Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Heat transfer characteristics of the oscillating ows of different

working gases in U-shaped tubes of a Stirling engine
Mingjiang Ni, Bingwei Shi, Gang Xiao*, Zhongyang Luo, Kefa Cen
State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Hangzhou 310027, China

h i g h l i g h t s

Heat transfer of oscillating ows are studied in U-shaped tubes at 332e516  C.

He, N2 and CO2 are used as working media with Reynolds number of 61e3184.

Heat transfer formulas are proposed, with errors of 5.2e11.1%.

Laminar ow and transition zones are considered in proposed heat transfer formulas.

Heat transfer of U-shaped tubes is usually greater than that of straight tubes.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Oscillating ow heat transfer characteristics are quite different from those of steady ows, which make it
Received 5 March 2015 difcult to predict the effective input heating power of a Stirling engine with existing empirical formulas.
Accepted 13 June 2015 This paper reports the experimental study of oscillating ow heat transfer features of helium, nitrogen
Available online 30 June 2015
and carbon dioxide in U-shaped tubes when the pressure, revolving speed and heating temperature are
in the ranges of 0.2 MPae0.9 MPa, 150 r/mine380 r/min and 332  Ce516  C, respectively. The heat
Keywords:
transfer coefcient increases with the increase of the pressure or revolving speed, and it declines when
Stirling engine
the heating temperature increases. The inuences of different working media are discussed. Helium has
Oscillating ow
Heat transfer
the highest heat transfer coefcient of 115.2e192.1 W/(m2$K) and the lowest temperature difference of
Working gas 30.1  Ce54.0  C between tube walls and the working medium. The heat transfer coefcients of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen are slightly worse than those of helium, and the temperature differences are 45.2
e80.7  C and 41.0e70.1  C, respectively. Heat transfer formulas were proposed, considering the working
medium, pressure, revolving speed and heating temperature; the error of the formulas are within 5.2
e11.1% when the Reynolds number ranges from 61.7 to 3184.6.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Oscillating ow is a primary feature of Stirling engines, whose

Energy and environmental problems have received great
attention in recent years because of the rapid depletion of fossil
fuels and the threats due to global warming. As a means to address
these problems, solar dish power systems are attracting much
attention due to the high efciency, low life cycle carbon emissions
and exibility for distributing energy application [1]. A Stirling
engine is the core component of a solar dish power system, which
operates based on a closed regenerative thermodynamic cycle with
cyclic compression and expansion of the working uid at different
temperature levels [2e4].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 86 571 87953290; fax: 86 571 87951616.
E-mail address: xiaogangtianmen@zju.edu.cn (G. Xiao).
heat transfer characteristics are quite different from those of steady
ows. Richardson and Tayler [5] studied the velocity distributions
of an oscillating ow in a straight tube and reported the annular
effect for the rst time in 1929. Munson [6] and Bertelsen [7]
tested oscillating ows in curved pipes and introduced correla-
tions of the dimensionless secondary ow velocity with pipe
radius. Zhao and Cheng [8] summarized previous studies of oscil-
lating ows and proposed a critical dimensionless parameter based
on experimental results. Tziranis [9] proposed a method for
measuring the heat transfer of oscillating ows by using a
traversing thermocouple system and an inside wall heat ux
sensor; this method was widely adopted by subsequent re-
searchers. Xiao et al. [10] proposed a complex velocity model to
describe the fully developed laminar oscillating ow and validated

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.06.063
1359-4311/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
570 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577

Nomenclature l heat conductivity coefcient, W/(m2$K)

n kinematic viscosity of the uid, m2/s
A0 dimensionless oscillation amplitude of the uid u oscillating frequency, rad/s
d diameter, m r gas density, kg/m3
h convective heat transfer coefcient, W/(m2$K) Cp constant pressure specic heat, kJ/(kg.K)
I electric current, A b critical values of the reciprocating pipe ow
n the number of heating tubes sx standard deviation
Nu the Nusselt number E relative uncertainty, %
P gas pressure, MPa
Pe the Peclet number Subscripts
Pr the Prandtl number b engine body
Qs molten salt radiation and convective heat loss, W g working gas
Qi heat insulation barrels convective heat loss, W h hydraulic diameter
Qb engine body heat conduction loss, W i heat insulation barrels
Qe effective heat input to the working medium, W in inner tube
Re the Reynolds number ou outer tube
Reu the kinetic Reynolds number p piston
T temperature,  C s molten salt
U alternating voltage, V w tube wall
u ow velocity, m/s
xmax amplitude of the uid displacement, m

it via velocity experiments using a phase Doppler anemometer.
Kanzaka and Iwabuchi [11] studied the effects of the phase differ-
ence of pistons on heat transfer and presented a prediction method
for the heat transfer coefcients, in which the gas velocity was
evaluated by the Schmidt cycle model. Mackley and Stonestreet
[12] compared steady and oscillating ows in a bafed tube and
indicated that the oscillating ow had a better heat transfer per-
formance under a low Reynolds number. Kuosa et al. [13] studied
heat transfer performance of oscillating ow in different cross-
section conduits and indicated that slotted heat exchanger tubes
effectively enhanced the heat transfer. Akdag and Ozguc [14] pro-
posed an experimental heat transfer formula for vertically oscil-
lating ows of water. Tang [15] deduced a similarity criterion
system to describe the ow and heat transfer characteristics of
oscillating ows based on general governing equations of unsteady
compressible viscous ows.
Table 1 lists the oscillating ow heat transfer correlations of
previous studies, in which experiments were performed using a
single straight pipe. Note that the heating tubes of most Stirling
engines are U-shaped, where the ow eld should be different
compared to the ow eld in the single straight tubes.
This paper studies the heat transfer performance of oscillating
ow in U-shaped heating pipes using different working media, i.e.,
helium, nitrogen and carbon dioxide; based on the results, empir-
ical heat transfer formulas are proposed for different conditions.
2. Experimental system
Fig. 1 displays a schematic of the experimental apparatus. The
apparatus consists of four main parts: (I) a molten-salt bath bucket
and four U-shaped tubes, (II) an oscillating ow generator, (III) a
motivation transmission mechanism and (IV) a data acquisition
system.
A molten salt bath bucket surrounded by insulation materials is
heated by a tubular electric heater, and the heating power is
detected using a power meter. Four U-shaped tubes are dipped into
molten salt for heating. The oscillating ow generator is driven by a
motor, and the rotation speed of the electromotor is tested by a
tachometer. A displacer causes reciprocating motion inside a cyl-
inder, thereby generating an oscillating ow inside the U-shaped
tubes. The oscillating ows are heated in the U-shaped tubes and
cooled in a water-cooling cooler after passing through a screen-
mesh regenerator of 200 meshes with 0.05-mm stainless-steel
wire. A pressure sensor is set in the cylinder to test the pressure
of the working medium. Four thermocouples are set in the molten
salt, eight are on the outside walls of U-shaped tubes, and another

Table 1
Oscillating ow heat transfer correlations of previous studies.

Item Expression Application range Author

A Nu 0:02A0:85
0 Re0:58
u 0 < Reu < 500; Zhao and Cheng [8]
!0:5 A0 8.5,15.3,20.4,34.9
0:8 0:4 Tw  
B Nu 0:021Re Pr C TW Kanzaka and Iwabuchi [11]
Tf C 0:923 0:75 1000

Tw < 1000 K, P 2.2e5.3 MPaNr 240e720 rpm

 2
d
" # Re Ud
n
i
U dp 2SNr60
i
Re2:2
C Nu 0:0035Re1:3
n Pr
1=3
0:3 o
100 < Ren < 1200 Mackley and Stonestreet [12]
Ren 8001:25 xmax uD
Ren UDn Reo n
D Nu 1:32Re0:248
u A0:85
0 1000 < Reu < 4000; Akdag and Ozguc [14]
7.73 < A0 < 12.88;
E Nu 0.4Pe 0.315  2 Pe 5.1e16.6, Remax 40e240 Tang [15]
F Nu 0:494 0:0777$ AuA1
u
$Re0:7  0:00162$Re0:4 Re0:8
u Au Au dL Re
Re 1:75 < Re < 45
u
u Tang and Cheng [16]
 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577 571

Fig. 1. Schematic of the experimental apparatus.

eight are inside the U-shaped tubes, as shown in Fig. 2. All tem- steady temperature Ts by adjusting the tubular electric heater. A
perature and pressure signals are recorded using an Agilent data static heat balance is shown in Fig. 3(a), and the heat balance
logger. The parameters of the experimental apparatus and equation is given by
measuring instruments are listed in Tables 2 and 3.
U$I Q s Q i Q b (1)

3. Experimental methods
For a static condition, no oscillating ow occurs inside the
U-shaped tubes, indicating no heat is transferred from the heater to
the cooler through oscillating ow. Molten salt is kept at a given
where, in the static condition, U is the voltage (V), I is the electric
current (A), Qs is the radiation and convection heat loss of the
molten salt surface (W), Qi is the convective heat loss of the heat
insulation barrel (W) and Qb is the conductive heat loss of the en-
gine body (W).

Fig. 2. Schematic layout of thermocouples in/on a U-shaped tube.

572 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577

Table 2
Parameters of the experimental apparatus.

Object Item Symbol Value

Operating condition Pressure (MPa) P 0.2e1

Temperature ( C) T 332e516
Rotate speed (r/min) Nr 150e380
U-shaped tubes Inner diameter of heating pipes (m) din 0.008
Outer diameter of heating pipes (m) dou 0.01
Overall length of each heater tube (m) L 0.340
Number of the heater tubes n 4
Bending diameter (m) dbe 0.038
The ratio of length and inner diameter (m) L 42.5
din
The ratio of length and bending diameter (m) L 8.95
dbe
Angle( ) q 360
Piston Piston diameter (m) D 0.068
Piston stroke (m) S 0.037

Table 3
Parameters of the measuring instruments.

Signal Measuring apparatus Types and manufacturer Measuring range and accuracy Agilent data logger error Comprehensive system error

Temperature Thermocouple Omega 0e1200  C, 0.1  C 1 C 1.1  C

TJ120-CAXL-116U-18
K-type
Pressure Pressure sensor HM80C2-1-A1-F1-W1 0~3 MPa, DC 4e20 mA, 0.1% DC 0.05 mA 1.24  102 MPa
Nanjing Hongmu
Heating power Power meter HY194E-9S1 AC 0e220 V, 0~5 A, 0.5% \ 1.1 V, 0.025 A
Shanghai Hongyin
Revolving speed Tachoscope DM6234P Shenzhen Victor 2.5e99999 rpm 0.01% \ 5 rpm

Fig. 3. (a) Heat balance of the static condition; (b) Heat balance of the dynamic condition.

For a dynamic condition, the experimental apparatus is lled
with a pressured working medium. The displacer piston is driven
by the motor, and an oscillating ow shuttles between the heater
and the cooler, facilitating heat transfer. The voltage regulator is
adjusted to keep molten salt at a given temperature. The heat
balance is shown in Fig. 3(b), as expressed by,
U0 $I0 Q 0s Q 0i Q 0b Q e
where U' is the voltage (V), I' is the electric current (A), Q 0s is the
radiation and convective heat loss of the molten salt surface (W), Q 0i
is the convective heat loss of the heat insulation barrel (W),Q 0b is
the heat conductive loss of the engine body (W) and Qe is the
effective heat transferred into the working medium (W) in dynamic
condition.
It is supposed that Q s Q 0s , when the molten salt bath is at the
same temperature under static and dynamic conditions. Experi-
ments are conducted to evaluate the heat loss through the thermal
insulation barrel and the engine body under the two conditions.
Five thermocouples are set on the wall of the heat insulation barrel,
and two are set on the outside wall of the engine body, as shown in
(2) Fig. 3. Helium, nitrogen or carbon dioxide is tested at a pressure of
0.4 MPa and a speed of 320 rpm in dynamic conditions. Fig. 4
displays the temperature distributions of the heat insulation bar-
rel under different molten salt temperatures for static and dynamic
conditions, indicating the values of heat loss of the heat insulation
barrel are almost equal to each other for static and dynamic
 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577 573

Fig. 4. Temperature distributions of the heat insulation barrel at static and dynamic conditions.

conditions. Fig. 5 shows the temperatures of engine body in static 4. Results and discussion
and dynamic conditions, and the temperature differences can be
ignored under similar operating conditions. Therefore, it is During the experiments, the molten salt bath temperature was
assumed that Q i Q 0i and Q b Q 0b under similar operating con- from 332  C to 516  C, with an error of 1  C, the pressure was
ditions for static and dynamic conditions. 0.2e0.9 MPa with an error of 0.02 MPa, and the revolving speed
According to the above discussion, the effective heat transferred ranged from 120 to 400 r/min, 5 r/min. Three types of working
to the working medium in the heater can be given by media were tested: helium, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Figs. 6e8
show the effective input heating powers at different pressures,
  speeds and heating temperatures, respectively.
Q e U0 $I0  Q 0i  Q 0b  Q 0s  U$I  Q i  Q b  Q s
The effective input heating power increases with the improve-
U0 $I0  U$I (3) ment of the pressure and speed, because of the increase of gas mass
ow rate, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. In the meantime, raising heating
The time-averaged heat transfer coefcient is calculated by
temperature enhance effective input heating powers, as displayed
Ref. [17].
in Fig. 8. With the maximum relative molecular weight among the
three media, carbon dioxide can carry the largest quantity of heat in
 
the same working conditions, which means Stirling engines with
Q e ln ddou carbon dioxide may have the greatest heat-to-power capacity. The
in
Tw;in Tw;ou  (4) theoretical studies of Costante's group [18,19] revealed that carbon
2nlpL
dioxide or other macromolecular organic gas could make Stirling
engines have a greater endothermic power than small molecule
Q gases at low heating temperatures and high pressures considering
h  e  (5)
pndin L Tw;in  Tg the real gas effect (i.e. supercritical phenomenon). It is noted that
these study do not mean Stirling engines with carbon dioxide have
the greatest heat-to-power efciency.

Fig. 5. Temperatures of the engine body at static and dynamic conditions of 0.4 MPa
and 320 rpm. Fig. 6. Effective input heating powers into oscillating ows at different pressures.
574 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577

Fig. 7. Effective input heating powers into oscillating ows at different revolving
Fig. 10. Temperature differences between the wall and the working medium at
speeds.
different revolving speeds.

Fig. 8. Effective input heating powers into oscillating ows at different heating
temperatures. Fig. 11. Temperature differences between the wall and the working medium at
different heating temperatures.

Figs. 9e11 show the temperature differences between the wall

and the working medium. Temperature difference will increase
with the pressure, speed and heating temperature respectively,
which is similar to the changing trend of the effective input heating
power. Carbon dioxide shows the largest temperature difference
about 45  Ce80  C, followed by nitrogen for 41  Ce69  C and he-
lium for 31  Ce54  C. The lower heat transfer temperature differ-
ence leads to the higher gas temperature and the greater Stirling-
cycle efciency. This indicates helium is usually a prefer choice
for Stirling engines [2,20].
Figs. 12 and 13 reveal that the heat transfer coefcient grows
with increasing pressure and revolving speed. With an increase of
molten salt heating temperature, the heat transfer coefcients
reduce gradually, as shown in Fig. 14. High pressure reduces the
kinematic viscosity of gas and improves the turbulence of the
oscillating ow, which facilitates heat transfer and gives a high heat
transfer coefcient. The gas ow rate rises accordingly with the
increase in rotating speed, resulting in a greater heat ux and a
Fig. 9. Temperature differences between the wall and the working medium at
higher heat transfer capability. It is noted that the kinematic
different pressures.
 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577 575

dened as Equation (6) [11], although there are different expres-

sions in previous studies for unsteady ows.

udin
Re (6)
n

d2p 2SNr
u $ (7)
n$d2in 60

hdin
Nu (8)
l
Nusselt number is dened in Equation (8) [21,22] and the
transmission of experimental error is shown in Table 4 [23,24]. The
uncertainty of Nu can be calculated by Equation (9) and the
regression curve between Nu and Re is shown in Fig. 15.

sNu
ENu  100% (9)
Fig. 12. Time-average heat transfer coefcients at different pressures. Nu

viscosity increases with the increasing of the heating temperature, The Reynolds number is in a range of 61.7e3184.5 for the ex-
resulting in a worse heat transfer performance. periments, and the estimated uncertainty of Nu is 5.2e11.1%.The
heat transfer correlation of the heater is expressed by


Nu 0:71Re0:38 Pr0:4 ; 61:7 < Re < 265:9 Helium (10)
Nu 0:76Re0:47 Pr0:4 ; 448:5 < Re < 3184:6 Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide

In general, helium exhibits the lowest temperature differences
and the largest heat transfer coefcients, indicating the best heat
transfer capacity among the three working media. Nitrogen carries
a similar heat ux to helium, and has the lowest heat transfer co-
efcient among the three working media. Carbon dioxide, with the
highest volumetric heat capacity among the three media, exhibits
the highest temperature difference and has the second heat
transfer coefcient.
The heat exchange criterion relationship is proposed to try to
make a comprehensive understanding of heat transfer perfor-
mances of oscillating ows. In this paper, Reynolds number (Re) is
For oscillating ows, the onset of turbulence could be described
using qa recommended critical dimensionless parameter
b A0 udn [25], with a typical value ranging from 400 to 800. In
2
this experiment, b is in the ranges of 127.3e264.1 for helium and
343.1e914.2 for nitrogen and carbon dioxide, which manifests that
most data of nitrogen and carbon dioxide are in transition zones
while those of helium are in a laminar ow zone under the
experimental conditions as shown in Fig. 16. Noted that the state of
oscillating ow is hardly determined by the equations of normal
ows, the state of oscillating ow of actual gas, e.g., in laminar or
transition state, affects the heat transfer characteristics signi-
cantly. Therefore, the Equation (10) contains two correlations for
helium and nitrogen/carbon dioxide respectively.

Fig. 13. Time-average heat transfer coefcients at different revolving speeds. Fig. 14. Time-average heat transfer coefcients at different heating temperatures.
576 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577

Table 4
The transmission of uncertainty (here n means the amount of measurement data).

Parameters Average value Standard error of the mean

Pn q
Pn
U Ui
sU nn1 1 2
U n1 1 Ui  U
Pn 0 q
P
U' U n 0 0 2
U0 n1 i sU0 nn1 1
1 Ui  U
Pn q
Pn
I I 1
sI nn1 1 Ii  I 2
I n1
i

Pn 0 q
Pn 0
I' I 0 2
I0 n1 iPn sI0 nn1 1
1 Ii  I
Tw;oui q
Pn
Tw,ou Tw;ou 1 n sT nn1 1 Tw;oui  Tw;ou 2
1
Pn
q
w;ou

Tg
Tg
Tg n1 i 1
Pn 2
sT nn1 1 Tgi  Tg
q
g

Qe Q e U0 $I0  U$I  
Q e ln dou sQ I0 2 s2 0 U0 2 s20 I2 s2 U2 s20
U I U I
din e
v
 
Tw,in Tw;in Tw;ou  u 0 dou 12
2nlpL u
u ln d
u
@ 2nlpL A s2
in
sT ts2
w;in Tw;ou Qe

v
0 12 0 12
h h Qe u0 12
pndin LTw;in Tg u
u B C B C 2
uB C 2
sh u A s B C 2 B C
1 Qe Qe
2A s 2A s
t@ pndin LTw;in Tg Qe @ pndin LTw;in Tg Tw;in @ pndin LTw;in Tg Tg

s
 
Nu Nu hdlin 2
din
sNu l s2
h

q
Fig. 16. The distribution of critical dimensionless parameter b A0 ud2 of different
n
gases.
Fig. 15. Experimental regression curve between Nu and Re

[11] introduced an experimental correction factor C into a steady

Fig. 15 also displays curves of the steady ow and Expression B ow formula proposed by McEligot et al. [26] to balance the
in Table 1. For fully developed steady ow, the correlation is discrepancy between oscillating and steady ows in single straight
expressed by Ref. [17]. pipes. As the oscillating ow direction changes continually, there
will be a phase shift between the ow velocity and the pressure,
 
d which causes a great pressure drop and a complex velocity eld
0:0668 Re$Pr
L [10,27]. Based on Zhao's study [28], the cycle-averaged pressure
Nu 3:66   2=3 luminar flow (11) drop of oscillating ow is about four to six times higher than a
1 0:04 d
L Re$Pr steady ow at the same Reynolds number. This complex oscillating
ow eld thins the boundary layer [10], enhancing heat transfer
process. The experimental study also indicates the heat transfer of
Nu 0:023Re0:8 Pr 0:4 2500 < Re < 1:25  105 turbulent flow the U-shaped tube heater is greater than those of straight tubes
under similar conditions. The reasons may be:
(12)
The experimental results of the U-shaped tubes heater are a) The gas entrance effect always exists in U-shaped tubes of
greater than the steady ow. Expression B is deduced based on Stirling engine heater, which also enhances heat transfer per-
experimental study of a single straight pipe. Kanzaka and Iwabuchi formance, especially in the entrance area of hot cylinder.
 M. Ni et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 89 (2015) 569e577
b) As to a U-shaped tube heater of a real Stirling engine, phase lag
is greater than a straight tube, especially under a high frequency
[27,28]. Phase lag results in a high pressure drop and a complex
ow eld, and produces special secondary ows in the elbow
[7], which enhances the heat transfer performance.
5. Conclusions
The heat transfer performances of oscillating ows in a heater
composed of U-shaped tubes of a Stirling engine were investi-
gated under a wide range of Re numbers using three different
working media, i.e., helium, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The
heat ux and temperature difference were found to increase with
the increasing of pressure, revolving speed and heating temper-
ature. The time-average heat transfer coefcient can be enhanced
by increasing pressure and revolving speed but is decreased with
an increasing heating temperature. Among the three working
media, helium was found to have the highest heat transfer coef-
cient of 115.2e192.1 W/(m2$K) and the lowest temperature
difference from 30.1 to 54.0  C. Carbon dioxide, with the greatest
volumetric heat capacity of the media considered, was found to
have the highest temperature difference and has the second
highest heat transfer coefcient among the three working media.
Heat transfer formulas were proposed for the U-shaped tubes,
which is expressed as Nu 0.71Re0.38Pr0.4, 61.7 < Re < 265.9, for
helium and Nu 0.76Re0.47Pr0.4, 448.5 < Re < 3184.6, for nitrogen
and carbon dioxide; the errors of the formulas are within
5.2e11.1%.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the Na-
tional Natural Science Foundation of China (NO. 51476140), the
Program of Introducing Talents of Discipline to University (No.
B08026), and Seed Funds of Interdisciplinary Research for Young
Teachers of Zhejiang University (JCZZ-2013014).
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