar.

This tutorial is an attempt to familiarise you with the many types of input sensors on the market today. Usually
such sensors are called PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS.

Things that we commonly measure are:

Temperature Pressure
Speed Flow rate
Force Movement, Velocity and Acceleration
Stress and Strain Level or Depth
Mass or Weight Density
Size or Volume Acidity/Alkalinity

Sensors may operate simple on/off switches to detect the following:

Objects(Proximity switch) Empty or full (level switch)

Hot or cold (thermostat) Pressure high or low (pressure switch)

The block diagram of a sensor is shown below.

Figure 2

D.J.Dunn 2
2 TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS

2.1 THERMOCOUPLES

When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at both ends and one junction is made hot and the
other cold, a small electric current is produced proportional to the difference in the temperature. Seebeck
discovered this effect. It is true no matter how the ends are joined so the cold end may be joined at a sensitive
millivolt meter. The hot junction forms the sensor end.

Figure 3

The picture shows a typical industrial probe with a flexible extension and standard plug.

Figure 4

Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and rejected at the cold end. Thompson showed that part of
the e.m.f. is due to the temperature gradient in the wire as well as the temperature difference between the
junctions. Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two temperatures and the e.m.f as
follows.

e = (1 - 2) + (12 - 22

and are constants for the type of thermocouple. The relationship is nearly linear over the operating range.
The actual characteristic and suitable operating temperatures depends upon the metals used in the wires. The
various types are designated in international and national standards. Typical linear operating ranges are shown for
standard types.

It is important that thermocouples are standard so that the same e.m.f will always represent the same
temperature.

D.J.Dunn 3
 Type J 0 to 800oC Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be wires
Type K 0 to 1200oC insulated from each other with plastic or glass fibre materials.
Type T -199 to 250oC For high temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside a
Type E 0 to 600oC tube with mineral insulation. For industrial uses the sensor
Type R/S 0 to 1600oC comes in a metal enclosure such as stainless steel.
Type B 500 to 1800oC
Type N 0 to 1200oC
Type L 0 to 800oC

2.2 RESISTANCE TYPE SENSORS

Figure 5

These work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor change with temperature. If a constant
voltage is applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with temperature. The resistivity
of the conductor change with temperature. This usually means the resistance gets bigger as the conductor gets
hotter. The following law relates the resistance and temperature.

R = Ro(1 + )

is the temperature coefficient of resistance. Ro is the resistance at 0oC. Sometimes the equation is given as
R = Ro(1 - 2)

A basic temperature sensor is made by winding a thin resistance wire into a small sensor head. The resistance of
the wire then represents the temperature. This has an advantage over a thermocouple in that it is unaffected by the
temperature of the gauge end. The main type of wire used is PLATINUM. The sensors are usually manufactured
to have a resistance of 100 at 0oC and the value of is 0.00385 to 0.00390. A typical operating range is -
200 to 400oC.

A special type of resistance sensor is called a THERMISTOR. They are made from a small piece of semi-
conductor material. The material is special because the resistance changes a lot for a small change in temperature
and so can be made into a small sensor and it costs less than platinum wire. The temperature range is limited.
They are only used for a typical range of -20 to 120oC and are commonly used in small hand held thermometers
for every day use. The relationship between resistance and temperature is of the form R = AeB/

D.J.Dunn 4
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A Platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 100 at 0oC and the value of is 0.00385. In
operation the resistance is 101 . Calculate the temperature.

SOLUTION

Rearrange the formula to make the subject and evaluate.

R
1 105 1
R
?= o = 100 = 12.987 o C
a 0.00385

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A thermocouple produces an e.m.f. in mV according to the temperature difference between the sensor tip 1
and the gauge head 2 such that
e = (1-2) + (12-22)
= 3.5 x 10-2 and = 8.2 x 10-6 The gauge head is at 20oC. The mV output is 12 mV. Calculate the
temperature at the sensor.

SOLUTION

10 = 0.035(? 1 20) + 8.2 x 10 6 (? 12 20 2 )

10 = 0.035? 1 0.7 + 8.2 x 10 6 ? 12 0.00328
10 = 8.2x10 6 ?12 + 0.035? 1 0.69672
8.2 x 10 6 ?12 + 0.035?1 9.30328 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation yields 1 = 251oC

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A thermocouple produces an e.m.f. in mV according to the temperature difference between the sensor tip 1
and the gauge head 2 such that e = (1-2) + (12-22)
Given = 3.5 x 10-2 and = 8.2 x 10-6 determine the mV output when the tip is at 220oC and the
gauge head at 20oC.
(Answer 7.394 mV)

2. Describe the basic construction of a resistance type temperature sensor and state the reason why it is
unaffected by the temperature of the gauge head.

3. State two reasons why instrument systems use standard transmission signal of either 4 - 20 mA or 0.2 - 1
bar.

D.J.Dunn 5
2.3 LIQUID EXPANSION and VAPOUR PRESSURE SENSORS

These are thermometers filled with either a liquid such as mercury or an evaporating fluid such as used in
refrigerators. In both cases the inside of the sensor head and the connecting tube are completely full. Any rise in
temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the liquid so the sensor becomes pressurised. The pressure is
related to the temperature and it may be indicated on a simple pressure gauge.

Ways and means exist to convert the pressure into an electrical signal. The movement may also directly operate a
thermostat. These instruments are robust and used over a wide range. They can be fitted with electric switches to
set off alarms.

Figure 6
2.4 BIMETALLIC TYPES

It is a well-known principle that if two metals are rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and heated, the
difference in the expansion rate causes the strip to bend.

Figure 7

In the industrial type, the strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a tube. One end is fixed at the bottom of the
tube and the other turns and moves a pointer on a dial. The outward appearance is very similar to the pressure
type. They can be made to operate limit switches and set off alarms or act as a thermostat. (e.g. on a boiler).

D.J.Dunn 6
2.5 GLASS THERMOMETER

The ordinary glass thermometer is also a complete system. Again the bulb is the sensor but the column of liquid
and the scale on the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot temperatures and coloured
alcohol for cold temperatures.

Figure 8

The problems with glass thermometers are that they are

Brittle
Mercury solidifies at -40oC.
Alcohol boils at around 120 oC.
Accurate manufacture is needed and this makes accurate ones expensive.
It is easy for people to make mistakes reading them.

Glass thermometers are not used much now in industry but if they are, they are usually protected by a shield from
accidental breakage. In order to measure the temperature of something inside a pipe they are placed in
thermometer pockets.

D.J.Dunn 7
3. PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical movement or into an electrical output. Complete
gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate them on a dial or scale.

Mechanical movement is produced with the following elements.

Bourdon Tube.

Spring and Piston.

Bellows and capsules.

Diaphragm.

3.1. BOURDON TUBE

Figure 9

The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section. When a pressure difference exists between the
inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end moves. The movement is usually coupled to a
needle on a dial to make a complete gauge. It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle
to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an electric signal. This type can be used for
measuring pressure difference.

D.J.Dunn 8
3.2 PISTON TYPE

The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The
position of the piston is directly related to the pressure. A window in the
outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. This type is usually used in
hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock, vibration and sudden
pressure changes is needed (shock proof gauge). The piston movement may
be connected to a secondary device to convert movement into an electrical
signal.

Figure 10

3.3. CAPSULES AND BELLOWS

A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened

structures made from thin metal plate. When pressurised the bellows
expand and produce mechanical movement. If the bellows is encapsulated
inside an outer container, then the movement is proportional to the
difference between the pressure on the inside and outside. Bellows and
single capsules are used in many instruments. They are very useful for
measuring small pressures.

Figure 11

3.4 DIAPHRAGMS

These are similar in principle to the capsule but the diaphragm is

usually very thin and perhaps made of rubber. The diaphragm
expands when very small pressures are applied. The movement
is transmitted to a pointer on a dial through a fine mechanical
linkage.

Figure 12

3.5 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the preceding types into an electric signal. Th
following are types that directly produce an electric signal.

Strain Gauge types.

Piezo electric types.
Other electric effects.

D.J.Dunn 9
3.5.1 STRAIN GAUGE TYPES

Figure 13

The principles of electric strain gauges are covered later. Strain gauges are small elements that are fixed to a
surface that is strained. The change in length of the element produces changes in the electrical resistance. This is
processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure transducer would contain a metal diaphragm which
bends under pressure.

3.5.2. PIEZO ELECTRIC TYPES

The element used here is a piece of crystalline material that produces an electric charge on its surface when it is
mechanically stressed. The electric charge may be converted into voltage. This principle is used in the pick up
crystal of a record player, in microphones and even to generate a spark in a gas ignitor. When placed inside a
pressure transducer, the pressure is converted into an electric signal.

3.5.3. OTHER ELECTRIC EFFECTS

Other electric effects commonly used in transducers are CAPACITIVE and INDUCTIVE. In these cases, the
pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an electronic component in the transducer. Both
these effects are commonly used in an electronic oscillator and one way they may be used is to change the
frequency of the oscillation. The frequency may be converted into a voltage representing the pressure.

4. SPEED TRANSDUCERS
Speed transducers are widely used for measuring the output speed of a rotating object. There are many types
using different principles and most of them produce an electrical output.

4.1 OPTICAL TYPES

Figure 14

These use a light beam and a light sensitive cell. The beam is either reflected or interrupted so that pulses are
produced for each revolution. The pulses are then counted over a fixed time and the speed obtained. Electronic
processing is required to time the pulses and turn the result into an analogue or digital signal.

D.J.Dunn 10
4.2 MAGNETIC PICK UPS

Figure 15

These use an inductive coil placed near to the rotating body. A small magnet on the body generates a pulse every
time it passes the coil. If the body is made of ferrous material, it will work without a magnet. A discontinuity in the
surface such as a notch will cause a change in the magnetic field and generate a pulse. The pulses must be
processed to produce an analogue or digital output.

4.3 TACHOMETERS

There are two types, A.C. and D.C. The A.C. type generates a sinusoidal output. The frequency of the voltage
represents the speed of rotation. The frequency must be counted and processed. The D.C. type generates a
voltage directly proportional to the speed. Both types must be coupled to the rotating body. very often the
tachometer is built into electric motors to measure their speed.

Figure 16

D.J.Dunn 11
5. FLOW METERS

There are many hundreds of types of flow meters depending on the make and application. They may be classified
roughly as follows.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES

INFERENTIAL TYPES
VARIABLE AREA TYPES
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPES

5.1. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES

These types have a mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for an exact known quantity
of fluid. The quantity of fluid hence depends on the number of revolutions of the meter shaft and the flow rate
depends upon the speed of rotation. Both the revolutions and speed may be measured with mechanical or
electronic devices. Some of the most common listed below.

Rotary piston type.

Vane type.
Lobe type or meshing rotor.
Reciprocating piston type
Fluted spiral gear.

5.1.1 MESHING ROTOR

Figure 17

The MESHING ROTOR type consists of two rotors with lobes. When fluid is forced in, the rotors turn and
operate the indicating system.

5.2. INFERENTIAL TYPE METERS

The flow of the fluid is inferred from some effect produced by the flow. Usually this is a rotor which is made to
spin and the speed of the rotor is sensed mechanically or electronically. The main types are :

Turbine rotor types

Rotary shunt types
Rotating vane types
Helical turbine types

D.J.Dunn 12
5.2.1 TURBINE TYPE

Figure 18
The pictures show two industrial flow meters.

Figure 19

The turbine type shown has an axial rotor which is made to spin by the fluid and the speed represents the flow
rate. This may be sensed electrically by coupling the shaft to a small electric tachometer. Often this consists of a
magnetic slug on the rotor which generates a pulse of electricity each time it passes the sensor.

5.2.2 ROTATING VANE TYPE

Figure 20
The jet of fluid spins around the rotating vane and the speed of the rotor is measured mechanically or
electronically.

D.J.Dunn 13
5.3.3. VARIABLE AREA TYPES

There are two main types of this meter

Float type (Rotameter)

Tapered plug type.

5.3.3.1 FLOAT TYPE

Figure 21

The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the float. The
restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressure forces the float upwards. Because the tube is
tapered, the restriction is decreased as the float moves up. Eventually a level is reached where the restriction is
just right to produce a pressure force that counteracts the weight of the float. The level of the float indicates the
flow rate. If the flow changes the float moves up or down to find a new balance position.

When dangerous fluids are used, protection is needed against the tube fracturing. The tube may be made of a
non-magnetic metal. The float has a magnet on it. As it moves up and down, the magnet moves a follower and
pointer on the outside. The position of the float may be measured electrically by building a movement transducer
into the float.

5.3.3.2 TAPERED PLUG TYPE.

Figure 22

In this meter, a tapered plug is aligned inside a hole or orifice. A spring holds it in place. The flow is restricted as
it passes through the gap and a force is produced which moves the plug. Because it is tapered the restriction
changes and the plug takes up a position where the pressure force just balances the spring force. The movement
of the plug is transmitted with a magnet to an indicator on the outside.

D.J.Dunn 14
5.4 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a differential pressure. The important types conform to BS
1042 and are

ORIFICE METERS.
VENTURI METERS
NOZZLE METERS
PITOT TUBES.

The diagram shows a cross section through the four types of d.p. meters.

Figure 23
The working principle for all these is that something makes the
velocity of the fluid change and this produces a change in the
pressure so that a difference p = p2 - p1 is created. It can be
shown for all these meters that the volume flow rate Q is
related to p by the following formula.

Q = K(p)0.5

K is the meter constant. A full explanation of these meters is

covered in the tutorials on fluid mechanics. The picture shows
an industrial d.p.meter. Extra instrumentation heads can be
fitted to produce an electrical output (4 20 mA) or a
pneumatic output (0.2 1 bar).
Figure 24

D.J.Dunn 15
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

A Venturi meter has a meter constant of 0.008 m4 N-0.5 s-1. Calculate the flow rate when p = 180 Pa

SOLUTION

Q = K(p)0.5 = 0.008 m4 N-0.5 s-1(180)0.5 = 0.1073 (m4 N-0.5 s-1)(N 0.5 m-1) or m3/s

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

An Orifice meter has a meter constant of 0.004 m4 N-0.5 s-1. Calculate the flow rate when a differential
pressure of 200 Pa is obtained.

(Answer 0.0566 m3/s)

D.J.Dunn 16
6. FORCE SENSORS

The main types of force sensors are

Mechanical types.
Hydraulic types.
Electrical strain gauge types.

6.1. MECHANICAL TYPES

Mechanical types are usually complete measuring systems involving some form of spring such as in a simple
spring balance or bathroom scale. It is a basic mechanical principle that the deflection of a spring is directly
proportional to the applied force so if the movement is shown on a scale, the scale represents force.

Figure 25
6.2. HYDRAULIC TYPES

Hydraulic types are often referred to as hydraulic load cells. The cell is a capsule filled with liquid. When the
capsule is squeezed, the liquid becomes pressurised. The pressure represents the force and may be indicated with
a calibrated pressure gauge. The capsule is often a short cylinder with a piston and the pressure produced is
given by p = F/A where F is the force and A the piston area.

Figure 26

D.J.Dunn 17
6.3 STRAIN GAUGE TYPE

A typical load cell consists of a metal cylinder with strain gauges fixed to it. When the cylinder is stretched or
compressed, the strain gauges convert the force into a change in resistance and hence voltage. Since the elements
require a supply voltage, the cell usually has 4 wires, two for the supply and two for the output.

Figure 27

7. POSITION SENSORS

Position sensors are essential elements in the control of actuators. The position of both linear and rotary actuators
is needed in robotic type mechanisms. There are three principle types.

RESISTIVE
OPTICAL
INDUCTIVE

7.1. RESISTIVE TYPES

Figure 28

A potentiometer is a variable electrical resistance. A length of resistance material has a voltage applied over its
ends. A slider moves along it (either linear or rotary) and picks off the voltage at its position or angle. The tracks
may be made from carbon , resistance wire or piezo resistive material. The latter is the best because it gives a
good analogue output. The wire wound type produces small step changes in the output depending on how fine
the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the track.

D.J.Dunn 18
7.2 OPTICAL TYPES

Figure 29

Optical types are mainly used for producing digital outputs. A common example is found on machine tools where
they measure the position of the work table and display it in digits on the gauge head. Digital micrometers and
verniers also use this idea. The basic principle is as follows. Light is emitted through a transparent strip or disc
onto a photo electric cell. Often reflected light is used as shown. The strip or disc has very fine lines engraved on
it which interrupt the beam. The number of interruptions are counted electronically and this represents the position
or angle. This is very much over simplified and you should refer to more advanced text to find out how very
accurate measurements are obtained and also the direction of movement.

7.3. INDUCTIVE TYPES

Figure 30

The most common of these is the Linear Variable Differential transformer or LVDT. The transformer is made
with one primary coil and two secondary coils, one placed above and the other below the primary. The coils are
formed into a long narrow hollow tube. A magnetic core slides in the tube and is attached to the mechanism being
monitored with a non magnetic stem (e.g. brass). A constant alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil. This
induces a voltage in both secondary coils. When the core is exactly in the middle, equal voltages are induced and
when connected as shown, they cancel each other out. When the core moves, the voltage in one secondary coil
grows but reduces in the other. The result is an output voltage which represents the position of the core and
hence the mechanism to which it is attached. The output voltage is usually converted into D.C. With suitable
electronic equipment for phase detection, it is possible to detect which direction the core moves and to switch the
DC voltage from plus to minus as the core passes the centre position. These can be very accurate and are widely
used for gauging the dimensions of machined components.

D.J.Dunn 19
8. DEPTH GAUGES

Depth gauges measure the depth of liquids and powder in tanks. They use a variety of principles and produce
outputs in electrical and pneumatic forms. The type to use depends on the substance in the tank. Here are a few.

Figure 31

The ultrasonic system reflects sound waves from the surface and determines the depth from the time taken to
receive the reflected sound. The electronic version uses a variety of electrical affects including conduction of the
fluid and capacitance. The pneumatic version bubbles air through the liquid and the pressure of the air is related to
the depth. A simple pressure gauge attached to a tank is also indicates the depth since depth is proportional to
pressure.

D.J.Dunn 20
9. STRAIN GAUGES

Strain gauges are used in many instruments that produce mechanical strain because of the affect being measured.
In their own right, they are used to measure the strain in a structure being stretched or compressed.

The strain gauge element is a very thin wire that is formed into the shape shown. This produces a long wire all in
one direction but on a small surface area. The element is often formed by etching a thin foil on a plastic backing.
The completed element is then glued to the surface of the material or component that will be strained. The axis of
the strain gauge is aligned with the direction of the strain. When the component is stretched or compressed, the
length of the resistance wire is changed. This produces a corresponding change in the electrical resistance.

Let the length of the gauge be L and the change in length be L.

The mechanical strain = L/L
Let the resistance of the gauge be R (typically 120 ) and the change in resistance be R.
The electrical strain = R/R.
The electrical and mechanical strain are directly proportional and the constant relating them is called the gauge
factor (typically 2).

Gauge Factor = Electrical Strain/Mechanical strain = / = L R/R L

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A strain gauge is glued to a structure. It has a gauge factor of 2.1 and a resistance of 120.2 . The structure
is stressed and the resistance changes to 120.25 . Calculate the strain and convert this into stress.
Take E = 205 GPa

SOLUTION

R = 120.25 120.2 = 0.05 = R/R1 = 0.05/120.2 = 4.16 x 10-4

= /G = 4.16 x 10-4/2.1 = 1.981 x 10-4 = E = 1.981 x 10-4 x 205 x 109 = 40.61 MPa

D.J.Dunn 21
STRAIN GAUGE ARRANGEMENTS

A strain gauge is of little use unless we can convert the change in resistance into a voltage. This is best done with
a Wheatstone bridge.

If only one active gauge is used, this would be R1 or R2. R1

and R2 must be equal, so must R3 and R4. In this case, the
voltage at points 1 and 2 are equal to Vs/2 and so the output Vo
is zero. In order to ensure this, the balancing resistor RB is
adjusted to make the output zero with no strain applied to the
gauge. Suppose that R1 is the active gauge. If the bridge is
balanced then the voltage at points 1 and 2 is half the supply
voltage. V1 = V2 = Vs/2

Figure 32

When R1 changes its resistance by R the voltage at point 1 becomes:

VsR/(2R + R) (using ratio of resistances)

The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs/2 - VsR /(2R + R)
Vo= Vs R/{(4R + 2R)}

Dividing top and bottom by R we get Vo= Vs (R/R)/{4 + 2R/R}

The gauge factor is defined as G = electrical strain/mechanical strain
G = (R/R)/ so (R/R) = G

Substituting we get Vo= Vs G/{4 + 2G}

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

Four strain gauges are formed into bridge with only one active gauge. The nominal resistance of all of them is
120 . The gauge factor is 2.1 and the supply voltage is 10 V. Calculate the strain when the output from the
bridge is 20 mV.

SOLUTION

Vo= Vs G/{4 + 2G} = 4Vo G(Vs - 2Vo) = (4 x 0.02) {2.1(10 - 0.04)} = 3.825 x 10-3

D.J.Dunn 22
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

One of the problems with strain gauges is that the resistance also changes with temperature and so it is vital that
each pair of resistors is maintained at the same temperature.

If one active gauge is used, say R1, then the other resistor R2
must be placed near to it and this is best done by using a
DUMMY GAUGE fixed close to the active gauge but in a
position where it is unstrained. Better still, make R2 another
active gauge and so double the output from the bridge. For
example, if a beam is used to produce the strain, one gauge is
placed on top and the other on the bottom as shown. Let R1
increase and R2 decrease by R. The voltage at point 1
becomes
Figure 33
Vs(R - R)/2R (using ratio of resistances)
The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs/2 - Vs(R - R)/2R
Vo= Vs R/{2(2R + R)}
Dividing top and bottom by R we get Vo= Vs R/2R
Vo= Vs G/2 which is almost double the output.

If the load cell only produces tension or compression, the active gauges are R1 and R4 with R2 and R3 being
dummy gauges. All 4 gauges are then at the same temperature. This is shown in the diagram.

Figure 34
The voltage at point 1 becomes VsR /(2R + R)
and at point 2 becomes Vs(R + R)/(2R + R)
The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = Vs R/(2R + R)
Dividing top and bottom by R we get Vo= Vs (R/R)/{2 + R/R}
Vo= Vs G/(2+G)
This is double the output of a single active gauge and fully temperature stable.

If a beam is used in the load cell, all 4 gauges may be made

active as shown.
The output at point 1 becomes
V1 =Vs(R-R) /2R
and at point 2 becomes
V2= Vs(R + R)/2R

Figure 35
The output becomes Vo= V2 - V1 = VsR/R Vo= Vs G
This is 4 times the output of a single active gauge and fully temperature stable.
D.J.Dunn 23
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. A strain gauge is glued to a structure. It has a gauge factor of 2.1 and a resistance of 120.2 . The structure
is stressed and the resistance changes to 120.25 . Calculate the strain and convert this into stress.

Take E = 205 GPa

(Answer 40.6 MPa)

2. A strain gauge has a resistance of 120.6 Ohms at 20oC. Calculate its resistance at 30oC.
= 8 x 10-6 / oC.

(Answer 120.61 )

3. Describe how to eliminate temperature error in a strain gauge bridge when it has

a. one active gauge.

b. two active gauges.

4. A STRAIN GAUGE has a gauge factor of 2.2. It is glued to tensile test piece and the resistance before
straining is 119.8 . The test piece is stretched and the resistance goes up to 120 . Calculate the
following. The modulus of elasticity E for the test piece is 200 GPa.

i. The strain in the test piece. (7.588 x 10-4)

ii. The stress in the test piece. (15.18 MPa)

D.J.Dunn 24
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1. State what each of the sensors below measures (flow, temperature and so on)

a. Thermocouple.
b. Potentiometer.
c. Thermistor.
d. Optical fringes.
e. Venturi meter.
f. Pitot tube.
g. Bimetallic type.
h. Platinum resistance probe.
i. D.C. type generator.
j. L.V.D.T.
k. Bourdon tube.
l. Orifice meter.
m. Piezo electric.

2. State two types of sensors that could be used to measure each of the following.

a. Speed of revolution.
b. Flow rate of liquids.
c. Pressure.
d. Temperature.

D.J.Dunn 25
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 3 SIGNAL PROCESSORS AND RECEIVERS

This tutorial provides an overview of signal processing and conditioning for use in
instrumentation and automatic control systems. It is provided mainly in support of the EC
module D227 Control System Engineering. This tutorial is mainly descriptive.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

Explain a basic measurement system.

Describe the various types of signals and their conversion.

Explain the principles of a selection of signal processors and conditioners.

Explain in some details the principles Analogue/Digital processing.

Explain the principles of a range of signal receivers.

In order to complete the theoretical part of this tutorial, you must be familiar with basic
mechanical and electrical science.

D.J.Dunn 1
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1. INTRODUCTION

A basic instrument system consists of a sensor (tutorial 2), a processor and a receiver. This tutorial is about the
processor and the receiver. The technology used in signal processing is also important for automatic control
systems.

Figure 1

2. SIGNAL PROCESSING AND CONDITIONING

You should now be familiar with transducers and sensors. These were PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS. We must
now examine how to process the output of the transducers into the form required by the rest of the instrument
system. These may also be transducers but in this case, SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS. Most modern
equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.

Electric 4 to 20 mA
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
Digital standards
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V.

The advantage of having a standard range is that all equipment is sold ready calibrated. This means that the
minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on) is represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the
maximum signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar. The primary transducer will not produce these standard
ranges so the purpose of processing and conditioning is usually to convert the output into the standard range.

The vast array of instrumentation and control equipment available uses many forms of signals. Here is a summary.

ELECTRICAL - Voltage, current, digital.

MECHANICAL - Force and movement.
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC Pressure and flow.
OPTICAL High speed digital signal transmission.
RADIO Analogue and digital transmission.
ULTRA VIOLET Similar application to radio over short ranges.

Processing may do the following things.

Change the level or value of the signal (e.g. voltage level)

Change the signal from one form to another. (e.g. current to pneumatic)
Change the operating characteristic with respect to time.
Convert analogue and digital signals from one to the other.

First let's examine those processors which change the level or value of the signal.

D.J.Dunn 2
2
2.1 AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers may amplify VOLTAGE, CURRENT or BOTH in which case it is a POWER
AMPLIFIER.

Amplifier gain may be expressed as a ratio or in decibels. The letter W indicates it refers
Power Output
to power gain. The gain in dbW is given by Gain(dbW) = 10log 10
Power Input
Figure 2

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Calculate the power gain of an amplifier which has an input of 5 mW and an output of 6 Watts.

SOLUTION

Gain = G = 10 log 6/0.005 = 10 log 1200 = 30.79 dbW

In practice, an amplifier generates some noise and the input

and output terminals have a resistance that governs the ratio
of current to voltage. A model is shown in which a noise
generator is indicated and input and output resistors.

Figure 3
Since electric power into a resistive load is given as
V2 V 2out Vout
P = I 2R = then Gain(dbV) = 10log 10 2 = 20log 10
R V in Vin
The letter V indicates it is a voltage gain.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Calculate the gain of a VOLTAGE amplifier with an input of 2 mV and output 10 V.

SOLUTION
G = 20 Log10 10/0.002 = 73.98 dbV

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

These have two inputs and the difference between them is amplified. The electronic symbol is shown.

Vout
Voltage Gain = 20log 10
(V2 V1 )

Figure 4

D.J.Dunn 3
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 WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

Find the output voltage if the gain 15 db.

SOLUTION

Input = 5 - 2 = 3 V G = 15 = 20log10(Vout/3)
15/20 = 0.75 = log10(Vout/3) Antilog 0.75 = 5.623 = (Vout/3) Vout = 16.87 V

2.2 ATTENUATORS

Sometimes a signal is too big and must be reduced by attenuating it. Electrical signals are attenuated with resistors
which dissipate the electric power as heat. Step down transformers and gear boxes for example, are not strictly
attenuators because they reduce the level, not the power. The gain of an attenuator in db is negative as the next
example shows.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

Calculate voltage the gain of an attenuator with an input voltage of 12 V and output voltage of 2 V.

SOLUTION

G = 20 log10 (2/12) = -15.56 dbV

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. Calculate the power out put of an amplifier that has an input of 20 mW and a gain of 20 dB.
(Answer 2 W)

2. Calculate the voltage output of the differential amplifier shown if the gain is 12 dbV

(Answer -27.87 V)
3. Calculate the power gain of an attenuator that has an input of 2.5 Watts and an output of 0.5 Watt.
(Answer -6.99 dbW)

The term amplification is often used when the level of a signal is increased but not the power. Strictly speaking,
such devices should be called TRANSFORMERS. For example an A.C. electric transformer may increase the
voltage but not the power. We have voltage amplifiers and current amplifiers which do not necessarily change the
power level.
D.J.Dunn 4
4
2.3 TRANSFORMERS

ELECTRICAL
Many devices only change the level of a signal without changing the power. A voltage amplifier is one example.
An electrical transformer for alternating voltages basically consists of two windings, a primary and a secondary.
The coils are wound on a magnetic core.

The primary coil has the input a.c. voltage applied and a.c. current flows
according to the reactance. The flux produced is concentrated in the core
and passes around the core. It follows that the same flux cuts the turns on
the secondary coil and so an e.m.f will be generated in the secondary coil.
The flux depends upon the number of turns T1 and the same flux cuts the
secondary. The e.m.f in the secondary will depend on the number of turns
T2. It follows that V1/V2 = T1/T2

In an ideal transformer there is no energy loss and so the power in and

power out are equal. V1 i1 = V2 i2. It follows that if the voltage is stepped
down, the current is stepped up and vice versa.

Figure 5

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A transformer has 1200 turns on the primary coil and 200 on the secondary. If the input is 110 V a.c. what
is the ideal output?

SOLUTION

V1/V2 = T1/T2 110/V2 = 1200/200 = 6 V2 = 110/6 = 18.33 V a.c.

MECHANICAL

Mechanical transformers are levers and gear boxes which change movement, force, speed and torque but not the
power. The are used in many instruments (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge and the nozzle flapper system
described later).

Figure 6
The gear ratio is in direct proportion to the pitch circle diameters (mean diameters) or number of teeth on each
wheel.

The lever movements at the ends are in direct proportion to the length each side of the fulcrum.

D.J.Dunn 5
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HYDRAULIC

Figure 7

The hydraulic pressure amplifier shown increases the pressure in direct proportion to the areas of the pistons. It is
also called an intensifier.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.6

The large piston is 40 mm diameter and the smaller piston is 10 mm diameter. Calculate the pressure ratio.

SOLUTION

The force on the input piston = Force on the output piston.

F = A1 p1 = A2 p2
p2/p1 = A1/A2 = (D12/4) (D22/4) = D12/ D22 = 402/102 = 16

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. An electrical transformer must produce 12 V a.c. output from 240 V a.c. input. The primary has 2000 turns.
How many turns are needed on the secondary? (Answer 100)

2. A pressure intensifier must increase the pressure from 10 bar to 100 bar. What must be the ratio of the
piston diameters? (Answer 3.162/1)

3. A lever must magnify the movement of a mechanism from 0.1 mm to 2 mm. What must be the ratio of the
lengths either side of the fulcrum? (Answer 20/1)

4. A pair of simple gears must magnify the rotation angle by 4/1. If there are 20 teeth on the small gear, how
many must there be on the large gear? (Answer 80 teeth)

Now let's examine processors which change the form of the signal.

D.J.Dunn 6
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2.4 SIGNAL CONVERTERS

Signal converters change the signal from one form to another. Where ever possible, these are the standard inputs
and output ranges.

Normally we show them on a block diagram as a box

with an input and output with a label to say what it does.
Here are some examples.

All these examples have opposite versions i.e. I/P, P/M

and so on.

Most signal converters have two adjustments zero and

range and this is explained in the next tutorial.

Figure 8

NOZZLE FLAPPER and DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CELLS

The nozzle flapper system is widely used in D.P. cells. The form shown below converts differential pressure
(e.g. from a differential pressure flow meter) into a standard pneumatic signal. This is widely used in the control of
air operated pipeline valves.

Figure 9

The bellows respond to the differential pressure and moves the lever. This moves the flapper towards or away
from the nozzle. The air supply passes through a restrictor and leaks out of the nozzle. The output pressure hence
depends on how close the flapper is to the end of the nozzle. The range of the instrument is adjusted by moving
the pivot and the zero position is adjusted by moving the relative position of the flapper and nozzle.

This system is used in a variety of forms. Instead of bellows, a bourdon tube might be used and this is operated
by an expansion type temperature sensor to produce a temperature - pneumatic signal converter.
D.J.Dunn 7
7
ELECTRICAL D.P. CELLS

These provide the same functions as the pneumatic versions but given an output of 4 20 mA using electrical
pressure transducers. They are typically used with D.P. flow meters.

Figure 10
CURRENT/PRESSURE CONVERSION

The pictures below show typical units for converting 4 20 mA into 0.2 1 bar and vice versa. They contain
adjustments for range and zero. They are widely used for converting the standard pneumatic and electric signals
back and forth. They can also be adjusted to work with non standard inputs to convert them into a standard
form.

Current to Pressure Converter (I/P) Pressure to Current Converter (P/I)

Figure 11

D.J.Dunn 8
8
ANALOGUE DIGITAL CONVERSION

So many modern systems now use digital signals that it is important to appreciate how analogue signals are
processed into digital form and vice versa. Analogue to digital conversion is a process of turning an analogue
voltage or current into a digital pattern which can be read by a computer and processed.

Digital to analogue conversion is a process of turning a digital pattern from a computer into an analogue voltage or
current.

REVISION OF BINARY NUMBERS

A number may be represented in digital form by simply setting a pattern of voltages on a line high or low. It is
normal to use 4,8, 16 or 32 lines. An 8 bit binary pattern is shown below.

Figure 12

The total pattern is called a word and the one shown is an 8 bit word. The pattern may be stored in an 8 bit
register. A register is a temporary store where the word may be manipulated.

Bit zero is called the least significant bit (LSB) and the bit with highest value is called the most significant bit
(MSB).

Each bit has a value of zero when off (low) or the value shown when on (high). The maximum value for an 8 bit
word is hence 255.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

Write down the value of the digital number shown below.

(Answer 202)

D.J.Dunn 9
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PRINCIPLES OF A/D CONVERSION

DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTERS

These are devices for converting a binary number into an analogue voltage. The change in the binary value from
zero to a maximum corresponds with a change in the analogue value from 0 to a maximum.

RESOLUTION

When a digital number is converted into a voltage, each increment of the binary value corresponds with an
increment in the voltage output. The value of this increment is the resolution.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.7

Determine the resolution of an 8 bit register converted into a voltage in the range 0 to 10 V. What is the
digital value that represents a value of 4 Volts?

SOLUTION

Analogue Range = 0 - 10 V Digital range = 0 255 Resolution = 10/255 = 0.039216

4 volts would give a digital value of 4 0.039216 = 102

ADDER TYPE CONVERTER

One way to convert a digital pattern into an analogue voltage is with the adder type shown below. The diagram
shows a 5 bit pattern.

Figure 13

The output voltage is controlled by the state of the I/O switches (these might be a register).The output of the
summing amplifier is
Vo = (Vref/2)[1/16 + 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 + 1]

1/16 is the least significant bit and 1 is the most significant bit.

D.J.Dunn 10
10
The maximum number represented by the digital number is 31 for the 5 bit system shown. An increase of one
produces a voltage increment of 1/32V. The maximum voltage output is 31V/32.

One problem with this system is that the theoretical resistance values can become ridiculously large.

D.J.Dunn 11
11
 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

If s1 and s4 are on and the others off and Vref = 10, what is the voltage output?

SOLUTION

Vo = (V/2)[1/16 + 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 + 1]

Vo = (10/2)[1/16 + 0 + 0 + 1/2 + 0]
Vo = 5[9/16] = 2.8125 V

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

What is the incremental voltage for an 8 bit register with a reference of 10V? (Answer 1/128 V)

What is the voltage output when the digital value is 202? (Answer 3.242 V)

LADDER TYPE

Another way to convert a digital signal into an analogue signal is with the ladder type illustrated below.

Figure 14
The output voltage is given by
Vo = (Vref/2)[1/16 + 1/8 + 1/4 + 1/2 +1 ]

D.J.Dunn 12
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ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

One way to convert analogue into digital is to utilise a counter as shown below.

COUNTER TYPE

Figure 15

The output of the counter is a digital pattern and this is converted back into an analogue signal by the D/A
converter and compared with the input. The input is compared with the feed back signal and so long as it is
smaller, the counter will go on running. When the two become equal, the counter stops and the digital value of the
counter is the digital value of the analogue signal.

Another type uses an integrator as shown

INTEGRATING TYPE

Figure 16

This time no feedback is used. The reference voltage is integrated so the output of the integrator is a ramp which
grows with time. The time taken for the ramp to reach the same value as the input is converted into a digital form
by a counter.

D.J.Dunn 13
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2.5 SIGNAL CONDITIONERS.

Now let's look at processors which change the characteristic of the signal. These are often referred to as
SIGNAL CONDITIONERS. One example is the square root extractor. For example DP flow meters produce
an output which is directly proportional to the square of the flow. A processor might be used along with the DP
cell to extract the square root so that the resulting signal is directly proportional to flow.

Figure 17

Other conditioners bring in the time element. For example the flow meter produces a signal representing the flow
rate. If the signal is integrated with time, the output is quantity. Such a unit is called an INTEGRATOR and there
are mechanical, pneumatic and electric methods.

Some meters produce a quantity. For example a movement transducer produces distance. If the signal is
differentiated with respect to time, we get the rate or velocity. Such units are called DIFFERENTIATORS.

Figure 18
FILTERS

Another form of signal conditioning is the SIGNAL FILTER. This is used with electric signals to remove
unwanted parts of the signal. For example a signal may contain AC and DC signals. A simple capacitor would
filter out the DC signal. The signal may contain AC signals of different frequencies. A more sophisticated filter
would remove unwanted frequencies.

MULTIPLEX SYSTEMS.

A modern industrial information transmission system requires that many channels be sent from one place to
another using either a single frequency of transmission or a single pair of wires such as a telephone line. A system
that does this is called multiplexing.

Modems are units that receive and transmit the information to each other. They require a marker signal to let each
other know when to receive or transmit. The modem acknowledges a request to receive and this is called
handshaking. When acknowledgement is received by the transmitting modem, it sends the data to the receiving
modem.

D.J.Dunn 14
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The channels are sampled very rapidly one after another for a fixed period of time. This is called Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM). Each sample is tacked in a queue (a buffer) and sent one after another. The process is
continually repeated. The receiving end reverses the operation. The incoming data is placed in a buffer, extracted
in sequence and diverted to the correct output.

Figure 19

If the information is digital, it sends the information for each channel as a package of digits one channel at a time.

BUFFERS and STORES

Very often a signal value needs to be stored. This is usually done by converting them into a digital number and
storing them in a memory chip. If a system is receiving or sending serial data but the incoming data is arriving
quicker than it can be processed, then the incoming signals are put into a temporary store called a buffer where
they wait to be processed.

D.J.Dunn 15
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3. SIGNAL RECEIVERS

The input of an instrument system is sensed with a primary transducer and then processed or conditioned before
being sent on to the last item in the chain which is the signal receiver. The signal receiver may be

an indicator
a chart recorder
a plotter
a printer
an alarm
a computer

Each of these is a complete system in its own right and may itself contain further conditioning. They are usually
designed to operate from standard signals. In control systems, the signal receiver might be an actuator. This is
covered in later tutorials on control.

INDICATORS

Indicators may be analogue or digital. Analogue indicators have a scale and a pointer moves along the scale to
indicate the value. Digital indicators may be a display of numerals which change in fixed steps. Sometimes a digital
indicator is made to simulate an analogue scale (e.g. a digital watch with hands). The pointer however moves in
fixed steps. Digital indicators have a minimum resolution and usually this is smaller than the resolution a human eye
can make on an analogue scale so digital indicators are often more accurate to read.
It is easier to make a mistake reading an analogue
scale than a digital indicator. However when the
value indicated is changing rapidly, an analogue
indication is best because you can see the way the
pointer is moving. It would be difficult to read a
rapidly changing set of numerals. For example,
speedometer and altimeters are best displayed on
an analogue scale.
Figure 20

CHART RECORDERS

Chart recorders keep a record of the measurements over a period of time. There are electrical and pneumatic
versions. The recorder may use paper strips or polar charts. The paper moves one way and the marker pen
moves at right angles to this. Often they use more than one pen to record several channels. The recorder is often
part of a controlled system and contains other equipment to do with the control.

Paper recorders are being replaced by computer

systems which store the information on a magnetic
medium and displays either the indicated reading or the
chart record or both on a visual display unit (computer
screen or VDU).

Figure 21

D.J.Dunn 16
16
PLOTTERS AND PRINTERS

Plotters draw graphs or charts. The pen recorders described above are types of plotters specifically for recording
a signal over a long time period. The term plotter usually refers to a system where the paper is stationary and the
pen is able to move in the x and y directions. Often the x direction is time and so the plotter become a recorder.
Plotters are more often used to plot one signal against another. They are very commonly used for producing
engineering drawings created on a computer.

Printers refer to a system where the paper is marked by a printing head. There are many types such as dot
matrix, ink jets, laser and other electrostatic devices. Printers will print text or they may be used to print pictures
and drawings reproducing on paper what can be seen on a VDU.

ALARMS

The purpose of an instrument may be to set off an alarm such as a bell, siren, flashing light and so on. They are
switched on by the signal processor. An example is a smoke detector.

COMPUTERS

Computer technology is taking over many rolls performed by traditional equipment. The signal is processed into
digital form, in other words into numbers. The computer processes the numbers and stores the data, sends it on
to a VDU or to other control equipment.

D.J.Dunn 17
17
 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

TUTORIAL 4 INSTRUMENT SYSTEM MODELS AND CALIBRATION

This tutorial is mainly about instrument systems and simple mathematical models. It
brings together the various elements covered in tutorials 2 and 3. It leads into more
advance work on control system models. It is provided mainly in support of the EC
module D227 Control System Engineering.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

Explain the model of a basic instrument system.

Calculate the relationship between input and output for complete system.

Explain and identify the main errors that occur in instrument systems.

Explain the basic principles of calibration.

Explain primary and secondary standards.

In order to complete the theoretical part of this tutorial, you must be familiar with basic
mechanical and electrical science.

D.J.Dunn 1
1. MODELS OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

A mathematical model relates the input and output of a system or sub-system. In other words it is a
formula relating the input and output. The instrument is usually drawn as a block with the input and
output shown. The mathematical model is written inside the block. The general symbol for signals is
but specific symbols may be used. The suffix i denotes the input and o the output.

When the input and output is a simple ratio, the model is just a number representing the ratio of output to
input. It is often denoted by G, especially if it is a gain. In such case G = o /i. If the input and output
have different units, then G has units also.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Find the output if the input is 10 mW. The gain is a ratio and not in decibels.

SOLUTION

G = o/i = 50 o= 50 x i = 50 x 10 = 500 mW

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Find the output if the input is 50oC.

SOLUTION

G = o/i = 2 v/o C i = o/2 = 50/2 = 25 V

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. The input is 2 mm, find the output.

(Answer 6 V)
3. The input is 250 rev/min, find the output.

(Answer 1.25 V)

D.J.Dunn 2
Some sensors have non linear equations and we cannot represent the relationship with a simple ratio so
must use the full equation. For example a differential pressure flow meter has an equation

Flow rate = C (p)1/2

Where C is a constant and p is the differential pressure.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

The input and output of the D.P. meter is related by the law Q = C (p)1/2
Where Q is the input flow rate in m3 /s, p is the output differential pressure and C is the meter
constant. Determine the flow rate when p = 250 Pa and C = 0.0004 m3/s per Pa.

SOLUTION

Q = C (p)1/2 = 0.0004 (250)1/2 = 0.00632 m3 /s or 6.32 dm3 /s

D.J.Dunn 3
2. MODELS FOR COMPLETE SYSTEMS

A complete instrument system is made up from several sub-systems connected in series. The best way to
deduce the input or output of a complete system is a step by step analysis of the information passing
through. Consider the case of a D.P. flow meter. The meter converts flow rate into differential pressure.
The d.p. is then converted into current and the current is indicated on a meter.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

The equations for each sub system in the above system is as follows.

Flow meter p = 2 x 106 Q2 where p is in bar and Q is m3 /s.

P/I converter I = 20 p where I is mA and p is in bars.
Ammeter = 14 I where is in degrees and I in mA.

Calculate the output angle if the flow rate is 0.0004 m3 /s.

SOLUTION

STEP 1
Calculate the differential pressure.
p = 2 x 106 Q2 = 2 x 106 (0.0004)2 = 0.32 bar

STEP 2
Calculate the current.
I = 20p = 20 x 0.32 = 6.4 mA

STEP 3
Calculate the angle of the needle on the dial.
= 140 I = 14 x 6.4 = 89.6o.

D.J.Dunn 4
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. Find the output rotation for the temperature system below. the equations for each sub-system are as
follows.
Thermocouple 3 mV per oC.
Amplifier gain 5
Meter 0.02o per mV

(Answer 54o )

2. An LVDT output is amplified and connected to a chart recorder. The block diagram is shown.
Calculate the output movement of the chart recorder pen. The equations for the sub- systems are

LVDT V = 0.2 V/mm

Amplifier gain = 4
Chart recorder xo = 5 mm/V

(Answer 48 mm)

You have just seen how to work out problems involving instrument systems with different subsystems
connected in series. The following is true for all types of systems.

In many cases each block may have a model that can be written as a ratio of output to input G = o /i.
(This is not always true). In such cases we can easily work out the model for the complete system as
follows. Consider three systems with model equations G1, G2 and G3 connected in series.

By definition G1 = 1/I G2 = 2/1 G3 = o/2

Now consider that if the three make up a single system the overall transfer function is Goverall = o/i

If we multiply G1 x G2 x G3 we have (1/i)( 2/1)( o/2 ) = o/i = Goverall

From this we conclude that the model for systems in series is obtained by multiplying the individual
equations (ratios) together. Before doing this, make sure that the units are compatible.

D.J.Dunn 5
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. A potentiometer produces 50 mV per degree of rotation of its shaft. Calculate the angle when the
output is 4 V.
(Answer 80o )

2. A turbine flow meter coupled to an electric voltage generator produces 4 mV for each litre/s flowing.
Calculate the output when 1 V is produced.
(Answer 250 litres/s)

3. An instrument system consists of pressure transducer with a range of 0 to 5 bar and a corresponding
output of 0 to 10 mV. The output is connected to an electronic processor which converts the output
into a current in the range 4 to 20 mA, and an analogue meter which indicates the measured pressure.

a. Draw a neat labelled block diagram of the system.

b. Deduce and write down the equation linking the output and input of the pressure transducer.
(Answer G = 2mV/bar)

c. Deduce and write down the equation linking the input and output of the processor.
(Answer I = 4 + 1.5V)

d. The output of the signal processor is 15 mA. Deduce the indicated pressure.
(Answer 3.67 bar)

4. An instrument system comprises an a.c. tachometer connected to a processor that converts the
frequency into millivolts and then another processor that converts millivolts into milliamps. The data
is shown on the diagram.

Write down the overall relationship between current and speed. (Answer 0.06 mA per rev/min)
Calculate the output when the input speed is 400 rev/min. (Answer 24 mA)

D.J.Dunn 6
3. INSTRUMENT ERRORS

Any given instrument is prone to errors either due to aging or due to manufacturing tolerances. Here are
some of the common terms used when describing the performance of an instrument.

3.1 RANGE
The range of an instrument is usually regarded as the difference between the maximum and minimum
reading. For example a thermometer that has a scale from 20 to 100o C has a range of 80o C. This is also
called the FULL SCALE DEFLECTION (f.s.d.).

3.2 ACCURACY
The accuracy of an instrument is often stated as a % of the range or full scale deflection. For example a
pressure gauge with a range 0 to 500 kPa and an accuracy of plus or minus 2% f.s.d. could have an error
of plus or minus 10 kPa. When the gauge is indicating 10 kPa the correct reading could be anywhere
between 0 and 20 kPa and the actual error in the reading could be 100%. When the gauge indicates 500
kPa the error could be 2% of the indicated reading.

3.3 REPEATABILITY
If an accurate signal is applied and removed repeatedly to the system and it is found that the indicated
reading is different each time, the instrument has poor repeatability. This is often caused by friction or
some other erratic fault in the system.

3.4 STABILITY
Instability is most likely to occur in instruments involving electronic processing with a high degree of
amplification. A common cause of this is adverse environment factors such as temperature and vibration.
For example, a rise in temperature may cause a transistor to increase the flow of current which in turn
makes it hotter and so the effect grows and the displayed reading DRIFTS. In extreme cases the
displayed value may jump about. This, for example, may be caused by a poor electrical connection
affected by vibration

3.5 TIME LAG ERROR

In any instrument system, it must take time for a change in the input to show up on the indicated output.
This time may be very small or very large depending upon the system. This is known as the response time
of the system. If the indicated output is incorrect because it has not yet responded to the change, then we
have time lag error.

A good example of time lag error is an ordinary glass thermometer. If you plunge it into hot water, it will
take some time before the mercury reaches the correct level. If you read the thermometer before it settled
down, then you would have time lag error. A thermocouple can respond much more quickly than a glass
thermometer but even this may be too slow for some applications.

When a signal changes a lot and quite quickly, (speedometer for example), the person reading the dial
would have great difficulty determining the correct value as the dial may be still going up whe n in reality
the signal is going down again.

3.6 RELIABILITY
Most forms of equipment have a predicted life span. The more reliable it is, the less chance it has of going
wrong during its expected life span. The reliability is hence a probability ranging from zero (it will
definitely fail) to 1.0 (it will definitely not fail).

6. DRIFT
This occurs when the input to the system is constant but the output tends to change slowly. For example
when switched on, the system may drift due to the temperature change as it warms up.

D.J.Dunn 7
4. INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

Most instruments contain a facility for making two adjustments. These are

The RANGE adjustment.

The ZERO adjustment.

In order to calibrate the instrument an accurate gauge is required. This is likely to be a SECONDARY
STANDARD. Instruments calibrated as a secondary standard have themselves been calibrated against a
PRIMARY STANDARD.

4.1 PROCEDURE
An input representing the minimum gauge setting should be applied. The output should be adjusted to be
correct. Next the maximum signal is applied. The range is then adjusted to give the required output. This
should be repeated until the gauge is correct at the minimum and maximum values.

4.2 CALIBRATION ERRORS

RANGE AND ZERO ERRO

After obtaining correct zero and range for the instrument, a calibration graph should be produced. This
involves plotting the indicated reading against the correct reading from the standard gauge. This should
be done in about ten steps with increasing signals and then with reducing signals. Several forms of error
could show up. If the zero or range is still incorrect the error will appear as shown.

HYSTERESIS and NON LINEAR ERRORS

Hysteresis is produced when the displayed values are too small for increasing signals and too large for
decreasing signals. This is commonly caused in mechanical instruments by loose gears and linkages and
friction. It occurs widely with things involving magnetisation and demagnetisation.

The calibration may be correct at the maximum and minimum values of the range but the graph joining
them may not be a straight line (when it ought to be). This is a non linear error. The instrument may have
some adjustments for this and it may be possible to make it correct at mid range as shown.

D.J.Dunn 8
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A digital thermometer reads from -120 to + 300 oC. The accuracy is guaranteed to plus or minus 2%
f.s.d. Determine the possible temperature range when it indicates 80oC.

SOLUTION

The range of the instrument is the same as the f.s.d. and is 420. The accuracy is hence plus or minus
2% of 420.

Accuracy = (2/100)(420) = 8.4

The possible temperature being indicated is hence 80 plus or minus 8.4. That means the actual
temperature is between 88.4 and 71.6oC.

D.J.Dunn 9
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1. A digital speedometer has a range 0 to 3000 rev/min with a guaranteed accuracy of plus or minus 1%.
Determine the possible correct speed when it indicates 1500 rev/min.

(Answer 1470 to 1530 rev/min)

2. The block diagram shows how a flow measuring system works. The input is flow rate in litres/s and
the output is air pressure in bars.

Calculate the output of the system in bar when the input is 1.5 litres/s. (0.72 bar)

3. A thermometer has a range from -20 to 150o C. The accuracy is guaranteed to 3% f.s.d. Determine
the possible temperature range when it indicates a temperature of 80o C. (85.1 to 74.9 o C)

4. The diagram illustrates a pressure measuring system.

The system consists of pressure transducer connected to a converter. The output mV is related to the
input pressure by V = 30 p where p is in bar and V is in mV.
The converter output in mA is related to the input by I = 4 + 0.2V.
The current is sent to a meter. What is the pressure when the meter indicates 15mA? (1.833 bar)

5. A pressure gauge has a range of 0 to 80 bar and is guaranteed to be accurate to within 4% f.s.d.
Calculate the possible pressure range when the gauge indicates 50 bar. (46.8 to 53.2 bar)

6. The diagram shows a system for measuring rotational speed.

The tachometer produces one cycle of electricity for every revolution. The f/V converter converts the
frequency into mV such that a V= 0.6 f. The V/I converter produces an output of 0.8 mA/mV.
Calculate the output when the tachometer is turned at 3000 rev/min. (24 mA)

D.J.Dunn 10
7. The diagram shows a system for measuring temperature and producing the result in the form of a
current in the range 4 to 20 mA.

Determine the current when the temperature is 120o C. (19.2 mA)

8. An anemometer is designed to measure air speeds in the range 2 to 30 m/s. The instrument is
guaranteed accurate to within 2% f.s.d. Calculate the possible range of wind speed when the
instrument indicates 20 m/s. (20.56 to 19.44 m/s)

9. The diagram shows the results of a calibration of an instrument. Graph A is the ideal one. State the
kind of error, which is shown on graphs B and C.

10. An experiment to calibrate a liquid expansion thermometer is carried out by placing the sensor in a
vat of oil and heating it up and then cooling it down. The true temperature is measured with a high
quality instrument and the indicated temperature is compared with it. The graph produced is shown
below.

State two possible reasons for the kind of error shown.

D.J.Dunn 11