Academic Journal - Issue 5

relationships developed between
Editorial peers. This journals collection of

extended projects, higher projects,
prize winning essays, journal articles
and society descriptions are a
testament to this persistence and
have involved hours of research,
drafting and re-drafting until
perfect.
For our readers we have included a

vast array of articles spanning
several subject areas. For the
historians, Thomas Lavers extended
Do not ever quit out of fear of rejection project on Empires and Miranda
Parkins second prize winning essay
Rejected by twelve publishers, a on Grecian masks prove scintillating
recently divorced single mother and reads; whilst Alex Bulls extended
living in abject poverty - this is the project on French Literature during
woman behind the infinitely famous the occupation will also interest
Harry Potter Series. JK Rowling is English students. For budding-
now a highly successful author and scientists, Josephine Jones first
her work continues to inspire prize essay on symmetry and the
millions of children into reading and laws of nature and Harshdeep
writing; but she is also someone who Gulatis higher project are well
epitomises perseverance. After worth reading. Medics should
having her manuscript declined by definitely reflect on Kosi Nwubas
the first publisher she approached, extended project on privatisation and
she could have consigned herself to its effect on patient care in the NHS.
fate and surrendered hope, but
instead she persisted in approaching
new publishers time and time again, The making of this journal was also
convinced her hand-written underpinned by perseverance. From
manuscript (she did not have the formatting, reformatting to collecting
means for a computer) had some journal descriptions at the busiest
merit. points of students academic lives, we
persisted to complete the journal and
Indeed, perseverance is the to deadline. We also thoroughly
prevalent attitude behind all great enjoyed this task and relished the
Olavians. Acknowledging and accumulation of new knowledge
learning from past mistakes in through reading the articles on
assessments, classwork and within unfamiliar subject areas such as
friendships and continuing with Richard Moulanges extended project
essays, research and projects even in on statistical fallacies. We would like
the face of adversity has led to the to thank Niko for designing such a
schools highly impressive academic brilliant and beautiful cover, Rachel
record in addition to the strong for collecting the society
ST OLAVES ACADEMIC JOURNAL ISSUE 5, SEPTEMBER 2017
contributions, Olivia, Luke and offered by the curriculum. Through

Richard, the editors of last years these endeavours of enrichment,
edition, for making our process far these students, as they transition
smoother, and also Dawud and into the world of work, not only
Vithushan for establishing this become prospective leaders and
journal five years ago, a testament to change-makers but also become,
St Olaves emphasis on scholarship. simply, interesting people.
The breadth of this years
In the spirit of perseverance, we publication is once again humbling
hope this years edition will learn and we wish all those who have
from its predecessors and be ever- contributed every bit of success in
more brilliant. their future endeavours. We are
immensely indebted to the editors for
Poppy Kemp and Daniel Maghsoudi producing another wonderful issue
and so thank you. Thank you for
Editors of the St Olaves Academic Journal 2017
allowing us this legacy.
Vithushan Nuges and Dawud Khan

Foreword Founders of the St Olaves Academic Journal
With many of our peers graduating

and beginning the next chapter of
their lives as fully fledged, working
adults, this being the fifth issue of
the Academic Journal, bears even
more importance for us. Its inception
was frankly somewhat selfish. We
wanted to leave a mark, a legacy of
sorts, providing us a lasting
connection to some of the best years
of our lives.
However, thanks to the exceptional
students who have contributed
articles ranging from dark matter to
punk music and everything in
between over the years, this journal
has been, and is much more. It is a
deserved showcase of the immense
talent and scholarship seeping
through the students at St Olaves.
The many articles and summaries of
each societys activities rightfully
display the students extraordinary
enthusiasm, depth of knowledge and
yearning for more, beyond what is
2
Contents
Societies- News
Political Economy Society 6
Natural Sciences Society 6
Law Society 6
Debating Society 6
Literature Society 7
Medics Society 7
History Society 8
Maths Society 8
Philosophy Society 8
Arts and Humanities

Why did Greek actors wear masks? Miranda Parkin (Year 12) - 9
Similarities between DNA and communication Emma Tolmie (Year 12) - 13

in rugby
Israel and Palestine Tanay Vankayalapati (Year 12) - 16
The Snoopers Charter- A breach of our right to Poppy Kemp (Year 12) - 19
Privacy?
Doughnut Economics; seven ways to think like a 21st Tara Pain (Year 12) - 22
Century economist
3
Science and Medicine

Is physiological or psychological pain worse? Daniel Maghsoudi (Year 12) - 27
Symmetry and the laws of nature Josephine Jones (Year 12) - 30
Extended Project Qualification

Misunderstanding chance - why does it happen Richard Moulange (Year 13) - 35
and why is it important?
To what extent does privatisation of the NHS Kosi Nwuba (Year 13) - 49
effect patient care?
How was French literature used as propaganda Alex Bull (Year 13) - 63
during the Occupation?
Which Eurasian or Western empire exerted the Thomas Laver (Year 13) - 87
greatest power after the fall of the Roman empire?
Higher Project Qualification

Is rehabilitation in UK prisons effective in Oliver Wright-Jones (Year 11) - 103
preventing reoffending?
How will quantum cryptography effect computing? Manav Babel (Year 11) - 108
Did punk music reflect dissatisfaction of young James Harms (Year 11) - 115
people in the 1970s?
How does music affect the body? Harshdeep Gulati (Year 11) - 120
Are autonomous cars really the future and can they Dejan Fernandes (Year 11) - 124
be implemented in less than a decade?
4
Societies
Saint Olaves has an array of student-led societies which run every week. These cover a broad
spectrum of subjects, and give students the opportunity to learn more about various topics of
interest whilst gaining extra-curricular enrichment. The overviews below highlight the fantastic
experiences and activities offered by some of these societies in 2017.
Political Economy Society speakers in the form of Old Olavians or experts

in their respective fields. The talks have ranged
from An introduction to Special Relativity,
given by an Old Olavian and previous president
of the society David Van Egghen, to Is Medicine
Killing Us? by year 11 student Harshdeep
Gulati.
William To (Year 12)
Political Economy Society offers a rich mix of

topical discussion with focused talks by both
current Olavians and guest speakers, on topics Law Society
ranging from Brexit to drug policies to the
economics of football. This diverse range of topics
and talks makes attending Political Economy
Society an excellent way of widening your
knowledge, whether or not you are studying
Economics. Moreover, the inclusive nature of the
society, where everyone is able to voice their
opinions means there is always a broad range of
ideas being shared on a weekly basis. Most
excitingly, the society boasts a history of inviting
distinguished guests to speak. As a recent Law society meets every week to discuss and
example, the founder of the Happy Planet Index- debate with others about controversial legal
Nic Marks, gave an insightful talk into his work issues and current affairs. It also offers the
of the past decade and how his idea has spread chance to learn more about studying law, with
across 178 countries. Ultimately, Political opportunities to participate in mock trials and
Economy Society is fun yet informative society listen to talks from external speakers. We meet
which runs weekly on Thursday lunchtimes, with every Thursday at 1 in room 23, and all sixth
more prominent guest speakers lined up for the form are welcome!
future.
Alexander Martin
James Tate
Debating Society
Natural Sciences Society
Debating Society is the most popular society in

the school. Running every Monday lunchtime, it
gives you the opportunity to discuss and debate
Natural Sciences is one of the biggest societies key and topical issues. We follow a variety of
currently running at the school, and we house a debating styles to make debating at Saint Olaves
wide range of members from medics to physicists as diverse as possible. Debating is the most
to mathematicians, so everyone is welcome to important skill anyone can have for any job and
join. We gather every Friday lunch, hosting here you can practice with likeminded passionate
student led talks, debate on current affairs linked individuals. From medic to lawyer; religious to
to science and occasionally invite external
5
atheist and everyone in-between; we are the opportunity for those who gave the talks to
number one society for you. develop their presentation skills in a friendly and
supportive environment.
In February, members of the society had the
Maksim Richards privilege to attend the Kings College London
Surgical Societys National Surgical Conference
at the Royal College of Surgeons. We listened to
Literature Society three fascinating lectures about innovations in
the surgical field delivered by prominent
surgeons and spent the afternoon taking part in
workshops where we practiced surgical
techniques such as suturing and laparoscopy.
This conference was the first introduction to
surgery for many of us and no doubt has kindled
an interest in the field in some of us.
Alongside the student-led presentations, we have
also hosted several presentations by external
speakers. These included a talk by the previous
Come along to Literature society on Tuesdays at school captain Danny Jenkins, who is currently
1 in room 8 to discuss a range of topics, including studying medicine at Cambridge University,
drama, film and current affairs, as well as listen during which he offered very useful advice
to external speakers. All are welcome, regardless concerning medical applications and an insight
of whether you are doing English A level, as an into studying medicine at Cambridge. This was
interest in literature is all that is required! followed by a talk given by school captain Kosi
Nwuba, in which he described his personal
experiences and offered advice concerning
Alexander Martin medical application. After that, we hosted a panel
of successful medical applicants from the current
year 13 cohort who shared their own experiences
of the application process and gave the
Medics Society prospective year 12 applicants a range of tips to
boost their own applications. These talks by
successful applicants and medical students have
proved to be extremely useful in preparing the
current year 12 cohort as they embark on the
arduous process of medical application.
Lastly, we would like to congratulate all the
successful medical, dental and veterinary
applicants of the year 13 cohort and wish you all
the best as you begin your university studies in
Since the new team of presidents took over St September. Also, we wish all aspiring year 12
Olaves Medics Society in January 2017, the medics the best of luck as we prepare for our
society has continued to be a vibrant and active UKCAT exams during the summer.
platform for aspiring medics, dentists and vets to
deepen their understanding of all aspects of the Medics Society Acknowledgments
medical field. The weekly society meetings on We would like to thank Dr. Bradley for her
Monday lunchtimes have given us the constant support and supervision of the society
opportunity to witness many splendid student-led and also for providing a venue for our weekly
presentations, thought-provoking debates and meetings. We would also like to extend our
discussions. gratitude to the many members of the society
We began our tenure as presidents with a who have made the society successful through
presentation outlining major medical headlines their regular attendance and contributions which
and debated some of the issues faced by the NHS include the presentations they delivered and the
such as privatisation and junior doctor strikes. articles they have written for the journal. We
Subsequent meetings of the society played host to look forward to having your continued support in
a wide range of excellent presentations delivered the 2017/18 academic year.
by students. The talks covered a wide range of
topics within the medical field, including Cancer
treatments: The role of Nanobiotechnology, Jeron Thaiparampil
Sickle Cell anaemia, A brief history of medicine
to name just a few. These talks not only
increased the breadth of understanding and
knowledge of the students who gave the talks and
those who witnessed them but also provided an
6
History Society Philosophy Society

Saint Olaves Philosophy Society, open
St Olaves History Society aims to go above and exclusively for Sixth Form, examines ethics,
beyond the curriculum, enlightening members on metaphysics, epistemology and logic; all of which
subjects they may otherwise never hear about in are interpreted into the talks that we host. Each
a simple and clear way. With several speakers a week, we have a presentation followed by debates
year including Oxbridge academics and Old that relate to what the speaker has said. Some
Olavians our talks and debates cover a wide presentations we have had include: Is it right to
range of topics from Historical Drama: Art or kill someone? Can objective morality exist? and
Artefact to The History of International Womens Can science exist without philosophy?; both by
Day. We also encourage thought-provoking the current Presidents, Martin Senior and
debate and questions at the end of every talk, Cristiano Da Cruz. The former has a focus on
ideal for those wishing to further their interest in ethics and epistemology, with some theology
history or simply improve on their public incorporated also; while the latter looks at
speaking skills. We would love to see you all metaphysics and logic. We have also had the
there on Monday lunchtimes irrespective of outgoing presidents from last year give their final
whether you study history or not! talk on Existentialism and Nihilism which
preceded an extensive debate surrounding the
intrinsic meaning of life and other related regions
Poppy Kemp of philosophy. We have also hosted a
Maths Society collaboration with Christian Union and
Contemporary Issues, with the overall title: Is
God dead? Given the wide ranging views of our
audience, we held an open debate, looking at
different aspects such as creation, the afterlife,
religious views etc. Other talks include The
Harm Principle, Was Sigmund Freud Right?,
Consequentialism, Utilitarianism and Justice.
We continue to look forward to philosophical
talks on cross curricular topics, including the
media, art, science and many more
Cristiano Da Cruz
Brought to you by your Presidential Team of
Shavon, Filipa and Ted, Maths Society runs on
Tuesday lunches where talks are given on
various abstract areas of Maths. From the
Mbius Strip to the maths behind the bottle flip,
we cover it all in exciting fashion. Furthermore,
external speakers often grace us with riveting
talks. Recently, the Head of Indirect Tax at
brewing company SAB Miller plc gave a
thoroughly fascinating talk about his career with
great advice about job applications. Legendary
ex-Olavian Mathematicians often make guest
appearances with presentations you would regret
missing. In addition to talks, we conduct fun
interactive activities and can promise there'll
always be food!
Be there or complete the square.
Shavon DSouza
7
Gladstone Memorial Prize

Miranda Parkin won second prize in the Gladstone Memorial Prize Essay Competition with her essay on Grecian masks.
Why did the actors in Greek tragedy wear

masks?
Miranda Parkin
Arguably the most iconic convention of ancient almost certainly been lost. The exaggerated
Greek theatre, the prospon (mask) held a features of the masks assisted the audience in
powerful role in both the practical and symbolic distinguishing individual characters; unique
spheres of Greek tragedy. Interestingly, masks masks were crafted for specific roles such as
were not reputed perennial objects by the ancient Pentheus in Euripides The Bacchae. In addition,
Greeks themselves, being offered to the altar of open-air spaces such as the Theatre of Dionysus
Dionysus after performances, demonstrating the at the foot of the Athenian Acropolis presented a
immense focus on religion the plays contained. challenge for both actor and spectator by being
This emphasis on worship was salient throughout deficient in the focus afforded by a modern
the festivals the tragedies were performed in, like proscenium arch stage, whereby the audiences
the City Dionysia, and the use of masks peripheral vision (vision outside the central area
highlighted this; bringing about a sense of of focus) is severely limited due to the dark
transformation and allowing both actor and auditorium. This places the actors on stage
audience to participate in honouring the god of directly in the spectators foveal (central) vision;
the theatre. something harder to achieve in classical Greek
When attempting to understand why actors in tragedies due to the plethora of distractions
Greek tragedy wore masks, it is important to ubiquitous to outdoor theatre. The donning of a
know what these masks looked like. Depictions of mask in Greek tragedy (visible because of its
tragedy on vase paintings illustrating theatrical exaggerated features) offers a clearer focal point
masks remain paramount to our understanding for impassioned communication due to the
of such objects, considering the paucity of subconscious attraction to human faces, ergo
evidence from both literary and material sources. enabling the actors to stimulate an increased
Renderings of masks as shown on the Pronomos catharsis (the purging of emotions) from the
Vase (Figure One) suggest a lightweight face
mask was used, which covered the entire head
leaving only small apertures for the eyes and
mouth. This can be seen with the performer
lifting up his mask on the vase. These masks
were created by a skeuopois, the maker of
properties, and fashioned with cork, linen and
wood; then fixed to an actors head by a sakkos
(soft hood). Paint was used to show the beauty or
ugliness of a character. Paint and tragedy were
intimately linked, and characters were often
shown as painted sculptures or compared with
visual works of art. In Euripides Helen, the
eponymous character wishes she could be rubbed
out like a painting, and have again in turn a
plainer form instead of beauty 1. The variation in
paint, along with the exaggerated features of the
mask, would enable the audience to easily
identify stock characters such as the tragic hero.
The weight of the masks value here should not
be undermined as Greek tragedies were
performed outdoors and there were often
thousands of spectators. It would be difficult to Figure One: Detail of the Pronomos Vase depicting the
performers of Herakles and Papposilenos. Attic red-
determine the identity of characters from the
figure volute krater by the Pronomos Painter, 400
furthest rows, and facial expressions would have BCE (Naples, Museo Nazionale Archeologico)
1 Euripides. Helen, line 253
8
audience. The importance of the mask here must significantly limited an actors vision as his gaze
be stressed, as Greek tragedy was a didactic form was directed through the small apertures for the
of theatre and raised thought-provoking eyes, resulting in the optic field becoming
questions in order to collectively cleanse the considerably narrow. Consequently, the actors
audience through a release of emotion. ability to concentrate would greatly increase, as
the minimisation of sight would eliminate a
A fundamental reason why actors in Greek substantial amount of distractions which the
tragedy wore masks also derives from the fact open-air theatre would have provided. Masks
that Greek theatre of the 5th century BC never placed a larger emphasis on the act of akroasis
included more than three actors in one play after (attentive listening), as well as encouraging the
Sophocles introduction of the third performer. actor to convey his emotions through the tone of
Since there were no professional actors, his words. Inspired, Aristotle stated in his
performers had to be trained specifically for the Rhetoric that acting was a matter of voice 2 in
plays hence it was cheaper to hire a select few. which volume, harmony and rhythm were
Despite this, there were no lack of roles in the imperative. Scholars even put forward the idea
plays; Sophocles Antigone consists of eight that the mask itself was a resonance chamber;
speaking characters. The unequal ratio of roles to the aperture for the mouth being deliberately
performers meant actors were forced to multirole, carved in a way as to enhance the quality of
and it was essential to repeatedly switch roles sound. Although this idea has been widely
throughout the performance. The use of masks in discredited, the use of the mask would have
Greek tragedy enabled this transition to happen placed a sizeable gravity on the tone of the actors
quickly and thus effectively allowed the actors to voice, their body language, and the actual
portray a number of personas. The denial of dialogue of the play. Denying performers the
individuality prevented the audience from ability to convey emotions through facial
identifying one distinct character to a particular expressions placed them in an unparalleled state
actor, granting the performer the power to of awareness and forced them to concentrate on
successfully appear in several discrete roles. their body, enabling them to focus the audience
Rightly so, the cardinal use of masks must be through their highly developed presence and
stressed as actors in Classical Greek theatre were movements. The importance of each gesture, each
exclusively male. Since there were no actresses,
male actors were required to play female roles,
disguising themselves through a feminine mask,
as shown in the Pronomos Vase. The distinct
features of individual masks allowed the
audience to recognise a characters gender, age,
and social status; with female roles identified by
the lighter complexion and higher contrast of the
feminine mask, perhaps mirroring the ways in
which Greek women whitened their faces. Masks
were advantageous for a Greek tragic actor as
they helped to display a change in a characters
physical appearance, an example of this being
when Oedipus blinds himself in Sophocles
Oedipus the King. The actor playing this role
would enter the skene with his new mask
successfully presenting the alteration in his
character. In this play, the use of such an object
would have helped the tragic actor immensely;
gory make-up was easier to place on masks. This
would have also reduced the risk of humour; if
badly applied, paint would look significantly more
comical on the actors face. Masks therefore Figure Two: The Maenad Stamnos. Red-figure
proved incredibly useful for the tragic actor as it stamnos depicting maenads dancing around an
allowed a performance of Greek tragedy to run idol of Dionysus by the Dinos Painter, late 5th c
smoothly devoid of slow transitions between BCE. (Naples, Museo Nazionale Archeologico)
roles, as well as preserving clarity concerning the
identification of characters. Because of their
worth in practicality, an important reason why
actors in Greek tragedy wore masks was because movement of the head, would increase to a much
the object made the performance easier for both grander scale. The significance of the use of the
actor and spectator, consequently contributing mask in Greek tragedy is accordingly large, as
heavily to the tragedys overall success. body language would be easier for the audience to
Furthermore, masks in Greek theatre enhanced
an actors personal performance. Masks 2 Aristotle. Rhetoric, Book 3, Chapter 1
9
detect than facial expressions, which were lost to masks was reflective of this sense of
those seated in the furthest rows. Actors in Greek metamorphosis. By putting on the mask, a
tragedy therefore wore masks to improve their performer was declaring he was becoming part of
own performances, and as a result enhanced the the story and initiating ekstasis (standing outside
quality of the play. oneself). Here, the actors in Greek tragedy used
the mask as a form of protection against the
danger of acting. Ancient Greeks considered
citizens impersonating the roles of women,
Although the exact origins of tragedy are barbarians and gods potentially hazardous.
debatable, evidence suggests Greek theatre Donning the mask stripped the tragic actor of his
partially stems from the worship of Dionysus, the individuality, thus affording the exemption and
god of ecstasy and the wild. Dionysus authorisation to perform actions deemed
Eleuthereus (the freer) represented the liminality inconceivable in the normal life. As William
between human and animal, emotion and Golding sums up in his novel Lord of the Flies,
intellect; providing an escape from daily the mask was a thing on its own, behind which
normality. There are strong links between the [one] hid[es], liberated from shame and self-
rituals performed by the worshippers of Dionysus consciousness5. By shedding any remnants of
and the wearing of masks. On the Maenad individuality, the actor essentially creates space
Stamnos (Figure Two) the god is represented by a for the character he portrays, and in his place the
mask on a pole draped in a long robe, bearing a tragic character is forged.
strong resemblance to the costume of a tragic Actors in Greek tragedy wore masks for a
actor. Indeed, Dionysus became recognised as the multitude of reasons both practically and
god of the theatre and Aristotle claims in his symbolically. The use of masks in Greek theatre
Poetics that tragedy itself emanated from the greatly enhanced the actors performances and
dithyramb (choral poem) of the Dionysian allowed for a smooth running of the play,
Mysteries. Furthermore, although many of contributing heavily to its success. However,
Nietzsches ideas in The Birth of Tragedy can be perhaps the ways in which the donning of the
dismissed, he unwittingly stumbles upon a mask intricately linked the genre of tragedy to
plausible reason why Greek tragic actors wore the rituals of the Dionysian Mystery cults
masks. Nietzsche states, In the Dionysian remains the main reason why the mask became
dithyramb man is incited to the greatest such an iconic convention of Greek theatre.
exaltation of all his symbolic faculties. 3 This Although the practicalities of the mask were
links to the aim of tragedy in exploring important, the significance of the need to worship
heightened human emotions and concepts such as the god Dionysus throughout the tragedies
death; another theme connected to the rituals of prevails as the overriding reason as to why actors
Dionysus wherein maenads would kill and then in Greek theatre wore masks as Dionysus himself
eat the raw flesh of their prey. Ancient Greeks was considered to be the main spectator of
honoured Dionysus in a multitude of theatrical festivals such as the City Dionysia, wherein
forms; through plays, music and dance. Actors in tragedies would have been performed. By
Greek tragedy would therefore wear masks to enabling the actors to step outside of themselves
reflect the religious aspects of the theatre; the and take on a new persona, masks firmly stand as
mask being reminiscent of the rituals of Dionysus a crucial element of Greek tragedy and played a
Greek theatre could have developed from. vital role in the worship of the god Dionysus.
Dionysian festivals such as the City Dionysia
endeavoured to channel the emotional encounters
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11
Gonville and Caius Linguistics Challenge Essay

Emma Tolmie won first place with in Gonville and Caius College, Cambridges
first linguistics challenge essay competition on the unlikely similarities between
DNA and communication in Ruby.
Similarities Between DNA and Communication in

Rugby
Emma Tolmie
the process known as DNA transcription; an
Perhaps if you are neither a biologist nor a enzyme called helicase temporarily unwinds
rugby player, the languages associated with the double helix, exposing the base
the two professions probably seem sequences of each strand. A shorter molecule
ludicrously different. Indeed, if you are known as mRNA (messenger ribonucleic
either, or even both, the concepts of protein acid) is created using one existing strand of
synthesis and set plays may appear starkly DNA as a template. The information
contrasting. However, I an A-level Biology encoded in the order of bases on the original
student and vice-captain of our schools girls gene is reflected in the order of bases on the
rugby team - find the similarities between strand of mRNA.
the triplet code and the commands used by This strand of mRNA then leaves the
my rugby team to be very alike; both are nucleus and travels to a part of the cell
systems of communication which allow called a ribosome, where translation will
stored information to be transferred into occur. This is how the information encoded
physical events although I confess that for by the sequence of bases is converted into
making a protein is a somewhat different a chain of amino acids, which is the first
outcome to scoring a try. stage in any proteins life. Translation
Firstly, and apologies for the deluge of begins with a molecule of transfer RNA
jargon, I must explain DNA and protein bringing a specific amino acid alongside the
synthesis in order to make this comparison mRNA strand. Which exact amino acid is
possible. Protein synthesis is the process in brought is coded for by a sequence of three
which DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the bases known as the triplet code. Every
polymer whose composition determines possible combination of three of the bases A
almost every aspect of our appearance from U* G and C will cause a particular amino
skin colour to shoe size, is unwound and acid to be brought to the ribosome to become
used to make the proteins of which our part of the protein. For instance, if the
bodies are composed. As of 1953, we have sequence of bases on a section of mRNA was
known the structure of this mesmerising UCG then a molecule of tRNA carrying the
chemical, and since this point our knowledge amino acids serine would come and attach to
about it has developed in ways of which 19th the mRNA in the ribosome.
century scientists could only have dreamed. When the next amino acid is brought into
Watson and Cricks ground-breaking paper place, a stronger peptide bond is formed
outlined that the structure of DNA is a between the two acids and the first tRNA
sugar-phosphate backbone to which four molecule detaches from its amino acid,
different bases (known as A, T, G, and C) are leaving the acids like paperclips in a chain.
attached, much like rungs to a ladder. Short As more amino acids are brought and added
sections of DNA, which is found in the to the chain, it becomes what is known as a
nucleus of each cell in our bodies, are called polypeptide.
genes, and each gene codes for the
production of a particular protein. In summary, information contained in the
When a cell experiences a specific triggering DNA in a cells nucleus is transcribed into a
factor, a cascade of chemical changes begins
12
strand of mRNA, which is then translated by commands are more complicated, and
a ribosome into a protein. involve the amalgamation of more than one
command. Boss, long right means the ball-
carrying player is to pass the ball a long way
*On a strand of mRNA, the base Uracil is to the right to the player who shouted,
used instead of Thymine skipping out another player who is between
Although the above is rather long-winded them in the line. The command boss is
and far more scientific than is necessary in translated into missing out the intermediate
most peoples daily lives, a basic player in an attempt to confuse the
understanding of transcription and opposition, and long right is translated
translation is required for my linguistic into passing to this certain location.
analogy to be comprehensible. The process Similarly, proteins can also be the product of
through which information contained in more than one polypeptide; polypeptides
DNA is transferred into mRNA by which are usually coded for separately are
transcription and then a polypeptide by combined in order to make the protein that
translation is similar to the way in which is right for this particular occasion.
spoken commands work. The speaker thinks In some circumstances, there is room for
of words in their head, then transcribes this error or variation, in both DNA and rugby.
information into spoken words in order to Although each trio of bases codes for a
pass it on to whoever will be carrying out specific amino acid each time it occurs, there
the command. This second person are some trios which code for the same acid
understands the information given to them e.g. both UCC and AGC happen to code for
and translates it into a physical action. the amino acid serine, meaning that two (or
Like any language, these commands depend even more) combinations can be synonyms.
on two main factors: that the information is This is referred to as a hidden mutation,
transferred correctly and that the receiver because the mistake was made, but the right
will be able to understand what to do with outcome occurred so it was not noticeable.
it. If a small error occurs in the transcription Likewise, both boss and miss move are
process for example a molecule of Guanine code for skipping out an intermediate player
where there ought to be a molecule of and passing to the next person along.
Adenine then the information transferred Similarly, both short left and left short
from the nucleus to the ribosome would not would be understood.
be the correct information. Similarly, if, However, there are occasions upon which
when the mRNA reached the ribosome, errors are too blatant to remain hidden. This
there was not some form of pre-arranged could be a seemingly insignificant
code (as yet it is unknown how the triplet substitution of Left! for Right! or
code evovled) for what to do with the Guanine for Adenine, but the resultant pass
received information, then the information or protein is too different to function
would remain a useless series of chemicals, properly. In DNA, these mutations are not
rather than be transferrable into a valuable hidden, and are the cause of genetically
protein. inherited disorders like cystic fibrosis, and
in rugby these errors can mean the
At this point you may be beginning to opposition takes the ball neither is an
understand how biology and rugby can be ideal outcome, and can cause the
linked. In our rugby team, we have a pre- organism/team in question problems.
arranged code of requests and commands Mutations in DNA are the causes of
which, when spoken out loud, result in a evolution, giving us different characteristics
successful pass, dodge, tackle, etc. which make us fitter or less fit for our
The very simplest of our commands result in surroundings and therefore more or less
the creation of the simplest actions or likely to emerge victorious from the constant
proteins, as far as this comparison is competition of natural selection. A historical
concerned. If a player shouts short left!, organism may have had a mutated gene
then the player holding the ball will know to (altered information), faulty transcription
pass to someone who is a short distance process (wrong information is passed on), or
away from her on her left. The first player malfunctioning ribosomes (wrong action is
has transcribed their mental phrase into a taken) which led to a difference in protein
verbal one, and the second has heard this production to its peers. If this mutation
and translated it into a physical pass. Other happened to be a hindrance in their habitat,
13
they would not be able to outcompete their commands effectively, we can practice our
peers and would not survive, while if it was passing. If our tactics were ineffective, we
by chance an advantage, they would live to can devise new ones. Finally, if our
compete another day. In the same way if a communication system was flawed, we have
rugby team has an ineffective the luxurious ability to switch to a different
communication system, consistently poor one, one which can translate our ideas into
tactics, or insufficient passing skills they success.
will not win their matches and will be The hallmark of a language is that it is a
eliminated, unable to proceed in their system of transferring information from one
competitive tournament. If they happen to person or place to another - which both the
get lucky by a mistake turning into an systems of transcription/translation and our
advantage, they may go on to win and rugby teams codes are capable of doing.
develop this new tactic to help them win Despite the fact that DNA is a bank of
later games. information contributed to by innumerable
The main difference in the principles of life forms over millions of years, while our
these two languages is that rugby teams can rugby tactics have developed over the course
adapt much faster and crucially at will. of two seasons, they each provide us with
DNA mutation is blindly guided by the ability to adapt to our situations
evolution, and organisms with sequences successfully. The key to this success is
which result in disadvantageous protein transferring this stored information into
output will die out. If our rugby team loses a actions, so whether this transfer begins with
match, we have the ability to consciously the enzyme helicase or the referees whistle,
assess exactly what went wrong and choose it is communication which enables our
to change it. If we couldnt respond to success.
14
Israel and Palestine
How the breakup of the Ottoman Empire led to this century-long

conflict with no end in sight.
Tanay Vankayalapati Palestine, in an attempt to gain the

support of the powerful Jewish
After the end of the First World War in members of society to try and win
1918, Europe was facing a crossroads. World War 1. Now, they had to keep
Whilst Germany had fallen, there was their promise, and in the coming
now the decision of how to deal with the decades, hundreds of thousands of Jews
defeated nation and its associates. For immigrated to the area, arriving
the Ottoman Empire, which had been initially from the post-revolutionary
the primary Islamic state in the world, chaos of Russia and fleeing persecution
and at the height of its powers, held in Poland and Hungary. This was only
land stretching from the gates of exacerbated with the Haavara
Vienna, through the Balkans, and Agreement, approving the movement of
across North Africa, the decision to split Jews from Nazi Germany to the
them had already been made. The territory, and between 1928 and 1938,
Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, written 250,000 Jews immigrated to the area.
secretly between the British and the This influx was not however met
French, agreed the partition of the positively by the local Arab population.
Ottoman territory, come the end of the
war. The 1936-39 Palestinian revolts was a
The British saw this region as vital, not largely nationalist movement, which
only in providing a clear land route whilst being quelled, was the first time
through to the jewel of their Empire in the suggestion of a separate Jewish and
India, but also to negate the growing Palestinian state reached mainstream
Russian influence. After the 19th attention, and a temporary suspension
century was dominated by the so-called of new immigrants was imposed. Soon
Great Game, a struggle between the however, the Holocaust not only called
two superpowers over Central and this ban into question, but also
Southern Asia, an air of distrust still emphasised the need for a safe space for
defined their relationship. To the the Jewish people from persecution,
delight of the British, the newly energising the Zionist movement. When
founded League of Nations gave them the post-war Labour government
the desired land, including notably, the renegaded on their manifesto promise
Mandate for Palestine in 1922. to create a new Jewish state, the
Jewish Resistance Movement launched
This region would however, be unlike terror attacks against the British. By
any of the other gained territories. Back 1947, the government was ready to
in 1917, the Balfour Declaration, defer control of the issue to the United
named after the then Foreign Secretary Nations.
Arthur Balfour, had been published, The plan devised, setting up an
which asserted that Britain would seek independent Jewish state in Israel, an
to establish a Jewish national home in independent Palestinian state, and
15
special status for the City of Jerusalem, radical Palestinian independence

was adopted in May the following year, movement, compared to the PLO.
and deeply angered the Palestinians. A This set up the necessity for a peace
civil war erupted, but the Jewish forces, process to occur with the more
backed by American sympathisers and moderate elements, and after the
Stalins Soviet Union, easily won. election of peace-seeking Israeli Prime
However, a far greater threat emerged Minister Yitzhak Rabin, this was made
when the Arab League, a group of possible. Under President Clinton in
nations in the area, decided to go to war 1993, the Oslo Accords were signed
with the newly founded state of Israel between Israel and the PLO, which
to back up the Palestinians, in the 1948 outlined the steps needed for a proper
Arab-Israeli War. Palestinian state to be founded in
exchange for the end of all terror
A year-long conflict ensued, and despite operations, and peace was as close as it
initial losses, the Israel Defence Forces had ever been. However, radical
eventually came out victorious, and an movements on both sides opposed the
armistice was agreed, with Israel deal, and in 1995, Rabin was
keeping 30% more territory beyond the assassinated by a far-right Zionist
scope of what they were initially group.
mandated, expanding into Palestinian The elections which followed saw the
land. Relative peace was seen as Israel far right leader Benjamin Netanyahu
grew and established itself as a major arise to power, and under his
power in the region. This was broken in premiership, the Peace Process grinded
1967 as Egypt invaded in the Six Days to a halt. In 2000, he had been replaced
War, where Israel again routed the by Prime Minister Barak, who was
Arab forces, this time taking control of willing to offer a wide array of
more territory, notably, the Gaza Strip, concessions to solve the issue, but
East Jerusalem and the West Bank. As Arafat refused to hear out the proposals
neither side recognised the others as all of his demands were not met, and
existence, tensions grew. Illegal Israeli the talks broke down. Opinions became
settlements in these territories were set more partisan and angered, blaming
up, whilst the Palestinian Liberation the other side for the failure to achieve
Authority (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat, peace, and when 1,000 Israeli armed
became famous across the world for guards marched to the Temple Mount,
resisting Israeli rule. one of the holiest sites in both Islam
and Judaism, conflict erupted, in the
After a series of further conflicts, US Second Palestinian Intifada.
President Jimmy Carter negotiated the
Camp David Accords in 1978, which set In defence, Israel created a wall around
out a framework for relationship the West Bank, however this was built
between Israel and Egypt, aiming to not in line with the established border,
secure long-lasting peace in the region. and was seen as an offensive
However, internal tensions were still encroachment onto their land by the
brewing, and by 1987, the first Palestinians. They responded by
Palestinian Intifada (Uprising) electing Hamas to replace the PLO
occurred, and whilst violence was a after Arafats death in 2006, who
feature, the most notable consequence presented a far more radical outlook,
was the founding of Hamas, the far refusing the right for Israel to exist as a
more religious and arguably more state. Rocket attacks became a staple of
their methodology, causing Netanyahu
16
to be re-elected, creating the Iron Dome,

a mobile air defence system, and setting
up violent incursions into Palestinian
land.
At the moment, the Israeli-Palestinian

conflict is seemingly nowhere near a
conclusion, with both sides able to voice
serious and legitimate issues with the
other. This however, was an issue,
which was not born organically, but
rather engineered by the split up of the
Ottoman Empire by Western powers, in
a region whose intricacies they did not
fully understand, causing a conflict of a
scale they could not have predicted.
However, history has shown us that
there is hope, and that one day, perhaps
those very same powers can play a role
in bringing both sides to the table, and
resolving the conflict they helped to
create.
17
The Snoopers Charter - A breach of our right

to privacy?
Poppy Kemp
1. Introduction
1. Intercepting data in
The Snoopers Charter, or transit.
Investigatory Powers Act (IP Act), 2. Hacking electronic devices
2016 enables forty-eight companies to acquire communications
to intercept and hack into millions of data.
ordinary citizens communications6, 3. Retention of internet
in the interests of security. However, records for 12 months.8
the Act has amassed vehement
opposition with several politicians Although forty-eight government
dismissing it as an encroachment on companies including the Serious
our right to privacy. Consequently, Fraud Office, the Met Police and
this article aims to outline some of Food Standards agency are
the Acts implications for privacy, eligible to enforce these three
ultimately arguing that it is not a provisions without a warrant,
violation, due to the loose provisions they are overseen by the
of the European Convention of Investigatory Powers Commission
Human Rights (ECHR) and provided (IPC) appointed by the Prime
strict safeguards are implemented. Minister. This is headed by Lord
Justice Fulfront, a highly
experienced international
criminal court judge, quashing
2. What is the Snoopers
the fear that a random, untrained
Charter? civil servant will be able to access
their internet history.
In Theresa Mays words, the
Charter was drafted to tackle
child sexual exploitation, to 3. Implications for Privacy
dismantle serious crime cartels,
take drugs and guns off our 3.1 What is Privacy?
streets and prevent terrorist
attacks7. Its powers therefore Clearly the act poses some
include: implications for privacy, but
before establishing what these
6 Theresa May: Internet data will be recorded under
new spy laws, Michael Wilkinson, The Telegraph, 8 The UK Investigatory Powers Act 2016 what
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism- it will mean for your business, Graham Smith,
in-the-uk/11974112/New-spying-powers-to-be- Bird & Bird,
unveiled-by-Theresa-May-live.html, 04/11/15 https://www.twobirds.com/en/news/articles/2016/
7 Foreword from the Home Secretary, Theresa uk/what-the-investigatory-powers-bill-would-
May, The Investigatory Powers Act, 2016 mean-for-your-business, 29/11/16
18
are, it is important to understand comparison has been made with

what privacy is. Privacy is police entering a home. Many
defined as a state in which one is would argue that the internet is
not observed or disturbed by an extension of the home,14 and
other people9. It is given under therefore is private; yet, in order
Article 8 of the EHCR (private to search a home, except when a
and family life10); however, it is serious or dangerous incident has
not guaranteed because it can be taken place15 [includes arresting
overruled in the interests of someone and to save someones
national security11. This vague life], a warrant must be obtained.
provision of security justifies the This is not the case with your
IP Acts disjoint with privacy. internet history, revealing a
serious disjoint in approach.
Internet privacy is similarly
arcane. Under the 1995 EU Data 3.3 Third Parties
Protection Directive our UK Data
Protection Act (1998) was Polls suggest that people do not
introduced ensuring the mind their information being
protection of personal data stored harvested as they have nothing to
on computers12. However, as R hide, but did not trust that the
Agliolo13 notes, the Act is data will be kept secure16 [71%,
inadequate in protecting current YouGov Poll]. Consumers are not
trends in communications data as alone with this fear, with social
it predates social media. The media companies sounding
Snoopers Charter therefore rests similar alarm bells. The Act
in a vulnerable area of privacy. requires encrypted social media
companies such as Whatsapp and
3.2 Your search history can be iMessage (Apple) to offer back-
accessed door encryption, enabling easy
access to messages by the
Essentially, the Act allows, albeit security agencies; however, such
highly trained, strangers to companies argue this will weaken
access our internet history, often their security, leading to anyone,
without a warrant. Undoubtedly, including criminal organisations,
there is something highly accessing our information. Apple
disconcerting about this and a has declared the key left under
the doormat would not just be
9 Oxford English Dictionary.
10 Article 8, European Convention on Human 14 Young People think the Internet is as
Rights, found at Important as Breathing, Dina Spector, Business
http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_E Insider,
NG.pdf http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/internet-cisco-
11 Article 8, European Convention on Human poll-2011-11/, 03/11/11
Rights, found at 15 Police Powers, Citizen Advice,
http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_E https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/law-and-
NG.pdf courts/legal-system/police/police-powers/, Last
12 Data Protection Act, 1998, Wikipedia, accessed: 20/08/17
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Ac 16 Data available at: Draft Communications Bill,
t_1998, Last accessed 11/08/17 Wikipedia,

13 Databook: Privacy in the Age of Social Media, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_Communicati
Rebecca Agliolo, Per Incuriam, Michaelmas 2016 ons_Data_Bill, Last accessed: 20/08/17
19
there for the good guys. The bad for any use of the act, in order to
guys would find it, too17, convince the public of the Acts
epitomizing these anxieties. fairness and safety.
Secondly, current safeguards should
3.4 Importance of safeguards be reinforced. Indeed, this process is
happening as after a review, the Act
In regards to both of these changed its focus to privacy, adding
concerns, safeguards are further stringent safeguards and a
imperative to prevent the year later there have been no
violation of our privacy; however, reported violations via third parties
many argue that, at present, they let alone within the trained
are inadequate. For instance, in professions. This also demonstrates
the legal sphere, counted as a how the Act, at present, is not an
sensitive profession due to encroachment on our fundamental
legally privileged [confidential] right.
material, a warrant, alongside
other safeguards, has to be Conclusion
obtained before any information Following the introduction of the
is acquired. Nevertheless, Snoopers Charter, Baroness Jenny
Chairman the Bar, Chantal-Aime Jones declared It's the end of
Doerries QC18, still has concerns privacy in the UK20 and whilst this
stating these safeguards are potentially could happen due to the
insufficient, and a clients privacy still concerning implications of the Act,
has the potential to be breached. providing rigidly imposed safeguards
are implemented, (as is starting to
4. Recommendations take place) no person will see their
right violated.
The Act therefore needs to improve
its relationship with privacy to
prevent violations of it from third
parties and to improve public trust
in the act via two reforms:
Firstly, as Joanna Cherry MP19

stated, warrants should be obtained
17Snoopers Charter passes into law what it

means, Madhumita Murgia, The Financial
Times, https://www.ft.com/content/40d2ede4- 11e6-9cb3-bb8207902122, Last accessed
adac-11e6-9cb3-bb8207902122, Last accessed 11/08/17
11/08/17
18 Snoopers Charter Falls Short, New Law
20 Theresa May: Internet data will be
Journal, recorded under new spy laws, Michael
https://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/content/sn Wilkinson, The Telegraph,
ooper-s-charter-falls-short , 07/12/16 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknew
19 Snoopers Charter passes into law what
s/terrorism-in-the-uk/11974112/New-
it means, Madhumita Murgia, The Financial
Times, spying-powers-to-be-unveiled-by-
https://www.ft.com/content/40d2ede4-adac- Theresa-May-live.html, 04/11/15
20
Doughnut Economics; Seven ways to think like a 21st-

Century Economist
Tara Pain
Now, that we as a nation, and yes, I Instead, she decided to embrace

use the pronoun intentionally, are economics and the plethora of its
living in the era of the planetary flawed models, as she views them, to
household, economists and policy re-evaluate one of its core diagrams:
makers need a collective and holistic the circular flow of income. And what
approach to proposals. They need to did she produce? The doughnut.
adapt their models and perspectives
of the inevitably dynamic world we The doughnut, as shown in the
live in to ensure that everyone in the picture below, is a revised model of
planetary household can and will the circular flow of income and its
prosper. Kate Raworth sets out these
intentions in her book Doughnut
Economics; Seven ways to think like
a 21st-Century Economist, published
on the 6th of April 2017. Having read
economics at Oxford University,
Kate found herself disillusioned with
the mainstream economics taught by
her lectures which seemingly
gloss[ed] over the very issues [she]
cared about most. Finding it too
embarrassing to call herself an
economist, Kate set out to become
involved in real-world economic
challenges and spent the next three
years of her life living in Zanzibar
experiencing, first hand, the
structure is as follows:
challenges faced by people living in Below the inner ring the
severely impoverished, rural social foundation lie critical
communities. Having worked for the human deprivations such as
United Nations for four years and hunger and illiteracy.
Beyond the outer ring the
Oxfam for more than a decade, Kate ecological ceiling lies critical
realised the obvious: she could not planetary degradation such as
simply walk away from economics for climate change and
it shapes the world we inhabit. biodiversity loss.
21
Between the two rings lies the rethinking economics is not about
doughnut itself. This is the finding the correct model (because it
space in which we can meet doesnt exist), its about choosing or
the needs of all within the creating one that best serves our
means of the planet. It is the purpose reflecting the context we
sweet spot that society aims face, the values we hold and the aims
to move into - the safe and just we have. As humanitys context,
space for humanity. values, and aims continually evolve,
so too should the way that we
Paul Samuelson, an economist and envisage the economy. In doing so,
the first American to win the Nobel Raworth intends on shifting the
Memorial Prize in Economic current perspective of politicians,
Sciences, famously drew in 1948 the economists, policy makers and
first ever model of the circular flow, influences all around the globe from
which depicted income flowing round today we have economies that need
the economy as if it were water to grow, whether or not they make
flowing round plumbed pipes. His us thriveand we are now living
textbook simply titled Economics through the social and ecological
was published for the hundreds of fallout of this inheritance to what
thousands of ex-servicemen we need are economies that make us
returning home at the end of the thrive, whether or not they grow.
Second World War. Many enrolled in These fundamental changes are set
engineering courses, containing an out in her seven ways to think and
economics module. The text include:
acclaimed vast amounts of attention 1. Change the goal
and eventually became Americas 2. See the big picture
bestselling textbook across all 3. Nurture human nature
subjects for nearly thirty years. 4. Get savvy with systems
His success is partly put down to the 5. Design to distribute
70 diagrams in the first edition, 6. Create to regenerate
which simplified the complexities of 7. Be agnostic about growth
many specialist economic equations
into diagrams, graphs and charts to It is at this stage that you may find
be understood by the masses. In yourself asking how and why did
economics, the English idiom of a economic growth become the most
picture is worth a thousand
words really does serve as a core
principle, when translated to a
diagram is worth a thousand
words, in explaining economic
theory. Raworths appreciation of
the sheer power of visual framing
which she believes to be as
influential and if not more
influential than verbal framing,
is something she hopes to take
full advantage of with her new
model, the doughnut. She states
22
prevalent policy for the leaders of to take a more holistic approach

nations all over the world? During when measuring a countries
the mid-1930s and following the economy such as the United Nations
appointment of Simon Kuznets as Human Development Index I believe,
the first commissioned economist to in many circumstances, are much
the US Congress, Gross National better suited calculations in
Product became the new measure of explaining the reason for pursing
Americas national income. Kuznets growth in the first place. That is,
newly devised calculation not only instead of an increasingly expanding
transformed economics into an economy which continues to grow in
empirical science but also changed terms of monetary value and at the
the way President Roosevelt cost of human wellbeing, measures
monitored the success of the such as the UNHDI which measure
implementation of his New Deal the impact of growth on people
policies in response to the Great rather than the economy by taking
Depression. The data was also used into account measures such as life
before entering the Second World expectancy, equitable distribution of
War to aid the conversation of the income and access to education
American economy from its should be more widely used. If the
primarily industrial focus into an purpose of growth is to improve the
intentionally military one. The standard of living of a nations
success of such policies, which for the citizens, then surely we should be
most part came down to using measures that serve to reflect
understanding the data underlying its main aim.
the GNP accounts, meant that by the
end of the 1950s, output growth had In addition to the first diagram
become the overriding policy depicted in this article, Raworth has
objective in industrial countries. produced another version of the
Later analysis of the data by Arthur doughnut to show the shortfalls that
Okun, the Chairman of President we, as a planet, are experiencing due
Johnsons Council of Economic to our growth fixated policies. As you
Advisors, lead to the discovery of a can see, climate change, biodiversity
trend which was prevalent amongst loss and land conversion are
the figures an annual growth of 2% amongst a few of the overshoots of
in US national output corresponded the ecological ceiling and health,
to a 1% fall in unemployment. This gender equality and political voice
later became known as Okuns Law some of the largest shortfalls of the
and with this knock on effect of social foundation. Raworth outlines
pursing economic growth known, the factors which play key roles in
others surfaced subsequently leading determining whether or not we can
to the exponential increase in the move into the safe and just space in
focus on economic growth as a policy. the doughnut including population,
However, Raworth argues growth is distribution, aspiration, technology
a ubiquitous noun and GDP a fickle, and governance. However, as
partial and superficial term unable economist Tim Jackson quite bluntly
to express the sheer division in states, we are persuaded to spend
wealth amongst a nations citizens, to money we dont have on things we
which Id agree. Measures that aim dont need to make impressions that
23
wont last on people we dont care principles for the twenty-first-

about. This rather pessimistic but century economist to abide by, seems
shockingly plausible thought serves a credible first step that should be
to encapsulate the unnecessary taken towards successfully
nature of the consumerist world implementing this incredibly
weve come to live in and be active challenging goal of widening
members of, producing the perspectives. Four preliminary
monstrosity of the problem shown in principles, which Raworth outlines
the diagram below. This diagram include:
really is worth a thousand words. 1. Act in service to human
prosperity in a floundering
So, why do we need to widen our web of life, recognising all
perspective and how on earth do we that it depends upon.
go about doing so? As economist 2. Respect autonomy in the
Herman Daly once said, negative communities that you
externalities are those things that serve by ensuring their
we classify as external costs for no engagement and consent,
better reason than because we have while remaining ever
made no provision for them under aware of the inequalities
our economic theories. Raworth goes and differences that may
on to explain the systems dynamic lie within them.
expert John Sterman concurs there 3. Be prudential in
are no side effects just effects, he policymaking, seeking to
says, pointing out that the very minimise the risk of harm
notion of side effects is just a sign especially to the most
that the boundaries of our mental vulnerable in the face of
models are too narrow, our time uncertainty.
horizons too short. Globalisation 4. Work with humanity, by
means we are now living in a world making transparent the
of increasing global assumptions and
interconnectedness and can no shortcomings of your
longer afford to treat these models, and by recognising
externalities as a peripheral alternative economic
concern outside of economic perspectives and tools.
activity. If we do, the probability of It is through small changes such as
creating an economy that enables us the ones mentioned above that we
all to thrive would be close to zero. will begin on the trajectory towards
Raworth suggests that due to the entering the sweet spot in the
dynamic and inevitably volatile doughnut.
nature of the economy, we should
build diversity and redundancy into Another interesting question
economic structures to enhance the Raworth explores in her book is can
economys resilience, making it far there ever be a limit to economic
more effective in adapting to future growth? Here she unpicks the S
shocks and pressures. The notion of curve as a projection of growth and
implementing an Economists Oath, asks the question can we slow
similar to that taken by aspiring growth down by design and not
medics, which outlines ethical disaster? to which she follows with
24
some very plausible and thought-

provoking answers. She amends
W.W. Rostows five stages of growth
to six stages of growth (the twenty-
first-century update) and explores
some possible solutions to the
problems we are facing today. These
range from the implementation of
complementary currencies, to tiered
pricing and most controversially, in
my opinion, demurrage.
To conclude, Kate Raworths plea

that if there is one task that merits
the attention of the twenty-first-
century economist, it is this: to come
up with economic designs that would
enable nations coming towards the
end of their GDP growth to learn to
thrive without it is something we
should all take a moment to
consider. It is on this notion I believe
that new economic policy can and
should be built as earths non-
renewable natural resources
continue to dwindle and we search
for alternative ways of sustaining
current living standards.
25
Is Physiological or Psychological Pain Worse?

Daniel Maghsoudi

almost 1000 times larger is needed for signals
To understand whether people struggle to travel similar distances because they simply
more with physiological or psychological pain, havent invented myelin, so much larger axons
we must first be able to clearly distinguish are required to ensure electricity still conducts
between the two. Physiological pain is defined through despite much faster dissipation of the
as a protective and useful response, enabling signal to surrounding tissues. [5, 6]
the individual rapidly and accurately to localize
and withdraw from the pain stimulus, to avoid Our neurons are unique as theyre
or reduce tissue damage [1] This is extremely nothing like wires: they can be constantly bent
useful in everyday life, and its importance can and deformed without damage whilst making
be emphasised by looking at congenital complex connections to other nerves via
analgesia, a condition which means patients dendrites and regularly being reshaped by
lack function of their peripheral nervous proteins, particularly in the brain.
system; this results in complete inability to feel Unfortunately, also unlike wires, neurons are
pain and leads to a severely decreased life terrible at conducting electricity; the resistance
expectancy due to repeat injuries and recurring in an axon from your hand to head is equal to
infections. [2] Without the ability to feel the resistance in a copper wire going from
mechanical pain we would be extremely Earth to Saturn and back 5 times. It is as a
vulnerable to the outside world. Psychological consequence of this that neurons can actually
pain, on the other hand, has no physical origin only carry a signal 3 micrometers without
but results in pain to a similar degree to amplification, and this is where action
physiological pain, and even stimulates a potentials are introduced.
corresponding area of the brain in the anterior
insula and the anterior cingulate cortex. [3]
However, whilst physiological pain has clear Action Potentials
benefits, psychological pain lacks a clear
evolutionary role, and often results in longer A typical neurone, without any
term suffering for no palpable improvement to electricity passing through, has a resting
chance of survival or quality of life which would potential of -70mV, meaning the inside is
warrant its existence. slightly more negatively charged than the
outside. When an electrical signal passes
through the neurone from nociceptors as a
How to we feel physiological pain result of an external stimulus, the
depolarization stage is initiated. Voltage gated
The ability to feel pain is so sodium ion channels line the neurone,
fundamental that we have specialised sensory predominantly in the Nodes of Ranvier, a small
neurons called nociceptors designed for this, gap between one Schwann cell and the next.
which are part of our system of cutaneous During depolarization, these gates are opened,
receptors in the skin. [4] They are able to detect triggered by an increase in the voltage from -
pain and send this message to the brain via the 70mV inside the axon to above the threshold of -
central nervous system. This message travels as 55mV. Na+ ions flood the axon to balance out
an electrical signal along myelinated neurons. the difference in charges, dramatically
This myelin sheath is a series of Schwann cells increasing the charge inside to +40mV, and
which surround the neurons in many layers, allowing the electrical signal to continue
and the fatty substance is able to insulate the moving by being amplified down to the next
neurons to reduce dissipation of the electrical group of sodium ion channels. Soon after this
signal and increase the speed of conduction. rapid increase in voltage, potassium channels
Myelin is what allows us to have such narrow open, so K+ ions flood out of the axon during
neurons at lengths of almost 2m with still repolarisation and reverse this change. [7] By
relatively fast conduction of 1-100 m/s; in understanding the mechanism by which we can
invertebrates such as squid, a giant axon feel pain, we have been able to develop
treatments to combat this.
26

How can physiological pain be Psychological Pain
treated?
This can include anything from verbal
Several revolutionary discoveries in the abuse to grief and heartbreak, and whilst the
late 18th and early 19th century led to the pain created is inextricably linked to the pain
development of anaesthesia. Local anaesthetic we feel from mechanical damage to cells, we
works over a small area, such as Novocaine have little understanding of how or why we feel
(Procaine) shots used by dentists before minor this, and there is therefore a serious lack of
operations. These are a synthesized, harmless effective medication to treat it.
form of cocaine which work by blocking the
voltage gated sodium ion channels described The links between mental and physical
previously. This means that whilst the pain do not only lie in the areas of the brain
nociceptors can detect the pain and a signal is they affect, but they can also often cause
sent, its inability to be amplified by action eachother. Chronic pain, which affects nearly
potentials means the brain does not detect this half of the British population, [12] has been
signal and you therefore do not feel the pain. [8] associated with significantly increased risk of
The other form is general anaesthesia which anxiety and depression, whilst these
affects the whole body and not only removes psychological issues can result in further
pain but also protective reflexes, allowing chronic pain from the resulting stress, creating
doctors to perform surgery without movements a dangerous positive feedback loop between the
or reactions from the patient. They are given as types of pain.
intravenous medication or an inhaled gas, and
whilst we do not completely understand its One of the physical indicators often
functionality, theories suggest it affects the associated with the psychological pain of the
brains to communicate with its different loss of a relationship is heartbreak. There are
sectors. [9] The anaesthetic can bind to the various potential explanations for why this
GABAA receptor in the brains neurons, arises, such as the anterior cingulate cortex
allowing a continuous flow of negative ions into causing over-stimulation of the vagus nerve
the cell to block electrical signals. [10] which runs down to the chest and abdomen,
tightening the muscles in the region.
Other forms of medication for Furthermore, emotional pain induces stress
physiological pain are painkillers such as which suppresses the production of dopamine
aspirin or ibuprofen. When you have an injury, and serotonin in the body, leading to less so-
chemicals called prostaglandins are released called happy hormones. These are replaced by
which lower the threshold at which nociceptors an influx of cortisol and epinephrine, resulting
are triggered; this is why even the touch of a the brain preparing for fight or flight and
shirt on sunburnt skin can hurt so much the pumping additional blood to the muscles. This
body makes the area extremely sensitive to leads to inflammation, a stiff neck, headaches,
ensure you protect it and allow it to heal and the commonly known squeezing feeling in
properly. Painkillers such as aspirin work by the chest area from muscle contraction and
permanently or temporarily disabling the vasodilation in the area.
enzymes Cox-1 and Cox-2, which convert the
arachidonic acid released by damaged cells into Psychological pain is also known to have
prostaglandin. By doing this, the pain threshold more serious effects, such as severe short-term
remains high, not just in the damaged area but stressors which cause Takotsubo
throughout the body. [11] cardiomyopathy. This is unflatteringly named
after a Japanese octopus pot, and results in the
Overall, physiological pain can be sudden weakening of the muscles in the walls of
extremely harmful and agonizing, but the most the heart which expands the shape of the
significant pain is often short term and our ventricle into an octopus pot. [13] The causes
deep understanding of the mechanisms behind can range from arguments and fear of public
its functionality mean a large variety of speaking to more serious things such as grief,
treatments are available, not only the ones whilst some cases definitively show that you
mentioned above but also potentially stronger really can die from a broken heart.
opioids such as morphine, meaning physical
pain is often not too serious or long-term for
most people.
27
sense/201204/emotional-and-physical-pain-
activate-similar-brain-regions
Conclusion [4] Dubin, A.E. and Patapoutian, A.
(2010) Nociceptors: The sensors of the pain
Overall, both physiological and pathway, 120(11).
psychological pain have their difficulties and set [5] Sims, D. (2014) Inside the Squid
of associated causes and symptoms. However, if Giant Axon, The Marine Biologist, (3), p. 28.
a distinction is to be made, severe psychological [6]
pain can be worse than physiological pain, as its http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.u
effects can be more deeply felt, longer lasting, k/animals/10-facts/squid/
and easily triggered by memories. Additionally, [7] http://hyperphysics.phy-
emotional pain simply has no cure other than astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/actpot.html
therapy and simply moving through the pain [8] http://www.livescience.com/33731-
until it subsides. In conclusion, the most anesthesia-work.html
important thing to remember is that whilst [9] https://www.drugs.com/drug-
psychological pain does have some medical and class/general-anesthetics.html
scientific basis, it is predominantly a self- [10]
induced, mentally-created pain which can be http://www.medicaldaily.com/pulse/going-
dealt with through will-power and time alone. under-how-anesthesia-works-human-body-
364498
[11]
References https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mcuIc5O-
DE
[1] http://medical- [12]
dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/physiological+ http://www.nhs.uk/news/2016/06June/Pages/Al
pain most-half-of-all-UK-adults-may-be-living-with-
[2] chronic-pain.aspx
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/congenital- [13] https://www.bhf.org.uk/heart-
insensitivity-to-pain health/conditions/cardiomyopathy/takotsubo-
[3] cardiomyopathy
https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/body-

28
Newnham College, Cambridge- Weston-

Smith Physical Sciences Essay Prize
Josephine Jones won first place in the Weston-Smith Physical Sciences Essay Prize
with her essay on symmetry and the laws of nature.
Symmetry and The Laws Of Nature
Physics aims to establish a set of rules translation in space or time universal laws
that describe nature precisely and completely. apply equally to Rome in 1989 as they would to
Existing laws have given us a glimpse of her Mars in 3050. In figure 1, Rafiki holds Simba x
beauty and simplicity, namely that reality is metres above the ground. If the cub has mass
infallible, unyielding and astonishingly m, his gravitational potential energy is mgx.
symmetric. But what is symmetry? The force acting on Simba is the negative of the
Fundamentally, it is defined as consistency derivative of his potential energy with respect
under a tranformation, like a butterfly "($%&)
to his position, so F=- =-mg. If Rafiki
"&
fluttering in a world identical in every direction.
climbs a hill, however, Simbas potential energy
We shall explore the importance of this
increases by some constant, E to mgx+E. The
principle through a chronology of scientific " #$% " '
theory and evaluate its necessity in force will now be - "% + -
"%
. As E is a
understanding the laws of nature. constant, its derivative is zero and thus
" #$%
F= - "% 0 =-mg, which is the same as at
the bottom of the hill.
Symmetry in space and time
Simple yet profound, symmetry
demands that physics doesnt change under a
x
m Figure 1: Rafiki lifts
Simba above the
ground
x
m E
Furthermore, if Rafiki faced the other Galileo believed, however, that time
way, the force acting on Simba would not was absolute. Two and a half centuries after his
change. Thus the laws of nature are symmetric death, Albert Einstein, accepting that time
under rotations in space. slows when travelling near the speed of light,
made the laws of physics independent of
Inertia presents another space-time
acceleration. He wove space and time into a
symmetry. Newtons third law of motion states
single entity and developed his theory of special
that an object will be in a state of inertia,
relativity to show that distances in space-time
stationary or travelling at a constant speed
are identical to all observers. This theory was
when there is no resultant force acting on it.
derived from a crucial symmetric axiom,
Further, Galilean relativity suggests that
suggested by Maxwells equations of
physics is the same for any body in such an
electromagnetism the speed of light is
inertial reference frame.
constant in nature.
29
CPT Symmetry
Parity (P) symmetry states that laws of physics anything can exist when matter and antimatter
are also consistent under reflections in space. annihilate upon meeting. Differences in how
D-carvone and L-carvone are non- matter and antimatter decay could explain why
superimposable mirror images of one another. there is more matter in the universe. But even
While chemically distinguishable, with L- one exception necessitates we reject these
carvone smelling like spearmint and D-carvone theories as symmetries of nature, what Thomas
like caraway, physically, they are identical. For Huxley would call the slaying of a beautiful
example, both rotate plane-polarised light by hypothesis by an ugly fact.
61.
That said, in 1900, Max Planck
Galileo believed time to be like a clock published a paper that marked the birth of
ticking somewhere separate from the universe. quantum mechanics. It was the physicist Paul
Physical laws are mathematically time Dirac who attempted to consolidate this field
reversible, however, dismantling Galileos with special relativity, writing an equation in
ideology. This is T symmetry, in which we can 1928 to which there are always two solutions
replace t with t and those laws are unchanged. (just as 9 can be +3 or -3). This is explained by
The exception is the second law of antimatter; for every particle there is an
thermodynamics, which states that the entropy antiparticle with the same mass but opposite
of a system always increases. Perhaps time, quantum charges e.g. opposite electric charge. A
then, is progression along an entropic gradient, symmetry exists by which matter and
by which the future is more uncertain than the antimatter are interchangeable - a car built
past. Arguably, it only seems uncertain because entirely of antimatter particles will work just as
we are unable to consider every particle in a well as a regular one. This is called charge (C)
system. If we could, would time appear parity and can restore the symmetry of weak
reversible? interactions. It is now hypothesised that if C,P
and T are performed consecutively, the laws of
Experiments have shown, however, that
nature remain do indeed remain symmetric.
P and T symmetries are violated in weak
interactions. This helps to understand why
The Standard Model
Diracs work also initiated quantum field

theory (QFT), which sees the universe as a
collection of fields, the excitations of which
present themselves as the fundamental
particles. In the 1970s, a theory combining 20th
century developments in particle physics was
built (figure 2). This is the standard model,
which illustrates the relationships between the
fundamental particles and the fundamental
forces of nature (except gravity). There are two
types of matter particle quarks and leptons,
which both have integer spins. The lightest
particles make up the first generation and the
heaviest the third. There are then the gauge
bosons, with integer spins, that are exchanged
between matter particles to communicate the
electromagnetic, weak and strong forces.
The wave function () first appeared in
the equations of Erwin Schrodinger. Finding
the square of a particles wave function will
Figure 2: The standard model give the probability of finding it at that position
at that time. The probability density of a
system containing two particles, p1 and p2 is
30
thus denoted (p$ , p& ) 2. A symmetry within the case(p1,p2)=-(p2,p1) is achieved with
standard model states fundamental particles of particles of half integer spin, which we call
the same type are indistinguishable, fermions. Zero is the only number that is a
therefore !(#$ , #& ) 2= !(#$ , #& ) 2. There are two negative of itself so we see that the probability
solutions to this equation. We get the of two fermions occupying the same space is
symmetric case(p1,p2)= (p2,p1) when nothing. So, again, symmetry is integral to the
exchanging particles with integer or zero spin, standard model.
these are classified as bosons. The asymmetric
Gauge Theories
Although gauge symmetry is rooted in the 19th Thus, you may presume the electrons state has
century with the discovery of electromagnetism, changed as it now has a different frequency.
it was the development of QFT that highlighted Upon closer inspection, however, you see that
its importance. Some properties of particle the numbers on the watch face are also
fields, are measurable (e.g. the charge), whereas rotating. Every time the hand moves one
others (e.g. the phase) are not. A gauge theory forward, the numbers move one back, so the
is one in which there is a group of hand passes the twelve with the original
transformations that can be performed on a frequency. This mystical force interfering with
field, without changing its observable our numbers is called the gauge field. When we
quantities. accelerate the electron, giving it more energy
and thus changing its frequency, the gauge field
Imagine freezing a satin scarf as it is
manifests itself as a physical particle that is
being shaken in the air. We can use this as a
emitted from the electron, compensating for the
model for an electrons wave field; there is a
change we have made. The system
high probability of finding the electron at a hill
incorporating both particles thus remains
and a low probability where there is a dip. If a
invariant despite our transformation. This is
watch is placed at each point of space-time on
gauge symmetry. I like to compare this to the
the scarf, the number of times the second hand
useless box game (figure 3). A switch is flicked,
passes twelve in a given time is called the
triggering a mechanical arm that flicks it back
frequency. The watches are not particularly
again, leaving the system unchanged.
well made, however, and they begin to slow.
Figure 3: Useless box

The gauge boson in the example colour, and there are three forms red, blue
above is a photon. It communicates the and yellow. Quantum chromodynamics is a
gauge theory concerning colour transformation.
electromagnetic force. For example, a For example, a
photon emitted by one electron and red quark can
absorbed by another causes them to turn into a blue
repel, as shown by the Feynman quark by the
diagram in figure 4. This theory is emission of a
gauge boson
called quantum electrodynamics. called the
gluon. The
Omega-minus is a subatomic particle gluon will
composed of three strange quarks. We have consist of a red
seen, however, that identical fermions cannot
quark
occupy the same point in space. There must be and an Figure 4: Feynman diagram of
something about these quarks, therefore,
making them distingusishable. We call this
antiblue electron repulsion
quark.
31
Blue and antiblue cancel out and thus the This extra mass is borrowed in the form of
overal colour of the system is still red. The energy from the vacuum. According to
gluon confers the strong force, which holds Heisenbergs inequality, the product of the time
particles in the nucleus together. and the energy must be less than the planck
constant. The energy can thus only be borrowed
A third gauge theory called quantum
for a very short time and the W-boson quickly
flavour dynamics explains the weak force. A
decays into an electron and a neutrino. We now
neutron consists of two down quarks and an up
have a down quark and two up quarks, which is
quark (udd). One of the down quarks can
a proton. In this way, guage symmetries explain
change its flavour to become an up quark by
the forces between all particles and waves in
the emission of a W- boson. This particle has a
the universe.
mass eighty times greater than the neutron.
Conservation Laws
Now we have established some of the and racquets momentum is consequently zero,
ways in which nature is symmetric, we must the same as before the impact, so momentum is
consider the consequences of her being so. In conserved. Furthermore, the conservation of
1915, Emmy Noether proved that every energy results from symmetry under a
physical symmetry bears a conservation law. translation in time and states that energy
Firstly, translational symmetry in space means cannot be created or destroyed.
that momentum is conserved. When Andy
Thirdly, angular momentum is the
Murray hits a ball, the ball exerts a force on the
amount of drive an object has while moving in
racquet (F1,2) and the racquet on the ball (F2,1).
a circle. It is calculated by the product of the
Newtons third law of motion states that every
radius, mass and velocity. Angular momentum
action has an equal and opposite reaction and
is always conserved due to the invariance of
thus F2,1=-F1,2. Impulse is the product of the
physical laws under a rotation in space.
force and time and because both forces act for
Imagine a ballerina who can pirouette
the same amount of time, the impulse applied
infinitely, holding her arms sideways as she
to the ball is therefore equal and opposite of
does so. If she retracts her arms, she will turn
that on the racquet. Newtons second law states
faster. This is because her radius has decreased
that a force on an object is the same as its rate
!(#$) so her velocity must increase to conserve her
of change of momentum(F= ) and hence, momentum. The ideas of conservation granted
!&
impulse is equivalent to the change in by symmetry have been key tools in solving
momentum. The sum of the balls momentum many physical problems.
Breaking Symmetry
The destruction of symmetry is of

equal importance. For example, a javelin
balanced on its point, can fall at any angle,
so the probability distribution is symmetric
about the point. If the javelin is disturbed,
however, it can only fall in one direction. We
say the symmetry has been simultaneously
broken.16
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
(SSB) is seen with ferromagnetic materials.
At high temperatures, there is rotational
symmetry because the spins of the atoms
are random. When the temperature is
sufficiently low, however, their spins align,
breaking the symmetry and creating a
magnetic field. In another example of SSB,
Figure 5: There was originally one force
that broke into the four fundamental forces32
we recognise now.
there was a single force immediately after the big bang. As the temperature cooled and entropy
increased, the force spontaneously
broke into the four fundamental forces we see however, causing the bead to roll into the
now. (figure 5) trough. It is now stable, but the field has a
value, meaning it can interact with other fields.
It is believed that particles are given
This interaction causes the bead to roll up and
mass by moving the Higgs field, which is spread
down the sides of the trough, and it is called the
through the universe. The potential energy of
Higgs boson when it does so. On 4th July 2014,
this field has a shape comparable to the bottom
the Higgs boson was detected by the Large
of a wine bottle (figure 6). If a bead is poised on
Hadron Collider (LHC) in Geneva.
the indent where the field value is zero, there is
symmetry. This is unstable and easily broken,
Figure 6: The Higgs field can be represented by a shape similar to the bottom of a
wine bottle
The LHC, however, has been unable to the universe. For example, dark matter could be
prove another principle called supersymmetry the lightest of all supersymmetric particles,
(SUSY). SUSY suggests that for every fermion, which only weakly interacts with other
there exists a supersymmetric boson, unifying particles. We do not, however, have sensitive
force and matter. SUSY is an example of how enough equipment to validate this yet.
symmetry could solve some of the mysteries of
The Necessity of Symmetry

understand the universe. In identifying
symmetries, we have built news laws, such as
Symmetry, particularly
Noethers theorem. Conversely, other laws, such
supersymmetry, has the potential to explain the
as Diracs equation have revealed the hidden
universe beyond the ability of the standard
symmetry of reality. Whether these patterns
model. Could this lead to the grand unification
are real or our creation, there is no doubt they
theory physicists yearn for? We must question
form the backbone of modern physics. Yet we
whether the universe is fundamentally
have ignored the most astonishing thing of all -
symmetric or whether this is a perception (It is
the laws of nature themselves. Why should
proved that humans have symmetry bias and
there exist a universal, unchanging set of rules
find symmetric faces more attractive.) Do we
that can predict the future? In the words of
only demand symmetry of nature because it is
Eugene Wigner; it is not at all natural that
easier to understand? Perhaps, but symmetry
"laws of nature" exist, much less that man is
has been proved through objective
able to discover them.
experimentation: there have been no signs of
CPT violation, the Higgs boson exists and in
2016, LIGO detected gravitational waves, the
predictions of a theory built on symmetry. Yet
symmetry is mathematical and thus dubious -
is mathematics natural or invented?
So is symmetry a necessity in
understanding the laws of nature? Symmetry
provides a tool with which to simplify and
33
Extended Projects
The Extended Project allows A-level students to plan, manage, realise and then
review a topic in depth. Many of the dissertations produced by year 13 students
are close to the standard of undergraduate level work, and some of the best have
been published in this journal.
Misunderstanding chance
How does it happen and why does it matter?
Richard Moulange
2. Abstract statistics: the practice or science of

collecting and analysing numerical
The aim of this project was to data in large quantities, especially
research different common statistical for the purpose of inferring
and probabilistic fallacies: how they proportions in a whole from those in
work, where they appear, and their a representative sample.
significance. They are prolific in our probability: the extent to which an
society, but mostly ignored, both event is likely to occur, measured by
because of a lack of mathematical the ratio of the favourable cases to
education and a reluctance to the whole number of cases possible
confront the issue because they can
be used to hold people to account. fallacy: a failure in reasoning which
They are more complex than people renders an argument invalid
might think, but still with a better natural frequency: the joint
mathematical curriculum anyone frequency of two events; an
would be able to successfully alternative to presenting information
understand and avoid them. The in conditional probabilities
solution seems to be to educate
First three definitions from Oxford English Dictionary;
people about probability and the fourth from a paper by Gerd Gigerenzer in the
chancenot necessarily rigorously, British Medical Journal
but enough for them to be able to
interpret data successfully and not
3. Introduction
be misled. Misunderstanding chance
is a very important issue: it affects 3.1 Research Question
many areas of our society:
government, national security, the I chose to investigate risk, and
medical profession, the gambling some of the common misconceptions
industry, and others. that appear when interpreting risk,
which is usually expressed in terms
of statistics and chance. These are
examples of fallacies. In particular I
2.1 Key definitions am discussing statistical and
probabilistic fallacies.
34
2010), and contributes to expensive

3.2 Rationale and dangerous inefficiencies within
the security services (Schneier,
The initial rationale was to 2005). Simple, avoidable mistakes
study a mathematical topic to can often have severe consequences
support my application to university both for an individual and a society
to read mathematics. A problem as a whole, since policymakers are
immediately presented itself: how to often informed by apparently reliable
discuss mathematics, an often rigid, statistics (Goldacre, 2008).
unyielding topic, based on rigorous This raises questions about
proof, in a questioning, discursive the competence of juries and
way? I considered picking some as politicians, and their lack of
yet unsolved problem to discuss, in statistical knowledge. While
order to evaluate different statistical expertise is not expected,
approaches and ideas about solving better mathematical education and
it, but dismissed this because such more investment in the public
problems are currently inaccessible understanding of risk would perhaps
to me, and therefore likely to be be worthwhile legislative goals. But
difficult for any future audience. So, it is not only untrained people who
I decided I must consider simple misunderstand probabilistic science:
applied mathematics. I chose this doctorsprofessionals whom we
area of mathematics because it has a might expect to have a much better,
more immediate influence on society if not expert, appreciation of risk
and collective public wellbeing than have been shown to make the same
pure mathematics (Magid, 2005, p. mistakes (Goldacre, 2012). This does
1173). I preferred to research lend credence to the suggestion that
statistical fallacies because they are there are psychological biases at
often simple intuitive mistakes (H. work, particularly in the case of
Spirer, L. Spirer, & Jaffe, 1998), and natural frequencies. This could mean
therefore are hopefully easier to it would also be important to
explain. More importantly, from investigate these predispositions, in
undertaking research previously on order to highlight when human
the misuse of statistics within the cognitive shortcuts are misleading.
medical industry, I knew that it can Statistical fallacies are also
have a profound and sometimes merely interesting to study for their
devastating impact on the lives and own sake: there is a great
wellbeing of patients (Goldacre, satisfaction derived from seeing why
2012), and that such problems can an instinctive solution is actually
persist for decades. flawed, discovering the hidden
After some very brief research, subtleties and pitfalls awaiting an
it became apparent that a basic lack unwary assumption.
of mathematical understanding has But this is intellectual vanity.
also led to miscarriages of justice False imprisonment, misguided
within the judicial system (Royal public policy, misidentification of
Statistical Society, 2001), has terrorists, and even ineffective
enabled the gambling industry to medicine have been ignored, even
hurt millions of people each year tolerated, because the public is
(Barron, Greg, Leider, & Stephen, unable to spot easy mistakes.
35
Without better mathematics A causes B

education, they cannot hold public (direct causation)
and private officials to account. B causes A
Without the public understanding of (reverse
risk, we make decisions blind. causation)
A causes B and B causes A
3.3 Ethical Aspects of the (bidirectional or
Research Question cyclic causation)
A causes C which causes B
There are no ethical concerns (indirect
with my research question. However, causation)
there will be evaluation of the A and B are caused by C
effectiveness of juries untrained in (common cause)
evidence-based reasoning, and but are not by each other
discussion the gambling and tobacco No causality between A and B
industries, and these issues could be (correlation is a
considered controversial. coincidence)
4. Discussion
4.1 Choosing Which
Misconceptions to Discuss
4.2.1 Simpsons paradox and
There are many different confounding variables.
statistical fallacies. Strasak, Zaman,
Pfeiffer, Gbel & Ulmer (2007) The most significant relationship
identified 47 different statistical is the common cause, which is better
errors common in medical research known as a confounding variable, C
alone. It is not feasible, or sensible, is overlooked, and A and B are
to discuss them all. Fortunately, assumed to have a direct or reverse
Sutherland, Spiegelhalter & causation. An example of this was
Burgman (2013) identified some of that ecologists used to believe
the most important fallacies in their poisonous algae killed fish in
advice to non-scientists examining estuaries; it turned out that the
evidence and interrogating advisers. algae grew where the fish died. The
This, coupled with Spirer et al. algae did not cause the deaths
(1998), allowed me to create a (Borsuk, Stow & Reckhow, 2003).
shortlist to discuss, though it is Confounding variables are
neither complete nor rigorous. I have important because they can mislead
also tried to discuss more significant people to believe that there is some
fallacies first, although this list that form of direct causality, and then
follows is not a definitive order. decisions and solutions are based on
this mistake. This mistake was made
4.2 Correlation vs Causation when doctors interpreted Charig.
Webb, Payne & Wickham (1986).
Consider two events: A and B. If Charig et al. (1986) compared two
they are correlated, there are six treatments for kidney stones,
possible relationships between them:
36
studying their effectiveness against versa. This counterintuitive result

both larger and smaller stones. meant that patients needlessly
They found that Treatment A was suffered and died (Julious & Mullee,
more effective than Treatment B at 1994). It is important to note that
both treating smaller, less severe here trained medical experts were
stones, and larger, more severe misled. It is not only the general
stones. However, when the public who make statistical errors.
treatments were compared without However, Pearl (2000) argues
considering severity, Treatment B that one cannot choose the
appeared more effective. partitioned data. While it is clear in
the example above that Treatment A
should be chosen regardless of
Treatment A Treatment B
whether the size of the stone is
87% known, Pearl shows that data could
Small 93% (81/87) be easily partitioned into arbitrary
(234/270)
stones [Group 1] sub-categories and artificially
[Group 2]
73% constructed to imply the wrong
Large 69% (55/80)
(192/263) treatment. Worse still, he shows that
stones [Group 4]
[Group 3] with the same set of data, you cannot
78% 83% be sure whether the partitioned or
Both
(273/350) (289/350) aggregate form is appropriate: each
case must be studied individually.
Figure 1: comparing two treatments Moreover, Simpsons Paradox

for kidney stones with respect is not limited to complex clinical trial
to size of stone results. Pavlides and Perlman (2009)
prove that a 2x2x2 table with
This is an example of uniform distribution will show
Simpsons paradox (Julious & Simpsons paradox exactly 1 in every
Mullee, 1994). This happened for two 60 times. Kock (2015) went further
reasons. First, the sizes of the groups to suggest that Simpsons paradox
were ignored, so the totals were would occur in path models with two
dominated by the larger groups 2 predictors and one criterion variable
and 3, as was the fact that doctors slightly more than 1 in every 8
usually treated more severe cases times.
with treatment A and milder cases Thus, this is a simple, but
with treatment B. Second, the counter-intuitive result that is very
confounding variable has a likely to affect ordinary people in
significant effect on the percentage their daily lives. Incorporating the
success of each group. This is study of such phenomena into
evidenced by group 3 doing worse standard mathematical curricula
than group 2 because they had a might be a possible solution.
larger stones, despite their having a Certainly, scientific and medical
more effective treatment. To professionals should have a more
summarise: the less effective rigorous statistical education.
treatment (B) was applied more Gigerenzer (2014) identifies severe
frequently to milder cases, and misunderstandings on the part of
appeared more effective, and vice doctor and medical researchers, with
37
respect both to correlation and the The base-rate fallacy is again

base-rate fallacy. significant within the medical
profession, but also in the case of
4.2.2 Correlation is sometimes national security. This fallacy has
useful. significant social and economic
impacts because billions of pounds
Correlation is necessary in are spent each year on counter-
science. Sometimes it is difficult or terrorism operations. These
ethically impossible to run operations are sometimes far less
randomised controlled trials that are effective than they appear, and are
double-blind, so correlational organised by people who do not have
evidence becomes more useful a basic understanding of risk, which
(Novella, 2009). Since anecdotal compromises their ability to keep the
evidence and observational and public safe. Indeed, this example
cohort studies are less rigorous, highlights the importance of policy-
caveats do appear: usually much makers having, not necessarily an
more evidence is required. But expert understanding of risk, but the
Novella argues that society is too tools to correctly understand and
quick the dismiss correlation, in part interpret the statistical information
due to the ubiquitous nature of the they are given. This was the aim of
phrase correlation does not imply Sutherland, Spiegelhalter &
causation. Indeed, the tobacco Burgman (2013).
industry has historically relied on
dismissing correlational evidence to 4.3.1 National security.
reject the link between tobacco and
lung cancer. Mathematically, the base-rate
fallacy appears when the relative
To be clear, the 1951 British sizes of population subgroups are
Doctors Study of 40,701 registered ignored when judging the likelihood
physicians proved in 1956 that of contingent events involving the
tobacco greatly increases the risk of subgroups.
lung cancer, myocardial infarction Schneier (2012) highlights this
and other respiratory diseases. This when criticising the mass
was a cohort study, not a randomised surveillance programmes of the
controlled trial. It would now be United States National Security
illegal to run a randomised Agency. Consider the 300 million
controlled trial investigating the people in the United States of
effects of smoking because America. Suppose that 1 in 100,000
researchers would be knowingly of them is a terrorist (which is likely
exposing participants to severe risks. to be an overestimate). Now suppose
Thus, cohort studies, which rely on the NSA have an unreasonably
identifying correlations, can be accurate data-mining programme
useful. that correctly identifies terrorists
99.9% of the time. Suppose its rate of
4.3 Base-rate fallacy false positives is also extreme at
0.1%. Thus in 300 million people, we
would expect 3,000 terrorists, of
38
which 2,997 would be identified. But gynaecologists by Gerd Gigerenzer

299,997 innocent civilians would also between 2006 and 2007:
be chosen, so the chances of A 50-year-old woman, no
randomly picking a terrorist from symptoms, participates in
the short list would actually be just routine mammography
under 1%. screening. She tests positive,
But some argue that of course is alarmed, and wants to know
terrorists wouldnt be picked at from you whether she has
random, and thus this system is breast cancer for certain or
useful for creating a short list. But what the chances are. Apart
no matter what, these 302,994 would from the screening results,
have to be investigated further, and you know nothing else about
police and intelligence services this woman. Approximately
would drown in false positives. how many women who test
Mathematically such data-mining is positive actually have breast
infeasible. cancer?
The budget of the NSA is $10 9 in 10
billion each year. According to 8 in 10
Snowden (2013) a large proportion of 1 in 10
this is spent on data-mining efforts 1 in 100
like Prism. There is compelling
evidence that these are likely to be
very ineffective. Yet Congress Figure 2: an unexpected frequency
continues to fund these programmes tree for a routine mammography
because politicians do not screening.
understand or choose to ignore the
fact that because the risk of u
terrorism is so small, these methods r
of security are a waste of money. Of e
course, an alternative suggestion is
that politicians are unconcerned 1. The probability that a
woman has breast cancer is 2
about the mathematics: no matter :
what the numbers say, it is 1%
2. If a woman has breast
politically inexpedient to ever a
cancer, the probability that
suggest a reduction in state security. n
she tests positive is 90%
3. If a woman does not have
4.3.2 Cancer screening. breast cancer, the probability e
Effectively the same problem was that she nevertheless tests x
given to 1,000 practising positive is 9% p
e
c
t
e
d
f
r
e
q
39
u
e
n
Only 21% said the correct result of 1

in 10 (see figure 1), and nearly half
said 9 in 10. This is a very troubling
result. While this study was not
rigorous, it still highlights a serious
problem within our health system. Figure 3: numbers of deaths, false-
If medical professionals positives and unnecessary
cannot correctly interpret the results treatments of prostate cancer for
of screening tests, then patients men aged 50 or older, not
could be unnecessarily exposed to participating vs participating in
painful and risky treatments. early detection for 11 years
Moreover, crucial funding is
provided for these screenings when
they are less effective than the public
realises. Gigerenzer (2007) identified 4.3.3 Natural frequencies.
that the National Institute for
Clinical and Health Excellence was Although the concept of
correct not to fund early detection natural frequency is applicable to
prostate cancer screening because any of the fallacies discussed, it
although the survival rate at first seems to fit best here. There is
appeared higher in the USA, where growing evidence that natural
this is common, the actual number of frequencies are a much better way of
deaths per 1000 did not change: representing probabilities than
fractions, percentages or decimals.
(Akl et al, 2011). Luckily,
Spiegelhalter and Gage, 2015, also
found that this was preferred by
medical professionals, and supported
40
by psychological research recommendation to patients.

(Gigerenzer, 2008). Alternative views on cancer
Issues with fractions include screening range from those who
ratio bias and denominator neglect. reject the mathematics in question,
A population survey by telephone to more reasonable groups, such as
(Galesic and Garcia-Retamero, 2010) Cancer Research UK, who
asked misrepresent the mathematics: for
Which of the following every life saved from breast cancer
numbers represents the biggest risk by screening, around 3 women are
of getting a disease: overdiagnosed, and suggest that
1 in 100, 1 in 1000, 1 in 10? removing funding for breast cancer
In Germany, 28% of responses were screening will lead to a loss of
incorrect and in the USA 25% got it awareness and funding for breast
wrong. This is problem with using cancer treatment. There is little
larger numbers to communicate a empirical evidence to support this
smaller risk. But the alternatives position, but it does have some merit.
also have their issues. Using 20 out But the money might be better spent
of 100, for example, could also be elsewhere.
expressed as 200 out of 1,000. But But the National Institute for
the latter tends to appear bigger Clinical and Health Excellence
(Denes-Raj, Epstein & Cole, 1995) cannot make that decision: it lies
due to human tendency to focus on with the Department of Health, led
the numerator. In extreme cases, by mathematically-illiterate
this leads to denominator neglect: politicians.
the media does this every time they It must also be remembered
focus on one road traffic accident that breast cancer is a politically
without mentioning that millions of divisive topic, and defunding such
children arrive safely at school each screening could have a political
day. disadvantage. However, there is good
Spiegelhalter and Gage evidence that women with a family
concluded that expected frequency history of breast cancer should have
trees were the best way to express regular screening from when they
natural frequencies in a simple, turn 40 (Johnson, 2014).
visual way. For example:
4.4 Prosecutors fallacy
There are several different

fallacies associated with prosecutors.
The most well-known is Meadows
Figure 4: Expectations for 200
Law, which was significant in the
women attending or not attending
Sally Clark case. Thus, I will discuss
breast screening every 3 years
the other two fallacies first.
between the ages of 50 and 70.
It is important to note that the 4.4.1 Argument from rarity.

working group which produced the
breast cancer expected frequency This is a simple fallacy, but
trees deliberately did not make a very widespread. Consider a lottery
41
winner who has been accused of

cheating. The prosecutor argues that 4.4.3 Meadows Law.
the chances of winning the lottery
without cheating is very small, and This is not a law at all. Roy
then assigns this as the chance of the Meadow was struck off the medical
winners innocence. The prosecutor register in July 2005 by the GMC for
fails to take into account the large tendering misleading evidence. In
number of people who play the 1999, he was an expert witness at
lottery. This was seen with Paul the the trial of Sally Clark, was who
Octupus. If Paul did predict football accused of murdering her two infant
match winners at random, then the sons. Meadow testified that the
chance of predicting six correctly in a probability of two such deaths
row was 1 in 64, which is quite occurring naturally as Sudden Infant
unlikely. But there were probably Death Syndrome, or cot-death, was 1
many animals that were made to do in 73 million. He obtained this figure
similar predictions all over the by squaring 1 in 8500: the ratio of
world, but the media only focussed cot-deaths to births in affluent, non-
on the successful one. smoking families (which Clarks
family could be considered to be).
4.4.2 Multiple testing. The Royal Statistical Societys
criticism that followed was twofold.
Suppose a crime-scene DNA First, Meadow assumed that cot-
sample is compared against deaths within a single family were
a database of 20,000 men. A match is statistically independent events. He
found, that man is accused and at did not consider that the occurrence
his trial, it is testified that the of one cot-death might suggest that
probability that two DNA profiles another infant in the same house
match by chance is only 1 in 10,000. would also be vulnerable.
This does not mean the probability In fact, subsequent analysis
that the suspect is innocent is 1 in estimated a probability of 1 in 100
10,000. Since 20,000 men were (Hill, 2004). Second, he committed
tested, there were 20,000 the standard prosecutors fallacy:
opportunities to find a match by confusing the probability of cause
chance. Even if none of the men in given effect: the true likelihood of a
the database left the crime-scene suspects innocence, with that of
DNA, a match by chance to an effect given cause: the likelihood
innocent is more likely than not. The that innocence will result in
probability of getting at least one observed double cot-death. These two
match by chance among the records quantities can be equated only when
is: the alternative hypothesis, murder,
is almost certain. Murder is a very
unlikely event, and double murder of
ones own children still rarer, so this
logical leap was completely
unfounded.
Hill, 2002, attempted to
compare the likelihoods of the two
likely combinations: two SIDS
42
deaths, and double homicide (other not meant to be experts: their non-
explanations like one homicide and expertise is what allows them to act
one SIDS were reasonably ignored), as peers, and that any system to
and concluded that repeated train jurors in probabilistic methods
accidents were between 4.5 and 9 would be inefficient. This is an
times more likely than repeated unfair representation of the previous
murder, suggesting that the chances suggestion: better compulsory
of Sally Clarks innocence were mathematical education would
between 80% and 90%. However, negate the need for special juror
most importantly, Hill included a training, and the claim that their
caveat: guilt must be proven on the lack of mathematical understanding
basis of forensic and other evidence makes them better jurors is
and not on the basis of these unsubstantiated.
statistics alone. While a jury does
effectively judge how likely they 4.5 Gamblers fallacy
think it is that a suspect has
committed a crime, this is based on The gamblers fallacy is the
probabilities drawn from specific mistaken belief that if something
pieces of evidence related to a case, happens more or less frequently than
and not population wide percentages. normal in the present, the frequency
of that event will be opposite in the
4.4.4 Effects. future, in order for the system to
remain balanced. This is most
In the Sally Clark case, a commonly associated with gamblers
whole courtroom of peoplemany of (Jonah, 2009), but this phenomenon
whom were legal expertsfailed to can appear in other situations, such
spot basic statistical errors. As a as childbirth.
result, Sally Clark was convicted and
spent three years in prison. She
4.5.1 Childbirth.
developed a number of serious
psychiatric problems, including
The gamblers fallacy has
serious alcohol dependency, and died
been applied to childbirth for
in 2007 from acute alcohol poisoning.
centuries, with expectant parents
These paradoxes, mistakes
hoping for a certain sex of child,
and counter-intuitive results cause
usually a boy (Barron and Leider,
needless suffering and death. Judges
2010).
certainly need better statistical and
In 1796, Laplace observed that
probabilistic training (Aitken,
fathers would become anxious if
Roberts & Jackson, 2010). But the
several boys were born in their
evidence suggests that jurors also
community when their wives were
ought to understand uncertainty
pregnant because it would mean that
better. Once again, this can only
they would be more likely to have a
come through better mathematical
daughter instead of a son.
education and a greater emphasis on
Another mistaken belief was
mathematics that people will use
expecting a child of a different sex,
throughout their lives, such as
after having had several children of
probability. On the other hand,
a particular sex. There is an
Clark, 2012, argues that jurors are
43
alternative explanation for this individual pointthe chances of red,

misconception however: the Trivers- black and green are
Willard hypothesis (Trivers & unchangedGrint found that
Willard, 1973) suggests that female gamblers were lucky to remain in the
mammals are able to adjust their casino for longer when they believed
offspring sex ratio in response to that their luck would turn. Still,
their maternal conditions. In one could say that the casinos are
particular, they would invest more in merely providing their customers
male offspring in better conditions, with more information, allowing
and in female offspring in worse them to make an informed decision.
conditions. Nevertheless, even if this But they are aware that they are
is true, scientific consensus is that deliberately trying to manipulate
sex ratio is nearly completely gamblers to make more money.
random (James, 2008), suggesting However, there are some
that expecting a child of a certain sex situations where having these boards
based on the sexes of previous would be useful. Gonzalo Garcia-
children is wrong. Pelayo analysed roulette wheel
information from casinos all over
4.5.2 Gambling. Madrid and found that some were
broken and landed on certain colours
Consider the repeated toss of more than others. He used this to
a fair coin. The outcomes are win $1.5 million over several years,
statistically independent so no before he was eventually banned.
matter the unlikelihood of an
individual sequence of heads and 5. Conclusion
tails, all outcomes for a certain
number of tosses are equally likely. It is clear that people
The possibility of 5 heads in a row misunderstand uncertainty in many
for example is 1 in 32. Someone different ways. Often it can involve
subscribing to the gamblers fallacy paradoxes and counter-intuitive
might think that the next flip would resultsclearly psychological biases
be more likely to be a tail because and heuristic approaches contribute
there have been several heads to these misconceptions. It also
previously. But this would be stems from a lack of probabilistic
incorrect: the probability of six heads mathematical education: it is
in a row and five heads and a tail difficult for people to spot these
would be equally likely at 1 in 64. mistakes if they are unaware of
Casinos deliberately encourage them, and they cannot rectify them
clientele to fall for this fallacy by without being given the intellectual
posting the histories of roulette tools to do so. That said, many of this
wheels next to the tables (Grint, fallacies are very simple, and as
2005). shown by the number of
Gamblers see small runs on mathematics guides written for non-
the boards, which are due only to mathematicians, it is possible to
random variation, and assume these teach people to recognise where
will affect future spins. While it these mistakes happen, without
could be argued that this doesnt explaining the rigorous mathematics
decrease their odds of winning at any
44
beneath. These fallacies also appear the fallacies discussed have some
because data is incorrectly roots in heuristics. That said, any
represented. It might be cherry- research into heuristics should not
picked, and only a selection is have the sole aim of identifying such
analysed, or it might be worded in cognitive shortcuts and removing
such a way as to play on human bias them. There may be situations where
and misunderstanding. Finally, they are actually more useful to
people misunderstand chance humans than laboriously calculating
because others deliberately use the optimal solution. I would also be
statistics to mislead and misinform. interested in studying mathematics
In todays society, all important education more generally. As I wish
decisions are expected to have to study a mathematics degree, it
numbers to back them up, but when would be both useful and interesting
money is involved the validity of to research how mathematicians
those numbers becomes less learn best. This is linked with
important. heuristics in fact, as mathematical
Everyone is affected: the analysis, for example, is a very
public, members of the judicial counter-intuitive area of study.
system, politicians, and even doctors Finally, I would like to know more
and scientists. They are unaware of about some of the actual
these problems, and do not have the mathematics underpinning several
training to confront them. But of the results I have discussed. For
government policy hinges on non- instance, there is a vector
mathematicians understanding the interpretation of Simpsons Paradox
uncertainty in the data that they are which I was not able to discuss here,
giving and making good decisions but I would like to understand. This
that will affect the lives of millions of is also the case with the Bayesian
people. interpretation of the prosecutors
People are wrongly sentenced to life fallacy, and Bayesian methods more
imprisonment based on false generally.
probabilities. Drugs can appear more Last, while I feel my original
beneficial than they are and people viewpoint is mostly unchangedthat
die as a result. these fallacies are numerous, but
But in order to implement with careful thought and awareness
better mathematical education, there they can be coped withI have
needs to be a greater understanding realised that some are much more
of the psychological reasons that complicated than I expected. It often
humans make these mistakes. I took several careful readings to
would be very interested in understand even the explanation of
researching these further. The field why something is fallacious.
of heuristics: the study of human This makes me a lot more
decision-making is fascinating, and sympathetic to those in other fields
it would be satisfying to have a suddenly forced to confront tricky
deeper, more rigorous understanding paradoxical mathematics.
of subconscious human biases. Nevertheless, I still believe that
Certainly the gamblers fallacy can better mathematical education is the
be explained by the representation key to solving this problem. It was
bias, for example, and many other of heart-warming to see that David
45
Spiegelhalters suggestion of 7. Hall, R. (2012). Royal

teaching natural frequencies has Statistical Society concerned
now been included into the content of by issues raised in
the UK Mathematics GCSE. Sally Clark case.
Significance, 145(1), 24-28.
Bibliography 8. Hill, R. (2004). Multiple
sudden infant deaths
1. Akl, E. A., Oxman , A. D., coincidence or beyond
Herrin, J., Vist, G. E., coincidence?. Paediatric
Terrenato, I. & Sperati, F. and Perinatal
(2011). Using alternative Epidemiology. 18(485),
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presenting risks and risk 9. Huff, D. (1993). How to lie
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Reviews, 7(2394). 10. James, W. H.
2. Barron, G., Leider, S. (2010). (2008). Hypothesis: Evidence
The role of experience in the that mammalian sex ratios at
gambler's birth are partially
fallacy. Journal of controlled by parental
Behavioral Decision hormonal levels around the
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A. & Reckhow, K. H. J. (2003). 315.
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Manage. 129, 271282 decide. New York, NY:
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A. J. (1998). Misused E. (1973). Natural selection of
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Ulmer, H. (2007).
47
To what extent does the privatisation of the

NHS affect patient care?
Kosi Nwuba
1. Abstract Good patient care is ultimately the

focus of any healthcare system.
The National Health Service Rationing is where the services on
commonly shortened to the NHS was offer are streamlined. Current
founded in 1949 by Aneurin Bevan pressures are causing the rationing
the then health minister. It is the of services and the distribution of
oldest universal single-payer services to more private providers
healthcare system in the world. It is resulting in a reduction in services.
a tax based healthcare system Rationing can be beneficial where
publicly funded through taxpayers resources are more specifically
money. Its founding principle is that allocated fora particular population.
the health care provided by the NHS On the other hand, it can be
meet the needs of everyone, is free at detrimental where services are
the point of delivery and is reduced such as local A&Es causing
distributed according to clinical need insufficient healthcare availability in
rather than the ability to pay. The particular local populations across
NHS employees over 1 million the country.
people, making it the fifth biggest The outsourcing of healthcare to
employer in the world, while serving private providers leads to the
over 54 million people. fragmentation of healthcare. The
Over the last 25 years since coordination between different parts
Margaret Thatcher's government, of healthcare delivery decrease as
and there has been a gradual more healthcare is outsourced.
increase in the privatisation in the The increase in private ownership of
National Health Service. .The healthcare services leads to
introduction of private providers of inefficiencies such as the private
health care into the NHS mean an financial initiative whereby the
increase in privatisation. government leases privately built
An ageing population, increasing life hospitals at significantly higher
expectancy and increasing cost of prices.
healthcare re present challenges to There is a long-lasting ideology that
the NHS. these private corporations value
As a result of these increasing profit over their patients. However,
pressures, the need to solve them there is evidence to show that
becomes more important. Some see patients are just as likely to receive a
privatisation as a solution to these bad standard of healthcare at a
issues whereas other believe private healthcare provider as public
privatisation to be a cause hence it is healthcare provider. However, when
useful to know the extent the current you involve financial incentives in
privatisation affects patient care. the delivery of healthcare, naturally
48
there will be the tendency for firms nation. However, today it faces more
to cut corners and compromise challenges than it ever has faced
patient healthcare in order to before. For example, the population
maximise profit. is ageing. One in six of the
There are numerous ways in which population currently is aged 65 and
the privatisation of the NHS can over and by 2050 this would have
affect health care; both good and increased to one quarter of the
bad. The current extent of population. Life expectancy is also at
privatisation in the NHS definitely its highest level with babies born
has affected and is affecting patients. today having an average life
Moving forward, as the extent of the expectancy of 89. It is obvious that
pressures on the NHS increase, the elderly require far more
there must be a re-evaluation on the healthcare due to weaker immune
way in which private providers are systems for example leading to
involved in the NHS. Private greater susceptibility to disease and
participation in healthcare can be this coupled with the increase in
useful however only in certain births in recent years, piles even
situations meeting the needs of more pressure on the national health
patients where the NHS cant. care system. As the demand for
Minimal private participation is healthcare increases, the ability of
ideal however, there should be some the NHS to supply this becomes
private participation. The increasingly strained.
privatisation of the NHS must be Amongst all these challenges, there
limited and the way in which has been a gradual increase in the
healthcare is delivered and privatisation in the NHS over the
organised needs a change. past 25 years. Privatisation is
defined as the act of transferring
1.1 Introduction ownership of specified property or
business operations from a
In this project, I hope to identify the government organization to a
extent of privatisation in the privately owned entity, as well as the
National Health Service (NHS) and transition of ownership from a
then to what extent this publicly traded, or owned, company
privatisation is responsible for to a privately owned company. [1] So,
failures occurring in the nations essentially this means private
health system. This will thereby companies owned by individuals
allow me to consider its effect on the taking over the healthcare of parts of
healthcare that NHS patients the population on behalf of the NHS.
receive. By looking at the effect of In the NHS, there an incredibly
privatisation and analysing its complex system with varying
possible advantages, disadvantages qualities of care and care-providers
and how these affect the care doctors throughout the nation. The secretary
are able to give their patients, I hope of state overseas the department of
to conclude the extent to which health which funds and organises
privatisation hinders the patient the health and social care in the UK.
care. There is also NHS England
The National Health Service (NHS) responsible for primary care, clinical
founded in 1948 is the bedrock of the commissioning groups mainly
49
responsible for secondary care along

with several regulatory bodies that Due to the financial crisis that the
ensure standards are maintained as NHS finds itself in, there has been a
well as the health and wellbeing of vast increase in privatisation and
patients. therefore the rationing of healthcare.
My aim of this extended project Healthcare rationing is essentially
qualification is to assess the effect limiting the availability of certain
that the privatisation has on the healthcare provisions where certain
NHS and its capability to deal with services are withheld although they
the ever-changing demographic and could probably be beneficial because
the ageing population i.e. its effect those services cant be provided for
on patients. By analysing and everyone who needs them [9].
understanding the extent to which
the NHS is affected by this, not only Healthcare has been outsourced to
will it put me in a stronger position private companies and along with
in terms of knowledge concerning my this has inevitably come a decrease
desired career path but help me in the variety of services provided.
appreciate the privilege of having a The health secretary Jeremy Hunt
nationwide health service that is free has said the NHS needs more money
at the point of delivery. and outsourcing [10]. Clinical
In the future, as well as going to commissioning group's (CCGs) are
university to study medicine, I would responsible for the commissioning of
like to work as a doctor for the NHS healthcare services for their
hence the changes to the NHS now respective communities. They were
are vital as they will directly affect set up as a result of the Health and
the conditions in which hopefully I Social Care Act of 2012 and largely
will work in one day. The NHS is at replaced primary care trusts. The
a crucial stage as the changes now financial struggles of the NHS have
are crucial to the efficacy of the NHS been well publicised. For example, in
and its ability to supply universal 2014, the NHS Trust Development
healthcare in the future. With Authority reported a deficit for NHS
political happenings permanently trusts of 241 million which is 165
affecting the running of the NHS million more than the planned deficit
leading to an increase in was at the beginning of the financial
privatisation, it is important the year [11]. The NHS has faced a
NHS keeps up so in twenty years sustained decrease in the increase in
time a doctor and patient can spending in recent past. As the NHS
continue to rely on the NHS; can't afford to provide the sheer
Britains greatest treasure. magnitude of health services that a
whole nation requires, there have
been proposals for ward closures and
2. Discussion a reduction in the number of beds
and reorganisation of A&E and GP
Since Thatcher's government there care across the country as the NHS
has been a gradual increase in NHS aims to deliver 22 billion in efficiency
privatisation over the last 25 years. savings by 2020-2021 [12][13].
Therefore by the reduction in the

Rationing extent of healthcare patients are
50
likely to be affected as the total Muamba. During a football match,

range of patient care decreases. his heart stopped for over an hour as
he suffered a heart attack. Instead of
2.1 Good rationing going to the Whittington Hospital,
the nearest hospital to White Hart
What you gain with rationing is Lane stadium where the match was
healthcare tailored to the local being played, the paramedics took
population. What you will find across him to The London Chest Hospital
the country is a varying demographic 1.5 miles further away. The reason
[14]. So, for example, the demographic for this is the centralisation of
in the countryside will be incredibly services. Professor Sir Roger Boyle
different from the demographic in played a big role in reviewing the
central London and therefore heart services and increase the
different services will be needed for centralisation of cardiac services.
the two locations. It is the The heart attack survival rate has
responsibility of the clinical more than doubled in the past 40
commissioning groups to assess what years and particularly in the last 15
is needed and allocate the NHS years and this can be attributed to
budget accordingly. The aim is to the centralisation of services. If
provide a more efficient and useful someone suffers a heart attack they
healthcare service. Private won't be taken to the nearest
companies are in a position to hospital but rather the best hospital
provide services that are required in for their condition. In one centralised
a particular region and they can hospital you can have experienced
usually offer more money for staff, advanced equipment and
contracts and when cash is far spent, specialist professionals.
this therefore is extremely attractive
to the clinical commissioning groups It would be impossible to replicate
who have the legal power to offer up this set up at every hospital hence
contracts to "any qualified provider ". centralisation is key to the
The private healthcare company improvement of healthcare [15] . For
then provide the healthcare to meet example, in London the number of
the needs of the local population hospitals able to treat heart attacks
which in turn should benefit the is now eight compared to 24
patient. If the CCGs make sensible previously. Therefore, rationing is
decisions concerning the allocation of beneficial as although you may have
resources, patient across the country to close down some existing
should benefit from more specific healthcare services such as local
healthcare provision. A&Es for example, by centralising
the services, overall, you will
improve patient care as is evident by
2.2 Centralisation of services the increase in heart attack survival
rates [16].
This is where the care on offer is
concentrated into specific areas. An With any social good, ultimately,
example of where this has been rationing is inevitable because there
particularly beneficial is the high are unlimited wants for limited
profile case of footballer Fabrice resources and therefore scarcity
51
exists hence certain goods and Tenet Healthcare is an example of

services must be rationed and the dangers of private health care
therefore not provided because of providers who seek to maximise
this issue. Consequently, it is more their profit at the expense of patient
appropriate to accept privatisation care. This American health care
as a necessary result and rather company had to pay almost $400
discuss the best way in which to million in settlements when it was
allocate resources and tender out discovered that they were delivering
contracts to ensure that the care and bogus and unnecessary heart
treatment of patients is optimised surgeries [18] . This is an example of
while minimising the expenses. where the incentive of making
money has led to a disregard for
2.3 Bad rationing patient care and in this particular
scenario many patients suffered with
On the other hand, it can be argued some even being left paralysed.
that rationing is not the way Patient care is obviously not the
forward. It's impossible to always get primary objective here and it can be
it right hence you often find argued that even if it is intended to
situations where patients in a region be, the very relevant factor of profit
arent catered for. NHS England in these situation leads to
chief executive Simon Stevens said inefficiencies like this. The ultimate
patients were being robbed of result is the quality of care delivered
'dignity and compassion' because of a being compromised.
lack of local care.
In the case of centralisation, this is 2.5 Misplaced ideologies

not always advisable. Although it
may be beneficial for treating heart Although profits may be seen to
attacks and strokes, for common replace the need to prioritise the
inpatient admissions, outpatient patient, if you look at patient
clinics and maternity care it is not experience surveys, health and social
the best thing leading to a reduction care patients say they are just as
in local care. With the centralisation well cared for by privately-run
of hospital services, a simultaneous organisations compared to
investment in primary care services government-run organisations [19] .
such as general practices is needed You are just as likely to receive an
however this has not been the case unacceptable standard of care when
with drastic decreases in their treated by private institutions which
budgets. It is the patients who dispels some ideological beliefs that
ultimately suffer from this [17]. There the public sector care more than the
are other ways to improve the NHS stereotypically greedy private sector.
deficit without privatising and The Stafford Hospital scandal is an
reducing the services available. example of where the NHS has failed
its patients and been unable to
provide an acceptable level of
2.4 Profits over patients? healthcare resulting in several
preventable deaths. This was a
52
nationwide scandal in which it was However, the introduction of Private

revealed that up to 1200 patients organisations such as Nectare and
may have died between 2005 and Care UK who ran some of these
2008 because of substandard care centres led to big losses. Nectare
[20][21]. In 2015 76% of NHS hospital received 35 million for patients that
trusts were are adjudged to be either were never treated because this was
inadequate or requiring the work that they had been
improvement. In the NHS system contracted to do and so the company
which is a government funded via was paid in bulk for a certain
taxation system it is evident that number of cases. ISTCs contracts
there are still big negatives in terms were 12% more expensive than the
of the quality of patient care being NHS tariff cost on average. The
administered [22] [23] [24]. underlying point is, however, that
there is money being spent here that
could arguably be better invested in
other areas more directly involved
2.6 Independent Sector
with patient care but due to this
Treatment Centres (ISTCs) privatisation in the NHS you have
these inefficiencies
Independent Sector Treatment
Centres (ISTCs) are private-sector 3.1 Inefficiency 1: Internal Market
owned treatment centres in the NHS
used to treat NHS patients free at An argument against private
the point of use. ISTCs have been involvement healthcare is that they
incredibly beneficial for patients causes inefficiencies. By
with patient satisfaction very high. complicating a tax funded system
Additionally ISTCs although initially with the introduction of private
being paid too much for the services health providers this leads to several
provided, as time has passed, the inefficiencies. Administrative costs
number of treatments being given are a drain on NHS resources. In
now equal the NHS tariff. The result order to optimise patient care the
has been reduced waiting times. In NHS realistically needs more money
addition to this the ISTC programme invested into it however due to the
is in direct competition with NHS increase in privatisation, there are
hospitals and therefore this aspect of arguably several inefficiencies such
competition is an incentive for ISTCs as the cost of running an internal
and NHS hospitals to improve their market. The internal market was
standards look for new ways to essentially the introduction, in 1990,
become more efficient with the of "trusts "; primary care trusts and
ultimate end result being an NHS hospital trusts. This internal
improved level of patient care. market basically meant hospitals
had to compete against each other to
The introduction of Independent get business with NHS hospital
Sector Treatment Centres (ISTCS) trusts acting as the providers and
was to carry out simple surgery in primary care trusts the purchasers
order to increase efficiency by forming the purchaser-provider split.
reducing waiting times for these The running of an internal market
lower risk routine procedures. alone costs 10% of the NHS budget
53
each year (10 billion). It can be overcharge severely for that work.
argued that the money spent here The cost of PFI has been 301 billion
would be better invested directly in for building projects were only worth
improving patient's health; buying 54.7 billion meaning there has
new equipment, funding new essentially been 246.3 billion of
medicines and hiring more staff. waste. This sum of money is almost
Patient care could be vastly two and a half times the yearly NHS
improved with this money that is budget. As a result of this, many
being spent running privatisation; a hospitals are in deficits and in severe
direct impact of privatisation. danger of being shut down.
3.2 Inefficiency 2: Private 4. Fragmentation

Financial Initiative Schemes
With the increase in private
Another massively contentious issue providers in the NHS there is a
is the Private Finance Initiative worry that this will lead to the
schemes (PFIs). PFIs were fragmentation of services. Ideally, a
introduced as a way to run healthcare system is an integrated
government infrastructure projects. one. Clinical integration is defined
They included the buildings of as "the means to facilitate the
hospitals, roads and schools where coordination of patient care across
essentially private companies would conditions, providers, settings, and
pay for the building of these projects time in order to achieve care that is
and then lease the buildings back to safe, timely, effective, efficient,
the government. The benefit of this equitable, and patient-focused. The
scheme was meant to be that the ability of the NHS to do this is
government could provide new reduced with privatisation because.
hospitals without worsening the
national debt. However, again, this The tendering of contracts to private
has resulted in several inefficiencies providers leads to fragmentation.
with severe wastage of money in When there is competition in the
several areas. As the hospitals are setup, inevitably, this will result in
leased back to the government, greater divided between providers.
repayments are astronomically high However in order to optimise patient
with interest rates in some cases care this is not helpful. With elderly
over 70%. Repayments increase patients, for example, they may come
annually and this expenditure is in with a variety of different
costing the NHS a lot of money. For ailments ranging from arthritis to
example, the bill of the cost of the dementia to hypertension and
hospital PFI schemes is projected to therefore it is important to have
exceed 79 billion compared to the providers of certain types of care
actual value of building which is closely linked with good channels of
11.4 billion. Additionally, PFI communication between them in
schemes include facility maintenance order to optimise the care of the
which essentially means if there is patient. But what you'll find is, with
an issue at a hospital, only an agreed a fragmented healthcare service,
contract is allowed to do the work these providers of different services
allowing these contractors to often won't be in communication and
54
therefore this is to the detriment of as much. Other examples of ground

the patients who suffer the most [25]. breaking innovation from the private
sector are nanoknife treatment on
Christina McAnea, head of health at inoperable tumours,
Unison, at the time said "The chemosaturation therapy for cancers
government's drive towards NHS of the liver and the use of the
privatisation is leaving patients advance lensAR femtosecond
vulnerable to poor care and support cataract laser to treat eyes [27].
at surgery centres like the one at the
Lister hospital. It is potentially the 5. Patient choice
tip of the iceberg in terms of the
clinical risk of fragmented health One of the proposed benefits of
services. [26] privatisation is an increase in
patient choice. Accompanying the
increase in providers is an increase
4.1 Innovation in the choice of the patient. A patient
who goes to their GP will be able to
Private interests breed innovation. discuss the different providers who
When you have private companies could deliver the healthcare to them.
competing for business this drives The aim is that in particular areas
the quality up due to the that the NHS has particularly
competition. Doctor Devi Shetty an struggled, the innovation fuelled by
Indian cardiac surgeon set up low- this competition will lead to
cost hospitals in which he solutions; the providers have to
streamlined the processes of heart compete for the preference of the
surgery in order to reduce the cost. patient. By being able to decide
He seemingly simplified the where and when the treatment will
complexities of heart surgery to a take place this allows patients more
line of production and it has control over their healthcare. The
drastically reduced the price of this rise of the Internet has seen an
heart surgery in India. He runs a increase in the number of patients
"for-profit" hospital in which the having a far greater say in their
price of coronary bypass surgery is healthcare and as a result these
almost 70 times cheaper than in the patients are kept happy because they
USA with very similar success rates are more involved in the decisions
and efficacy. The idea of having to that concern their well-being rather
compete with the National Health than just being told by a doctor what
Service in India albeit a notoriously to do; an improvement on the care of
poor one has resulted in this patients. Greater patient choice in
innovation by Doctor Devi Shetty. the NHS will help clinical
Thousands of Indians are now commissioning groups in knowing
benefiting from this innovation where to allocate resources in their
whereas in a government funded local area as patients, by the
system it can be argued this need to healthcare decisions they make, will
be creative and innovative is less help elucidate where there are needs
incentivised and therefore the care and where resources need to be
patients receive will not be improved allocated. The extent of the effect of
patient choice on the quality of
55
patient care is debateable however secondary as clinical commissioning

this aspect of competition fuelled by groups have to manage their budget
patient choice provides a specific accordingly and therefore must
incentive to improve patient care. prioritise their finance leading to his
large corporations taking over a
However arguably this idea of choice great share of the healthcare
is quite trivial because every provisions. Many of the contracts in
provider theoretically should meet place under the "any qualified
NHS expected standards of care provider" legislation include
therefore it renders this choosing guaranteed income for the providers
option that patients have as useless. which essentially means private
Even if there are varying standards healthcare companies can make
of care, which to an extent are profits thereby reducing the funding
inevitable, and the patient opts for a NHS hospitals get. This loss of
particular provider, it will be very money to NHS hospitals is an
difficult for the patient to measure inefficiency and ultimately will affect
and distinguish the positives and the patient care of the patients in the
negatives of each different provider. hospital.
Their GP may not even be able to
provide them with the full picture. Measuring patient care is also a
Furthermore, it is very possible GPs difficult thing to you. In this case,
may have vested interest in some of any effects whether positive or
the private providers they are able to negative have been booked St. There
refer the patient to creating a more objective measure used by the
conflict of interest where the NHS based on performance outcomes
patients care once again may be however [28]. The quality of
marginalised. healthcare ranges across every
different hospital and the general
The idea of competition driven happiness of patients about the care
innovation can be counteracted by they receive can often be hard to
the fact that smaller businesses quantify
running private health care practices
may not be able to compete with 6. Conclusion
large businesses that can offer more
for contracts out on tender. Bigger In conclusion, it is very evident that
businesses can afford to suffer some the privatisation of the NHS can
losses additionally which smaller affect patient care. The gradual
businesses can't. Naturally clinical increase in private participation in
commissioning group's will look for the nations healthcare since the
the best deal so although the 1990s has ultimately resulted in
founding idea for competition is that several inefficiencies. It is quite
it's more about the best quality apparent that market principles and
healthcare, what eventually results theories arent directly applicable in
is a situation where the best value a national health service where the
for money healthcare usually gets priority must be the quality and
the tender. This is because the fixed efficacy of care that the patients
price the government wants these receive.
companies to compete at becomes
56
It has been argued that the certain privatisation can solve some issues
politicians in parliament have vested the NHS itself cannot is a valid one
interests in an increase in the for example ISTCs have helped
private participation in. For reduce waiting times for some
example, in 2014, there were 72 operations.
members of parliament who stood to It is obvious that private healthcare
profit from an increase in has its benefits and a completely tax
privatisation in the NHS. Therefore, funded health system is not
legislation concerning the NHS that necessarily the best and most
has been passed may not necessarily efficient choice for patients.
always have been in the best Ultimately, the patient's health care
interests of patients. must remain the priority in every
However, even in circumstances like situation regardless.
the failings at Staffordshire hospital, The question of the extent of the
they can actually, to an extent, be effect of privatisation on patient care
attributed to privatisation. This however cannot answer determining
raises the argument that it's actually and in what patient care constitutes
privatisation causing a lot of the and deciding how to measure patient
issues with patient care in the NHS care quality. It can be particularly
rather than privatisation being the difficult therefore to quantify to what
solution to a lot of the varying issues. extent patient care is affected by
In the first enquiry led by Robert privatisation. Every hospital is
Francis QC in 2010, it was said that different and the increase in private
there was too much of a priority participation has affected different
place on finances as the trust was communities differently and
trying to balance its books following therefore to judge this affect whether
three years of losses and as a result positive or negative is obviously
made several cuts including 150 incredibly difficult.
posts all at the expense of patient The French healthcare has been
care. A direct result of privatisation. rated the best in the world. It
This is following an increasing operates a national health insurance
impetus for hospitals to be run like scheme with both the government
businesses. and private participation in the
It can certainly be argued that healthcare delivered funded by
privatisation has its positive affects people and their employers. Unlike
with ideas such as patient choice and the British system which is free at
increased competition aimed to drive the point of delivery, in some
innovation. The NHS is under instances there are payments at the
immense financial pressures and point of contact however this is
these financial pressures will largely mitigated by health-
inevitably hinder patients. With the insurance which the vast majority of
ageing population, increasing cost of the population have. Also there are
healthcare and obesity prevalence in exceptions made for the severely ill
the UK, it can be strongly argued and poor.
that it is vital that the NHS becomes This points to probably it being best
more efficient and there is a need for for there to be both private and
new money-saving and health government involvement in the
improving ideas. The idea that deliverance of healthcare however it
57
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61
How was French Literature used as

Propaganda during the Occupation?
Alex Bull
1. Abstract discover which forms were more

popular and which were more useful
In this essay I will answer the as propaganda.
question of: How was French
literature used as propaganda 2. Introduction
during the occupation? by splitting
this question into smaller sub-topics, The Second World War is an
which I will address individually. undeniably fascinating and
These will include the censorship disastrous period of history for
regulations in place, the role of the mankind, where mass atrocities of
collaborationist press, publishing proportions never seen before were
houses and their importance in carried out with incredible efficiency,
literature during the occupation, the like a well oiled machine. At schools,
clandestine, resistance press, the at home and on the television
role of authors in the occupation, the information is readily available
role of poets in the occupation and about the Second World War, yet
finally the role of theatre in the surprisingly a topic which is often
occupation. In conclusion I will hard to discover is the role of
summarise my key findings and give literature during this period.
a concrete answer to the question Therefore the aim of this dissertation
that I am addressing, which will is to explore in depth the effects of
have been reinforced by the the occupation of France by the
arguments made throughout this Nazis on French literature and see
dissertation. how literature was used both by the
However before I begin I need to Nazis and by French intellectuals
firstly address an integral point during the occupation. This topic
revolving around the word came naturally to me as a student of
literature. When I use this word in both French and German at A-Level,
my dissertation I am using it in its because I will have the ability to
broadest definition, that is including expand my knowledge of
not only novels and poems but also contemporary French literature,
newspapers and plays. I believe it is culture, and also modern European
important to view the artistic, history whilst researching and
intellectual and literary scene as a writing this dissertation.
whole during the Occupation.
Additionally I also found it French literature and literature in
incredibly interesting to research general is always evolving with the
and write about how different forms times. The many ways that
of literature were affected literature adapts and changes are
differently by the extraordinary fascinating, for example between
nature of the Occupation and to 1800 and 1850 romanticism was at
62
its height. Great French novelists used by the Nazis and by the
and poets such as Alphonse de Resistance during the occupation to
Lamartine and Victor Hugo wrote at achieve their goals. I find this aspect
length about the perfect life of the of using literature as propaganda
peasant and the beauty of nature, with a definitive political message
placing much emphasis on the glory (either pro or anti German in this
of the past and emotion. It is clear to case) to be incredibly fascinating as
see that this romantic movement it highlights the power of literature.
was a reaction to the industrial
revolution that was occurring at the My second aim to understand the
same time, and that in idealising the implications that Nazi rule had on
peasant, countryside life these French literature, as there was a lot
literary giants were using their of censorship on what writers and
works to convey multiple messages poets were able to publish at this
to their readers about the industrial time. I will research the effects of the
revolution. For example that man Nazi regime on the French
must not forget to enjoy nature, that publishing houses and consequently
we must not let machines destroy try to work out the knock on effect
nature and also expressing general that this had on French literature. I
fears surrounding the new advances will also research the different
of machinery that were felt in that methods authors employed in order
era. Therefore one area I want to to avoid these regulations, or comply
address in this dissertation is the with them, whilst still conveying
main themes of war-time French their true messages via the use of
literature, and, similarly to how the literary techniques or undertones in
industrial revolution was a cause for their works.
romanticism, I want to see what
caused writers to discuss their Thirdly I will detail the ways that
chosen themes. I also want to see literature was used as a weapon;
what messages were conveyed to that is as a tool to try and combat
readers during the occupation. No the Nazi and Vichy regime. This
doubt there will be many contrasting particularly interests me as I am
ones from different authors, some fascinated by how French writers
supporting the Nazis, perhaps some were able to use newspapers, poems,
calling the French to join the books and plays, things which seem
Resistance. However I am not absolutely harmless, as powerful and
limiting my EPQ to just books and harmful weapons which weakened
authors. When I use the term the Nazis. I will research the
literature in my title, it is in a broad different ways various authors
sense, including poems, the press attempted to do just this and also
and the theatre as well as traditional explore their different roles in the
novels. Consequently one of my whole resistance movement in Paris
primary aims is to see if intellectuals and the rest of France.
and authors used all these forms of
literature to convey messages to the Finally I will bring my dissertation
public and I want to explore the to an end by concluding and
ways all these different summarising the main influences of
manifestations of literature were the occupation on French literature.
63
I will attempt to answer the question literature during the occupation, are
of what role did literature play under that the pre-war literature was very
the occupation and how big was this radical, liberal and expressive and
role? Within this question I aim to was viewed by some as very
also address just how much, if at all, decadent.
the French Resistance benefited
from literature during the occupation 5. Censorship
and likewise how much the Germans
benefited from literature during the
Before addressing any further topics
occupation; thereby answering the
surrounding French literature
question: How was French
during the occupation, it is integral
Literature used as propaganda
that the rules and regulations that
during the Occupation?
were placed on literature during the
occupation are fully understood.
Under the Nazi regime censorship
4. Historical Context was rife. With Hitlers trusted ally
and friend Joseph Goebbels as the
To give my dissertation a firm Reich Minister of Propaganda the
historical context, it is necessary to Nazis not only censored but
give a brief description of French destroyed many forms of literature
literature before the occupation in as well as art, because Hitler and
order to paint a clear picture of the Goebbels understood the power of
literary scene at the time. French literature and art as they realised
literature pre World War II took on a that they could be used to encourage
rather radical form, with movements people to think for themselves and to
such as Dadaism and Surrealism resist.
prevalent. Dadaism itself was an art
and literary movement which was Consequently the Nazis banned any
characteristically unorthodox and literature that expressed any ideas
radical; even being described as anti- deemed to be contrary to the Nazi
art. Surrealism followed on from ideology; they didnt use their powers
Dadaism and was developed by sparingly with over 25,000 volumes
acclaimed writers such as Louis of un-German books burned in just
Aragon and Paul luard; both of one day on the 10th of May 1933 in
whom play key roles in the Germany. This strict censorship
Resistance. Surrealism was extended to any literature that
influenced heavily by Freuds notion contained any anti-German
of the unconscious and its aim was to sentiments, that was Jewish or that
"resolve the previously contradictory was Communist. When France
conditions of dream and reality21. surrendered, defeated after the
The key things that we should Bataille de la France, France was
recognise about the pre-war split in two, into Vichy France and
literature, that will have an its independent puppet government
influence on what happens to led by the Marchal Ptain, and the
German occupied part of France
which included Paris. Neither were
21 Andr Breton, The First Manifesto spared the censorship rules of the
of Surrealism, 1924
64
Nazis and these regulations were establishments who didnt want to

imposed with just as much vigour in shut down to collaborate and start
France as in Germany. The reaction purveying the Nazi message and
to this censorship was mixed. In hence contribute to the creation of
certain areas there was outrage that pro-Nazi propaganda. Additionally a
the Germans were suppressing what list of all forbidden books was
Parisians and the French were able created, called la Liste Otto, which
to read and that the Nazis wanted to was named after the German
control the thoughts of French ambassador to Vichy France during
citizens. However others, typically World War II: Otto Abetz. This list,
referred to as the enemies of classed by author, contained an
modernity in France, such as Robert extensive repertoire of over 1400
Brasillach or Pierre Drieu la books that were banned and also of
Rochelle welcomed this and saw it as books which should be promoted.
an opportunity to eliminate any This list was handed to all two-
degenerate forms of literature that thousand or so of Paris bookshops,
were harmful to the right-wing, newsstands and bouquinistes as
traditionalist and fascist France they part of the 40,000 copies of the list
believed in. that were distributed across
Occupied France. If establishments
The initiative that ensured these were found to not be complying with
rules were in place and enacted after the list then they were simply shut
the German victory in 1940 was down, alongside some other reprisals
called the Propagandastaffel and in extreme cases.
was essentially an organisation led
by the german authorities which The result of the Otto list however
took control of the French press and was that the Propagandastaffel and
all publishing houses during the the Amt Schriftum (the main
Occupation. A Ministry of propaganda office of which the
Propaganda (Propaganda-Abteilung) Propagandastaffel was the French
was created specifically for France arm) did not actually play a direct
and Propagandastaffel offices were role in censoring works. Publishers
spread throughout France, with one and bookshops, albeit with their
of the biggest being the hands tied behind their backs by the
Propagandastaffel in Paris. A variety Germans, auto-censored the works
of techniques was used to control that they sold. We can see that this
French press and literature. Firstly auto-censorship was the intention of
the Ministry of Propaganda the Nazis as according to a quote
distributed paper to publishing from an official of the Amt
houses and newspapers but gave Schriftum; Ds lorigine il na pas
priority to those which were t dans nos intentions dapparatre
favourable to the politics of the Nazi comme des censeurs.22 As the Nazis
occupant. As a result there was an
incentive for the press to be 22 Translation: From the beginning
sympathetic and collaborate with the it was not in our intentions to appear
Nazis as otherwise they would as censors
simply not have the paper to print; Quotation from Les Editions de
in a way forcing many Minuit: Purveyors of Propaganda,
65
themselves werent seen directly as willingly co-operated with the

censors they werent as unpopular Germans and promoted the
with the French population, at least ideologies of and supported either
at first, as perhaps they should have Nazi Germany or Vichy France. The
been. collaborationist press flourished
under the German occupiers, in
The overall result of this censorship which the three main publications
of both Occupied and Vichy France were: La Gerbe, Je suis partout
was that many works of famous pre and Au Pilori. La Gerbe was a
war authors and poets such as Louis weekly newspaper that was founded
Aragon were completely banned due in July 1940 by Alphonse de
to the political leanings or the Chteaubriant, who was also the
messages they contained and editor, and which ended in August
promoted. Additionally many much 1944 - so its lifespan mirrored that
loved English and American authors of the occupation. We can see
were also completely censored, due through La Gerbe the huge power
to the fact that England (and later and support that collaborationist
America) was at war with Germany papers had behind them from the
and many of these foreign books German authorities as the first issue
contained themes the Nazis didnt of La Gerbe was announced with a
want their occupied population to be huge poster campaign. Within three
thinking about. Consequently the months the publications size had
remaining literature consisted of un developed into 10 pages and it had
espace inerte,23 free of any element 100,000 copies in circulation, which
that questioned the Nazi ideology. In would increase to 140,000 copies by
essence by doing this the Nazi state 1943. Considering the material
was undertaking the annihilation of shortages occurring during the war
the French intellectual. However this scale of production was huge
despite these evidently tough and quite clearly displays the
measures in place, literature was keenness of the Germans to support
still used by the Resistance, as well and promote publications of French
as the Nazis, during the Occupation origin that were favourable and
as propaganda with a clear point of sympathetic to the Germans and to
view, with which it wanted to Hitlers goal of a new Europe. La
persuade the reader. Gerbe itself championed an ideology
with close links to fascism and
6. Collaboration and The Role of nazism, which was extremely anti-
communist, anti-republican and
the Collaborationist Press
anti-semitic.
La Gerbe and Chteaubriants
The collaborationist press is the term
vision of Hitler was that he would
given to all newspapers that
form a unified catholic Europe and in
his newspaper he promoted this new
Adam A. Leff, The French Review Europe to his readers and
Vol. 74, No. 4 (Mar., 2001), pp. 712- encouraged them to support and
727 welcome it themselves. Similarly Je
23 Literally an inert space i.e a free suis partout, whose editor was the
or open space
66
collaborationiste24 Robert Brasillach could also rely on these newspapers

aimed to be the voice of the far right to convey pro-Nazi messages without
and published calls for the murder of any direct instructions. These
Jews and the Third Republic messages would have been
political figures. Shamelessly it even invaluable in keeping the whole
allowed the Germans to use the population satisfied and content and
space in the paper for advertising even helping the Germans in their
the SS and the Lgion des war effort as a result.
Volontaires Franais, a regiment of
the German army that French In addition to these three French
volunteers could sign up to. Likewise publications, the Germans also set
Au Pilori, which was also funded by up a new Parisian daily newspaper
German money, campaigned against as part of the collaborationist press
those suspected to be Jewish and called the Parisier Zeitung. This
attacked typically Jewish professions newspaper was essentially nothing
in its editions. more than a vehicle for the Nazis
views and was anti-British, anti-
Moreover, the sheer enthusiasm and communist and anti-semitic and
willingness of the collaborationist even contained a daily anti-British
press cannot be underestimated. In cartoon.26 In this newspaper huge
eagerness to please the Nazis they care was taken to convey the
sometimes went too far even for the principle to the readers that German
German authorities own liking. On and French culture could go hand in
Hitlers birthday in 1943 the hand and were harmonious. Paris
collaborationist papers had to be monuments and culture were
warned to act with tact and reserve, incessantly praised as were French
so as not to give French newspapers singers, and certain authors and
an air, that no longer being French, playwrights. Clearly this piece of
risked offending public opinion.25 literature was created with the
From this we can clearly see just specific aim of pleasing the Parisian
how useful and effective a tool the and French population and ensuring
collaborationist press must have that they were kind and sympathetic
been to the Nazis. With such towards their German occupiers, so
willingness and with so many that civilian unrest and trouble
publications reaching readers, the would not break out.
Nazis could make full use of the
collaborationist press to publish The common, key themes that we
propaganda of their own, but they can see in regards to the
collaborationist press, which are
24A term used to describe the French important in trying discover how
who voluntarily and willingly French literature was used as
collaborated with the Nazis, propaganda and the importance of
normally due to ideological reasons. this usage, are firstly the amount of
(As opposed to a collaborator who
collaborates involuntarily out of the 26 Source: The Guardian, 08/09/09,
reluctant recognition of necessity) Life in occupied France during the
25 The National Daily Press of Second World War, Michael Lafon,
France, Clyde Thogmartin, Pg 128 translated by Lizzy Davies
67
German money, materials and spreading their ideas and messages

support that was provided to out to the French population and, in
collaborationist publications. some aspects, of controlling the
Secondly it is important to realise French population.
just how keen a significant number
of French intellectuals and 7. Publishing Houses
journalists were to help the Nazis as
much as possible. More than eighty
The publishing houses in France and
famous French writers were placed
especially in Paris were targeted by
on the black list of the Resistance
the German censorship authorities
because of their collaboration27. The
as they understood that if the
results of this are that pieces of
publishing houses were voluntarily
French literature (the
compliant or forced to comply with
collaborationist papers) could be
La Liste Otto and the regulations of
distributed to hundreds of thousands
the Propagandastaffel then it would
of readers and that in each
be extremely hard for widespread
newspaper there were not only
resistance literature to be produced
articles portraying the greatness of
and distributed.
Germany but there were also articles
in support of and campaigning for
Historically Paris was not only the
Nazi ideals such as the
heart of French intellectualism and
extermination of the Jews. Finally
culture, but also of publishing.
the Germans could also rest assured
Mostly in the 5th and 6th
that in these pieces of literature
arrondissements rows upon rows of
there were even advertisements for
publishing houses could be found.
German military organisations.
Many of these publishing houses
were family firms which had grown
Therefore we can conclusively show,
to gain a renowned reputation, some
that one way French literature was
of which we still know today, such as
used as propaganda, was via the
Hachette, Gallimard, and Robert
collaborationist press, who
Denol. However since mid-
distributed large amounts of pro-
September 1939, just after France
Nazi propaganda. We can also infer
declared war with Germany and
that this source of propaganda was
months before La Bataille de la
very important for the Germans due
France, publishers had been under
to the large audience that would see
French government surveillance and
this propaganda and also the need
required official approval to publish
for the occupier to keep its occupied
new books or republish books out of
population calm and content. The
print. When the Nazis took control
fact that the Germans created their
of France and Paris, as mentioned in
own newspaper as mentioned shows
6. Censorship things became
that they clearly believed and knew
progressively worse. Amidst the
that it was an effective means of
displays of public book burnings and
violent reprisals against publishers
27 Source: back in Germany, almost all of the
http://fr.metapedia.org/wiki/Conseil_ big French publishers became
national_des_%C3%A9crivains desperate very quickly to comply
10/01/17
68
with all the constraints laid down by clandestine press whose aim was to
the Germans. The head of the guild directly influence people to resist,
of the French publishers, Ren but also for the Clandestine
Philippon, made contact with the Literature so called for its greater
German military authorities from artistic value, offering a flourish of
the 25th of July 1940 and very calm as well as sometimes an
quickly agreed to a deal that allowed inherent political or persuasive
publishers to continue with their motive. Novels, such as Le Silence de
work as long as they agree not to la Mer by Vercors and Le Cahier
publish any uvres28 that could be Noir by Franois Mauriac, would
considered as harmful to German have been greatly appreciated by the
prestige or interests. In addition to readers, who otherwise would have
this publishers also werent allowed to settle for works of pro-Nazi
to publish any works on the propaganda, or legally published
previously mentioned Otto list and novels which had undertones of
consequently works by authors such resistance, which were often written
as Thomas and Heinrich Mann, quite dispassionately such as Albert
Erich-Maria Remarque, Franz Camus Ltranger. The most famous
Kafka, Charles de Gaulle, Andr of these publishing houses is Les
Malraux, William Shakespeare, ditions de Minuit, which was
Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust founded by the authors Jean Bruller
were all banned. The Otto list was and Pierre de Lescure in 1941 in
enforced by French police officers, Paris, with the specific aim of
who inspected the premises of circumventing the censorship. A
publishers across France and in small group of printers alongside
doing so seized nearly three quarters Bruller and de Lescure risked
of a million books as well as closing imprisonment and death in order to
down eleven of the seventy publish works by Frances greatest
publishing houses that were raided. authors.
29
It is clear to see that publishing

However despite the majority of houses were extremely important
publishers complying with these and inextricably linked to literature
rules and even despite the immense during the occupation. The Nazis
danger and the threat of execution iron grip on all overt publishers
for those continuing to publish allowed them to control all works
forbidden works, there were some being printed and sold, ensuring that
incredibly courageous and daring those sold were favourable to the
individuals who wouldnt stand for Nazi ideology. Additionally with
the restriction of free speech and the control of all the publishers the
possibility of years without any Nazis had an immense resource that
french literature. These brave they could take full advantage of to
individuals created underground print vast quantities of any
publishing houses, not only for the propaganda they wanted the French
population to see. On the other hand
A work i.e a novel, a poem, etc.
28 the importance of the clandestine
29 Source: Paris at War, David publishers, such as Les ditions de
Drake, 2015, Pg 123 Minuit, in the resistance effort and
69
the sustainment of French literature Soviet Union. Previously the

is also paramount. Without them the communists had even helped expose
Resistance would have undoubtedly members of the Resistance and aided
struggled to produce copies of its own the Germans because of the
underground newspapers in the Germano-Soviet non-aggression pact.
same quantities and we would
certainly be without many At the beginning of the occupation,
influential works that were written those who wanted to continue to
during the occupation such as Le fight and resist after the depressing
Silence de la Mer and LHonneur des defeat of France were isolated, alone
Potes; both published by Minuit. and wary of whom to trust. However
small groups of these individuals did
begin to form and to break through
the desolate isolation of the
individual French person, to work
out who else would be sympathetic to
8. The Role of the Clandestine the Resistance and to keep everyone
Press updated to recent news and
proceedings some form of written
The Clandestine Press is of course communication was needed - the
deeply and inherently linked to the clandestine press. The main
role of publishing houses which are difficulties with this were obtaining
addressed in section 7, as these the equipment necessary as the
newspapers and journals for the Germans controlled paper, ink,
most part relied on the underground photographs, presses and radio
publishers to exist. However the stations. Therefore the clandestine
Clandestine Press itself warrants an press started off at a very small
in-depth exploration of its scale, with individuals using
beginnings, its format and of its whatever materials they may have
influence on the French population. had before the occupation, that they
had kept hidden from the occupiers.
The clandestine movement in For example one of the first
general was begun by people who underground papers was published
saw no place for themselves in in October 1940 by music publisher
Hitlers envisaged New European Raymond Deiss on his own offset
Order. These people were mainly press, which featured news he had
Jews, persecuted both by the Nazis managed to pick up from the BBC.
and Ptains Vichy incessantly, His paper lasted about a year,
Christians, revolted by the Nazis bringing out 16 issues before he was
proclamation of German myth over arrested and beheaded by the
the bible and, particularly pertinent Germans, illustrating the immense
for the French, intellectuals for danger that surrounded those who
whom the Nazi ideology went made underground newspapers.
against everything they believed in
or stood for. The communists only However in spite of the threat of
joined the resistance movement later death, journals, leaflets and
on the 22nd of June 1941, which was newspapers continued to appear. The
a result of Hitler attacking the majority of the early ones were hand-
70
copied, mimeographed30 or that they were all part of the Conseil

duplicated on the same machines National de la Rsistance (CNR). By
French restaurants used to duplicate 1944 completely professional
their menus. One of the earliest newspapers were being produced on
clandestine groups to produce a a huge scale. Dfense de la France,
newspaper were the anthropologists the largest clandestine paper, was
from the Muse de lHomme. They printing and distributing between
named their paper Rsistance, 250,000 and 450,000 copies32, with
which was apparently the first time other papers also producing from
the word was used to describe 50,000 to 100,000 copies, which
French opposition to the German meant that by the end of the
occupation.31 The anthropologists, by occupation, underground papers may
resisting, were defending their have had a weekly circulation of 2
personal integrity against the racist million copies more than the
Nazi ideology. Their paper first officially authorised papers. In fact
appeared on the 15th December 1940 so sophisticated became the
and in order to write articles for it clandestine press, that Combat,
the members of the group met at an which was edited by Albert Camus,
abandoned apartment of a friend used false documents to order
who had fled to southern France. enormous quantities of newsprint
Aware of the threat they faced, they straight from the Germans, without
kept a portrait of Ptain above the them realising it was being used to
mantelpiece and a fire constantly aid the resistance effort.
burning, so that if the apartment
was raided they could burn any In general the resistance newspapers
incriminating documents were short because of the scarcity of
immediately. Despite these stringent paper. For the most part they all
security measures seven men from followed a similar format, beginning
the team were executed and three with a front-page editorial
women sent to concentration camps explaining the ideology of the
again emphasising how dangerous particular newspaper. The contents
this type of work was. of the papers usually included
articles calling on the reader to
As the occupation went on, the remain firm in resisting the
methods that were used to print the occupation and also warnings to
resistance papers gradually French policeman, prosecutors and
developed, from the primitive judges who collaborated about the
methods of 1940. By 1943 thanks to repercussions they would face after
the efforts of Jean Moulin, all the war. Other articles would include
clandestine papers had been brought war news which had not been
into co-operation with one another so allowed to appear in the German
censored papers or reports on the
30 A duplicating machine which morale and living conditions in
produces copies from a stencil, now Germany. Naturally, in order to keep
superseded by the photocopier.
31 Source: The National Daily Press 32 Source: The National Daily Press
of France, Clyde Thogmartin, 1998, of France, Clyde Thogmartin, 1998,
Pg 132-133 Pg 133
71
public opinion firmly against the extent. Additionally it wouldnt have

Nazis, the r been possible to reach out to so many
esistance papers exaggerated and people, who consequently joined the
put a large amount of emphasis on resistance movement when they
news of Vichy or German attacks on found out about it and the
freedom and told of how the newspapers are definitely to thank
Germans were demanding materials for broadening the Resistance to
and men from France. The more than just the isolated
newspapers also gave information individuals that were there from the
about how resistance activities were outset. The clandestine press is also
being involved, what resistance quite evidently one of the ways that
activities had recently happened and literature, this time in the form of
how readers could help to resist newspapers and journals, was used
themselves. Memorials to resistors as propaganda to turn people against
who had been imprisoned or the Germans and to encourage them
executed were also given. As to act. With millions of copies of
propaganda themselves they also resistance papers in circulation by
misreported events, and glorified the end of the occupation, the
and enlarged Allied victories. The clandestine press was a well-oiled,
reporting in these newspapers was discreet, literary-propaganda
often subjective, as they aimed to producing machine.
capture and shape public opinion
rather than accurately represent it. 9. Authors in the Resistance
The role of the Clandestine Press in There were many great French
the resistance and liberation of writers and intellectuals who had
France is easy to overlook. After all, many works to their name before
newspapers arent the typical World War II and were
weapons people usually link to war internationally renowned. However
and World War II. However I think during the occupation these writers
as the statistics above show, this were faced with a choice. At either
would be a mistake. The majority of end of the extremes, writers could
resistance groups had their own collaborate with the Germans, or try
newspaper such as Dfense de la to resist and write for the
France, Combat, Libration, clandestine press. There was also a
Tmoignage Chrtien and La Voix muted, middle ground which was to
du Nord. The printing and not write anything at all, no matter
distributing of these newspapers was how hard that might have been.
essential to the continued efforts of Faced with the danger that loomed
these resistance movements and the over both the paths of collaboration
Clandestine Press was by the end of and resistance, the decision by many
the Occupation a well-oiled machine, writers to abstain from all
churning out just as many publication was perhaps
newspapers as the occupiers. understandable then. However I
Without these newspapers it would personally would argue that refusing
have been almost impossible to turn to write at all, is essentially doing
the public opinion against the exactly what the Germans wanted;
occupiers so quickly and to such an complying with the censorship rules
72
and doing nothing to counter the and Lucien Rebatet all of whom
threat of extinction that the French wrote at length during the
intellectual was faced with. occupation, both their own novels
and for collaborationist newspapers.
During the occupation authors had The Germans, in an effort to promote
to be incredibly careful with how these pro-Nazi authors, compiled a
they portrayed themselves to the list of 189 works by fascist friendly,
outside world. Many authors simply collaborationist authors and ordered
forbade themselves from all public that these works, alongside any new
appearances and contact, based on works by the authors on the list,
the principle that the only way to should be welcomed and given
avoid compromising oneself was to priority publishing rights by those
remove oneself completely from any publishing houses who wanted to
milieu in which you could be linked retain the good graces and material
to the Germans or the support of the Germans.
collaborationistes. Authors, poets, Additionally works by Chteaubriant
playwrights and intellectuals alike and others were selected for
realised that any concrete evidence translation and publication in
of meetings, correspondence or Germany and the other countries
writing with even a hint of that it was occupying. Other
collaboration was likely to cause collaborationist writers had their
problems during the aftermath of the works adapted to cinema by the
liberation and the revenge-fuelled Germans, whilst yet others were
period of the puration33. However invited for speaking tours around
despite all these dangers and choices Germany and to Writers Congresses.
that authors had to make, novels,
books and literary works continued Some of the novels that were written
to appear, but what was their impact by these authors were more clearly
and what role did they play, if any, propaganda than others, such as the
as propaganda during the ideological essays of Drieu de la
occupation? Rochelle, which include Le Franais
dEurope.34 However in other novels
Unsurprisingly, on the face of it, the anti-communist, anti-resistance
collaborationist authors flourished, themes, albeit clear, are presented
gaining fame and importance backed amidst a proper plot. It is important
with German support, money and to remember that the majority of
materials. Some of the most famous these collaborationist writers were
of these collaborationist, anti-semitic viewed as highly talented as well,
authors included those such as and so novels such as Brasillachs La
Pierre Drieu la Rochelle, Robert Conqurante and la Rochelles
Brasillach, Alphonse de LHomme Cheval were high quality
Chteaubriant, Jacques Chardonne books even if the messages they
conveyed were biased.
33 The name given to the period after
the liberation during which the fates
of collaborators were determined,
sometimes lawfully sometimes not, 34 Translation: The French (people)
often ending with their execution. of Europe
73
The result of the relentless support had too strong links to le Parti
for these collaborationist authors Communiste Franais (PCF) for
was that their novels were thrust certain intellectuals who were
upon everyone, both in occupied concerned about preserving their
France, Vichy France and even in political autonomy. The CNE was
Germany and other non-francophone composed of authors and poets who
countries. This overload of pro-Nazi fought with words, with articles
literature was almost inescapable criticising the war, the Vichy
and due to the fact that all government or Nazism. It allowed an
collaborationist authors had old french tradition to retake its
directives telling them what content, place; that of french writers
tone and language their novels engaging in a common cause, just
should contain, it is indisputable like mile Zola had done in the
that the works of such Dreyfus Affair35 almost 50 years ago.
collaborationist authors were Acting on behalf of the CNE Jacques
essentially more fascist propaganda Decour and Jean Paulhan founded a
force-fed to the French populace. new clandestine newspaper entitled
Les Lettres Franaises. This was the
In contrast to the well-advertised first underground newspaper
and famous collaborationist authors, dedicated wholly to the art and its
the authors who wrote for the formation fully allowed the
Resistance were discreet and careful unification of writes of toutes les
to ensure their identities remained tendances et toutes les confessions:
unknown throughout the occupation gaullistes36, communistes,
for obvious safety reasons. Despite dmocrates, catholiques,
the fact that a lot of authors who protestants, as novels, poems or
37
wrote and published their novels articles from all writers no matter
underground were very successful what their tendencies were collected
pre-war authors, those who read and critiqued in this paper.
their works would have struggled to Furthering its status as a group of
tell who the authors were. literary resistance the CNE went on
Pseudonyms were standard practice to establish on the 20th of March
for all who participated in the
Resistance and authors were no 35 A scandal in France in the late
exception. Jean Bruller became 19th and early 20th centuries,
Vercors, Franois Mauriac became involving a Jewish artillery captain
Forez, Paul luard became Maurice in the French army, Alfred Dreyfus,
Hervent and so on. However despite who was falsely convicted of passing
this necessary anonymity great military secrets to the Germans. He
efforts were made to unite the was defended at length by many
resistance authors and co-ordinate writers and intellectuals.
them under one body. In 1941 Le 36 Someone who supported Charles
Comit National des crivains de Gaulle, the leader of the French
(CNE) was created, which was a Free Forces and the r
group of literary resistance. This Resistance
group was born out of the Le Front 37 Translation: all inclinations and
national des crivains which was a all confessions: gaullist, communist,
group with a similar aim, however it democrat, catholic, protestant.
74
1943 a black list of writers accused of becomes disillusioned,

collaboration, which included figures understanding the real goal of the
such as Franois-Ferdinand Cline, German army is not to build but to
whom it encouraged people to ruin and to exploit. He then asks to
boycott and not read their works. leave France to fight on the Eastern
This black list would become all the Front, cryptically declaring he is "off
more important in the years of the to Hell, as serving on the Eastern
puration after the liberation as front is the equivalent of a death
well. sentence. The novel was as popular
as an underground book could be
French resistance novels contained and copies were passed on from one
many similar anti-German, anti- friend to another after they had
fascism and pro-democracy themes finished reading it. The message that
as one would expect. However one the book gave out was one of a call to
book I want to focus on in great resistance, no matter how small or
detail to further demonstrate the how seemingly insignificant. It
impact of authors in the Resistance inspired and captured the hearts and
and to show how novels were used as imagination of the French population
propaganda of sorts is Le Silence de and was viewed as a massive success
la Mer by Vercors (Jean Bruller). for the Resistance. Still today the
This was the first book published by French are immensely proud of this
Les ditions de Minuit mentioned in novel and the effect it had on
section 8, and was written during the galvanising people is not to be
summer of 1941 and published in overlooked when studying the
early 1942. The book is a Resistance. Evidence of its success
heavyweight of French literature lies in the fact that it is a book
and quickly became a symbol of taught at schools not only in France
mental resistance against the but also in English schools for A2
German occupiers. In the book, level French.
Vercors tells of how an old man and
his niece show resistance against the It is clear to see therefore that
German occupiers by not speaking to authors played an important role in
the officer, who is occupying their the Resistance. Amidst a war raging
house. The German officer is a around them, authors both pro and
former composer, dreaming of anti-Nazi continued to write uvres.
brotherhood between the French and We can see from the examples given
German nations, deluded by the that novels and authors also
Nazi propaganda of that period. He contributed to the array of
is intentionally not portrayed as a propaganda during the occupation.
monster because Vercors didnt want Collaborationist authors made their
to put the blame on the individual anti-semitic, fascist themes easy to
German soldier. The soldier makes see for all and these authors were
repeated attempts to try and make used by the Nazis as vehicles to
conversation with the family, who propel their ideology to as much of
remain absolutely mute. The silence the French population as possible.
makes the officer then realise that Likewise authors of the Resistance,
his dream of France and Germany in although sometimes forced out of
harmony is impossible and he safety fears to use subtext that was
75
not so obvious at first glance, poems was that entitled LHonneur

managed to use their novels as calls des Potes, which had an immediate
to resistance and calls to action. impact on the French population. It
Although these books didnt have the was selected and prepared by Pierre
same scale of audience as those Seghers, Paul luard and Jean
openly authorised by the Germans, Lescure. Like La Silence de la Mer,
they are nevertheless just as LHonneur des Potes was published
important and their impact on the by Les ditions de Minuit and it is
French population was substantial. clear to see again the
interdependency of the literary
10. Poets in the Resistance Resistance on publishing houses, and
publishing houses on the literary
Resistance. As Seghers saw it
The poem has a few unique
himself it was essential to continue
properties that made it a very
the existence of French poetry, via
important form of literature during
collections such as LHonneur des
the Resistance. Firstly poems and
Potes, under the conditions of the
anthologies of poems are often much
military occupation. The writing of
shorter than novels and books, which
poetry, and the writing of poetry in
rendered them incredibly useful
French in particular, expressed a
during the occupation due to the
resistance of French thought and of
material shortages. Thanks to their
language against the propaganda
shorter length it was easier to print
that was written in the language of
and distribute more copies of poems
the German occupying forces. The
than of novels, for example, and
Resistance Poetry was tasked with
consequently they could reach a
the revival of a defeated, humiliated
greater audience. Additionally in
nation and defending French
poetry there are lots of literary
literature against German barbarity.
techniques available to the poet,
French poetry thus became a
with which they can emphasise
collective song of nationhood, a
different words and create different
chant national to quote Pierre
allegorical meanings to their poems,
Seghers. Poetry during the
so that the knowing reader will be
Resistance no longer became that of
able to detect and understand the
an address to a secret interlocutor,
hidden themes of resistance, which
but a type of address which is
the non-native french speaking
extended to the whole of France and
German officer will be blind to.
its people; as summarised in
Consequently it was also one of the
Aragons France coute.
safer means of literary resistance.
The poetry of this period is often France coute

referred to as poetry of the On dirait que ta voix nest plus seule
Resistance, however I believe that Le ciel est moins obscur
that title is incorrect and an apter
name would be the Resistance France listen
Poetry, as the poetry itself was an It is said that your voice is no longer
act of resistance. One of the most alone
famous anthologies of resistance The sky is less dark.
76
Until when, French citizens, until

We see here Aragon clearly trying to when?
give hope to his readers and revive
the French national spirit. Now is not the time for silence:
Similarly in Ren Chars Les When the sky changes or will
Feuillets dHypnos (the leaves of change,
Hypnos) we can also see the poet Do not speak to me any more of
trying to recapture the broken minds danger!
of the French and create a sense of See, see on our territory,
hope. The heavy foot of the foreigner!
Hear, snipers of France,
Dans nos tnbres, il ny a pas une The call of our imprisoned sons
place pour la Beaut. Toute la place
est pour la beaut. Similarly, arguably the most famous
In our darkness there is not one resistance poem, Libert by Paul
place for beauty. All of the space is luard, simply and succinctly
for beauty. expresses the integral desire to fight
for liberty and freedom and all the
In this Resistance poem the values that France stands for. The
distinction between poetry and power of this poem and the way it
action is also completely abolished. managed to arouse a desire for
The effort is to confuse these two old freedom and resistance in the French
enemies, so that the poetry of the people didnt go unnoticed either. In
Resistance would be poetry of action order to spread as many copies of the
as well and inspire its readers to poem as possible it was re-published
action. For example we can see this several times in different
call to action clearly in Aragons underground collections. In
Prlude la Diane franaise, telling September 1942, it was then
his readers now is no longer the published for the third time, in
time for silence and do not speak to London, in the Gaullist publication
me of danger, because he is already La France libre. Then in what was a
well aware of the danger and knows rather unheard of feat, even the
that despite it now is the time to British military recognised the
resist. power of this poem. The British
Royal Air Force dropped 150,000
Ne rien sentir et consentir: miniature copies over France, a
Jusqu quand, Franais, jusqu remarkable print run for any poem
quand? in war or peace.38
Ce nest plus le temps de se taire:

Quand le ciel change ou va changer, Sur mes cahiers dcolier
Ne me parlez plus de danger! Sur mon pupitre et les arbres
Voyez, voyez sur notre terre, Sur le sable sur la neige
Le pied pesant de ltranger!
Entendez, Francs-Tireurs de France, 38
Lappel de nos fils enferms http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/09/
arts/09iht-nazifrance09.html
Not to feel and not to consent: (17/10/16)
77
Jcris ton nom And by the power of a word

I recommence my life
Sur toutes les pages lues I was born to know you
Sur toutes les pages blanches To name you
Pierre sang papier ou cendre
Jcris ton nom Liberty
Sur les images dores

Sur les armes des guerriers Most of these poems quoted are
Sur la couronne des rois featured in the anthology LHonneur
Jcris ton nom39 des Potes, which was the first
anthology of resistance poets. This
Sur la sant revenue anthology was a collection of poems
Sur le risque disparu which called people to action and
Sur lespoir sans souvenir called people to resistance, whilst
Jcris ton nom attempting to give the nation of
France a newfound hope and a
Et par le pouvoir dun mot common song to unite the people
Je recommence ma vie under. This anthology as with
Je suis n pour te connatre resistance poems in general, was
Pour te nommer well received by most and looked
back on as a prime example of
Libert. French intellectual resistance
against the Nazis and perhaps even
On my school books more importantly, a refusal to allow
On my desk and the trees French poetry to die during these
On the sand on the snow bleak years when it so easily could
I write your name have.
On all the read pages However LHonneur des Potes was

On all the blank pages not universally well received and the
Stone blood paper or ash French writer Benjamin Pret from
I write your name his refuge in Mexico wrote in 1945 a
piece of work entitled Le Dshonneur
On golden images des Potes in direct response to it.
On the weapons of warriors But how does this anthology of
On the crown of kings resistance poems, commemorating
I write your name martyrs and heroes and calling for
heroism and courage dishonour
On returning health poetry? Pret believed that the
On disappearing risk enemies of poetry have always been
On hope without memory obsessed with subjecting poetry to
I write your name their own, immediate purposes. He
saw LHonneur des Potes as putting
poetry in the service of political
activism, and essentially using
39Due to the length of the poem I
poetry to produce propaganda. He
have only included the first three
even placed the poems in this
and last two stanzas
78
anthology in the same category as use of poetry as propaganda, in the

fascist or antifascist poetry or sense that it had the specific aim
religious exaltation. Prets main detailed above, is something both
objection was that poetry cannot Pret and I would agree on. However
obey a nationalist slogan, even if the in my mind this act of using poetry
nation in question - France - was for action, although going against
savagely oppressed by the Nazis. long standing poetic traditions and
Pret believed that poetry can only principals, doesnt devalue the poetry
be understood as total liberation of at all. Rather it grounds it in a
the human spirit, because poetry has specific historical context and proves
no country, being rather of all times testament to the needs of the times
and all places. However in response in which it was written.
to this I would argue that these poets
had to face up to Nazism as well as
11. The Role of the Theatre and
the totalitarianism of the Vichy
governments and their poems are
the Exceptional nature of the
consequently tied to the era and Occupation on the theatre
circumstances in which they were
written. These poets did not have the The Occupation impacted the
time to achieve the total liberation, theatres of France just as much as it
of which Pret speaks with the did the french publishing houses,
impending danger and threat of authors and poets. Censorship was
death looming over them. These reintroduced on plays for the first
poems were held hostage by the time since 1906 and meant that
circumstances of the occupation; the every script was checked and that
need to continue the tradition of there was an obligatory German
French poetry and fight against the presence at all times in the theatres.
oppressor. It is worth reflecting on Consequently every scene, every
the words of a German poet Johan word and every gesture was put
Wolfgang von Goethe with respect to under intense scrutiny. German
his view that all his poems were displeasure at a play could result in
poems of circumstance. They are the play, and all other works of the
inspired by reality, upon which they playwright, being banned or the
are founded and stand. I have no playwright, actors and any other
interest in poems that are participant being punished. Any
unfounded. 40 playwright hoping to sustain his
career could not produce any
It could not be clearer that poets and unequivocal calls to resistance in
poems played a hefty role in the their plays. Any messages of hostility
Resistance, with them being used to would have to be conveyed incredibly
revive a despairing nation as well as subtly and placed in a situation
calling this nation to action against distant enough from the
an incredibly powerful enemy. This circumstances of the Occupation for
it to be unrecognisable by the
Germans. This is something very
40 Quote taken from the essay by hard for the director, or playwright
Yasmine Getz entitled Poetry of the to control as for this to occur, it
Resistance, Resistance of the Poet would be from a mixture of the
Pg 12
79
messages conveyed by the dialogue, theatre a mise en scne41 can be

gestures, the scenery and dcor, the structured by a director to emphasise
stage directions, the costumes, the the audiences concentration on
delivery of the dialogue and the certain aspects of the drama and
interactions of the actors with the therefore highlighting certain
audience. In addition to the messages or words. Additionally
censorship and the resulting caution unlike authors or poets a theatre
on the behalf of playwrights, artistic director was in a unique position to
expression was limited further by avoid censorship. After a play was
the fact that certain actors, directors given a performance visa by the
and playwrights were excluded from German authorities based on an
the theatre due to their race or inspection of its script, the director
beliefs. However despite these could make changes before a public
extraordinary circumstances that the showing. Clearly this was not the
theatre faced during the Occupation, case for books or films which
the development of French theatre constituted the finished products
was not slowed down at all and in when they were submitted to the
fact this intervention of politics and German censors. However in general
war led to a new vision being the main ways that playwrights
expressed; theatre characterised by a fooled the Propagandastaffel was by
tragic emphasis and the roots of a implying the transposition of a
theatre of commitment which had historical, often mythical, subject
the philosophical assertion of onto the current situation. To give an
freedom at its heart. example of this, one can cite Jean-
Paul Sartres Bariona ou le fils du
However unlike all the other forms tonnerre. This play was written and
of literature that I have discussed, performed first in a POW42 camp and
the theatre has certain properties was designed to bring people
that gives it a unique advantage together at christmas time. Sartre
when it comes to portraying a subtle portrayed the Romans as the
allegorical meaning whilst avoiding masters of Judea and the Jews as a
the censorship of the conquered people, which was a clear
Propagandastaffel. The theatre comparison of the Germans and the
unlike literature must be open and conquered French to the audience,
public as must the majority of its yet shielded from the censors eyes.
critical reviews. Plays cannot be Similarly the Occupation saw an
performed in a hidden way like incredible soar in the popularity and
books and pamphlets can be the number of Joan of Arc plays that
distributed and additionally it is a were performed in France. The
live performance unlike the cinema. Germans were more than happy to
Beyond the written dialogue of a see the plays re-enact the forced
play there are several other factors retreat of the English from France
that must be taking into account,
such as the quality and 41 Mise en scne: The arrangement of
performances of the actors, the stage everything that appears in the
directions, the size of the venue and framing actors, lighting, dcor,
the political leanings of the props, costume
administration if the theatre. In the 42 Prisoner of War
80
given the context, however they were attendance in the theatre was during
unable to understand that although the winter of 1943-1944; which was
the occupiers in the Joan of Arc plays when the conditions were at their
such as Jeanne avec nous were worst. Ironically at the height of
English, the parallel was being these tensions with an Allied
drawn between the English occupiers invasion imminent and danger
to the current German occupiers. everywhere, any theatre showing in
The cries heard from the audience, Paris was almost guaranteed a full
was not at the excitement and the house. The first reason for this is due
pleasure of a forced English retreat to a desire to escape the harsh
from France, but actually at the idea realities of daily life and war via
of the German occupiers being forced entertainment. Secondly the public
to retreat from France. Each time also sought a form of ideological
Jeanne said the word Anglais, the refuge in the theatre, where they
audience heard Allemands, whilst could observe, approve of and
the censors remained blissfully identify with patriotic, anti-
ignorant. However, although it is Occupation sentiments. Playwrights
tempting to say that the such as Sacha Guitry used this
Propagandastaffel could not pick up second reason to justify their
on the subtleties within French decision to continue to perform and
texts, for the most part their write plays, saying there was a need
censorship was efficient. It would be to encourage French people by an
fair to say that virtually no play that expression of national culture and a
referred directly to contemporary reminder of their nations former
events was allowed to be performed greatness. He argued this would lead
and authorities would react very to greater solidarity in the face of
quickly to any hints of resistance it German oppression.
could see during performances. For
example after an outcry of laughter To show in detail how plays were
at the words Adolphe, lignoble used to convey a particular message,
Adolphe, in the play 29 degr albeit disguised, of resistance to
lombre by Labiche, the character their audience we can use Jean-Paul
was immediately renamed to Alfred Sartres Les Mouches. This play uses
for the next showing. the cover of the myth from the
Odyssey of Agamemnons Orestes.
Yet amidst the horrors of the Agamemnon the king of Mycenae
Occupation one has to ask was away fighting in the Trojan war,
themselves, what was the role of the whilst Aegisthus became the lover of
theatre and why did audiences his wife Clytemnestra. Upon
continue to come during such Agamemnons return he is killed by
suffering? Whilst conditions for Aegisthus who becomes the king of
theatregoers were incredibly taxing, Mycenae. Orestes was away when
with food and fuel shortage his father returned from Troy and
compounded by the violent was murdered and doesnt return to
assassinations of members of the Mycenae until he is a young man.
French Resistance and constant Les Mouches commences upon his
bomb alerts, box office figures show return to Mycenae where he meets
that the period of greatest his sister Electra and together they
81
plot and commit the murder of

Aegisthus, which is written about in 12. Conclusion
an approving light, and about which
it is emphasised that Orestes should Overall I think I have conclusively
in no way feel guilty - that Aegisthus shown that literature had a large
deserved to be killed. In Les role during the period of the
Mouches Sartre is therefore shown to Occupation. In direct response to the
have given his approval of violent question that I set myself, it is
individual acts against an evident that as much French
illegitimate tyrant or occupier. This literature was used as propaganda
was particularly topical at the time as possible, in every respect possible.
that Les Mouches was performed as From newspapers to novels, from
a German officer was killed by the poems to plays, all became ways for
Resistance just the day before the either side to further their effort in
premiere. Sartre stated himself that the war. Clearly the strict censorship
he wanted to encourage the authors rules werent a problem for the
of such attacks not to repent for uvres that were sympathetic to the
these acts or denounce themselves in German cause, but for any other
order to escape the retaliation and be piece of literature, subtext, metaphor
confident in your act and your and allegory had to be masterfully
freedom of choice to act and to kill wielded or simply it had to be
and know that it was the right published and distributed
choice. Additionally Orestes, the clandestinely. Generally, the main
protagonist, can be seen to represent influences that the Occupation had
Charles de Gaulle - a rightful leader regarding French literature were
of the people, exiled from his firstly the fact that due to
homeland, who liberates Mycenae censorship, it forced many different
(representing France) from a fascist, authors, playwrights and
authoritarian leader. intellectuals to stop writing or go
underground, whilst their already
Consequently it is very clear to see published works were banned and
that the theatre played a large and destroyed. In this sense the
important role during the Occupation actually had an effect of
Occupation. Not only did it serve as creating an abyss of literature.
a distraction to the French However another result of the
population from the hardships of Occupation was that a wealth of pro-
daily life, but also it was a means of Nazi literature arose, mainly in the
laughing at the Germans under their form of newspapers and books. It is
noses, and for the playwrights and clear to see that the Germans
actors a means of expressing and benefited vastly from literature
sharing an anti-Nazi ideology with during the Occupation, as all legally
the rest of the audience. Quite published literature was a vehicle for
clearly then the theatre and the their ideologies and essentially
plays that were shown were also propaganda, force-fed to the French
used when possible as a means of population.
propaganda and a tool to circulate
and transmit a message of resistance However despite this fact, it cannot
amongst the audiences. be denied that literature greatly
82
contributed to the Resistance effort from literature during the

during the Occupation as well. Occupation was from the ability to
Although this clandestine literature impose their ideology on the French,
was scarce to begin with, it grew and who didnt even completely submit to
became relatively widespread and it, and from the fact that they could
easily obtainable towards the end of ban anti-German pieces so that the
the Occupation. This literature was French werent exposed to anything
invaluable as not only did it that went against the Nazis.
galvanise the spirit of the public but However as we have seen this wasnt
it actively helped the leaders of the entirely successful either thanks to
Resistance to identify and recruit the clandestine resistance literature.
new members, gave advice on how to Therefore I would affirmatively say
resist yourself and managed to that French literature played a large
maintain French dignity, and more role during the Occupation and
importantly French intellectualism although it was of benefit to both
and literature during the sides, the Resistance certainly used
Occupation, saving it from having literature most effectively and
the label of being solely pro-Nazi gained the most from its use as
detritus during the four years from propaganda.
1940 to 1944.
Therefore I would conclude by saying Bibliography

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century round_media_in_German-
20. http://courses.ischool.berkeley.ed occupied_Europe#France
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degene
u/i103/su09/slides/projects/French rate_art#Degeneracy
PressWWII.pdf http://www.discoverfrance.net/Franc
21. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/345/1/b e/Literature/DF_literature6.shtml
oothroyd09PhD.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-
22. http://tpecne.skyrock.com/ century_French_literature#From_1914_to_1
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t%C3%A9_national_des_%C3%A9 Drake ISBN-10: 067450481X Publisher:
crivains Harvard University Press; 1 edition (13 Nov.
24. Poetry of the Resistance, 2015)
Resistance of the Poet by http://eserve.org.uk/tmc/occupied/coll
abo.htm
Yasmine Getz, University of https://www.theguardian.com/world/
Charles de Gaulle-Lille III 2009/sep/08/life-in-occupied-france-nazi
84
The Resistance in France by Les Feuillets dHypnos by Ren

Professor H.R. Kedward Char. ISBN-10: 2070343790 Publisher: Folio
http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2 (22 March 2007)
003/chapter8/interviews/filetodownload,3150 La Diane Franaise (Prlude la
4,en.pdf Diane Franaise) by Louis Aragon. ISBN-10:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French 2232123545 Publisher: SEGHERS (24 July
_Resistance#Clandestine_press 2012)
Collaboration and Resistance: Ltranger by Albert Camus ISBN-
French Literary Life under the Nazi 10: 2070360024 Publisher: Gallimard
Occupation by Olivier Corpet (Preface), Le Cahier Noir by Franois Mauriac,
Claire Paulhan (Preface), Robert O. Paxton ISBN-10: 2841006182, Publisher: Bartillat,
(Introduction), Jean-Paul Sartre (Original Publisher: Les ditions de Minuit)
(Contributor) ISBN-10: 0981969003 The Authorized Press in Vichy and
Publisher: Five Ties Publishing (Jan. 2010) German-Occupied France, 1940-1944: A
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/09/ Bibliography by Donna Evleth, Greenwood
arts/09iht-nazifrance09.html Press, 1999
http://www.myfrenchlife.org/2012/09 France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944
/21/paul-eluard-the-french-freedom-poet/ by Julian Jackson, Oxford University Press,
Le Silence de la Mer by Vercors. 2001
ISBN-10: 2210754135 Publisher: Magnard Le Muse de lOrdre de la Libration
(1 Jan. 2010) (Museum of the Order of the Liberation in
Un Sac de Billes by Joseph Joffo. Paris)
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generale francaise (16 Jun. 1983) Hauteclocque et de la Libration de Paris
Huis Clos/Les Mouches by Jean-Paul Muse Jean Moulin (Museum of General
Sartre ISBN-10: 2070368076 Publisher: Leclerc de Hautecloque and the liberation of
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279/liberte-paul-eluard/)
85
Which Eurasian or Western empire exerted the

greatest power after the fall of the Roman
Empire?
Thomas Laver
1: Abstract
This project aimed to discover which 2: Introduction
empire in either Eurasia or the West
had the greatest power over their The past has always influenced the
own subjects, over the international present, in how we speak, how we
community of the time, and even think and what our society is like.
over the present. As part of this, One of the most notable forces from
there was an exploration of what history influencing the present day
allows an empire to have control, have been empires: large
what constitutes an empire, and international entities assembled by
what types of power give the greatest (usually) one country for a variety of
control. reasons, from military strength to
Through exploring these questions, economic gain. These empires
the three most powerful empires forming at numerous different points
were shown to be a collective in world history have spread not
European empire, the Chinese only the dominions of a nation, but
empire-state (from the rule of the also culture, learning and wealth to
Yuan dynasty), and the international places where it may not have
superstructure of Islam. For Europe, reached in such a way, helping to
the legitimacy of the concept was influence how we think of the world
questioned, and the structure of today. The Roman Empire is a key
their rule in the colonies was closely example of this, with the large
examined, alongside the power of programmes of expansion (spreading
their militaries. For China, the the geographical borders of the
cultural and societal components empire) followed by drastic economic,
were primarily examined, but other cultural, linguistic and ethnic
elements also. For Islam, the unity of changes that have persisted long
the Islamic world and the influence enough to arguably form the basis of
of the law played a significant part modern European society. After the
in the discussion. fall of the Romans, a large power
This dissertation concludes that vacuum was created that arguably
overall, China (from the rule of the affected all of Eurasia, with the
Yuan dynasty) was the most divisions and then collapse of such a
powerful Eurasian empire to exist large geopolitical unit significantly
since the Roman Empire, due to affecting trade, politics and cultural
Confucianism ensuring incredible influences from Britain to China. It
loyalty to the Emperor, which just is in this environment that regions
was not matched by Islam or were destabilised, and could
Greater Europe. therefore have new geopolitical
86
entities and empires forming that do reveal themselves, so helping to

not fall under Classical history, but protect the legacy of our current
instead of the history which still world.
shapes us today, and from which
lessons may be learnt resulting in
this projects chronological limit at 2.1: Defining Empire
the fall of the Romans.
However, empires (as vehicles for Historians such as John Darwin
change) also have permanent argue that the key imperial
influences on the current world, be interests the reasons for empire
they intended or not, causing
are strategic use of local resources
impacts which nonetheless have
and exclusive control over foreign
altered our world, and not always for
relations43, which allow the formal
the better. A key impact that many
extension of economic and
Eurasian and other Western empires
geopolitical power of a state, but we
during assertions of their dominance
must also consider how religion and
over much of the world has been the
culture are also very important to
frequent eradication (almost
how power can be held and exerted.
completely) of pre-existing societies
Therefore the definition of empires
and power structures, resulting in
to be used will be any conglomerate
only a very small body of physical or
of areas united under a single
written sources detailing the
central control, usually held by the
histories of those areas, so in order to
creator of the empire, who aims
have a more focused and evidence-
either to forge links between them to
based discussion the question has
further common aims, or to use
been limited to only Eurasian or
control over these people and areas
Western empires for which a large
for personal means. This means that
body of sources and research already
many international entities and
exists.
presences can count as empires, from
By exploring how powerful these
large geographical entities such as
empires were, we can also begin to
those of the Romans or British, to
identify what empires may exist in
religions such as Islam which
the present and how they rule their
dominate the lives of their followers,
people and influence current affairs.
or even economic empires such as
This could enable the international
the European Union or Americas
community to act more peacefully in
current financial influences. The
mutual understanding and co-
power exerted by these empires is
operation (rather than with
any form of control which offers a
imperialistic aggression), as they
way in which to exert influence over
may be able to recognise when their
aspects of the lives of their
attempts to cement greater power
citizens/followers in both the past
could in fact be detrimental to the
and present, with the greatest
world as a whole. Through this, the
power constituting the most control
best methods of ruling best of
that any empire has had to influence
course being largely subjective, but
used here in the spirit of 43John Darwin, After Tamerlane, p.
utilitarianism for ensuring that the
413
world is harmed the least may also
87
the lives of both its own subjects and

the international community. This 2.2: Other Definitions
should be measured both at
individual points of history where an Throughout this project, reference
empire had great contemporary will be made to certain terms, which
power, but also at all points of will be defined here. These terms
history to measure the permanent will be italicised to ensure clarity.
impact and legacy that an empire
has left: in other words, the power Ching = Manchu-Chinese imperial dynasty. Ruled from
1644 1912. Also known as Qing
that it has over generations after its Han, Manchu, Tibetan = Chinese ethnic groups
existence through its influences and Hashid = Practices of Muhammed. Part of the Islamic law.
Ijma = Binding consensus of religious scholars. Part of the
actions. Islamic law.
Of course, what forms of influence Ming = Han-Chinese imperial dynasty. Ruled from 1368
1644.
can actually give central governance OPEC = Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
OIC = Organisation for Islamic Co-Operation
the greatest power is a key point of Quran = Teachings of Muhammed Islamic holy book.
contention, and will form a Part of the Islamic law.
Sharia = The full collection of Islamic laws.
significant portion of the discussion Ulama = Islamic religious scholars and bureaucrats
in relation to this question before Yuan = Mongol overlords of China. Ruled from 1271 1368.
any conclusion can be reached.

3: Timeline of major imperial events:

476: Last Roman Emperor dies End of the Roman Empire
610: Muhammeds first revelation (I1)

618: Muhammed moved to Medina, and began expanding Islam (I2) Colour Code:
632: Muhammeds death (I3)
Purple = Islam
750: Islamic empire extends from Spain to Transoxiana and Iran (I4)
960: Song Dynasty begins, uniting the Ten Kingdoms of post-Tang China (C1)
Red = China
1271: Yuan Dynasty begins (C2) Green = Greater
1258: Death of last Abbasid caliph (I5)
Europe
1368: Ming Dynasty begins (C3)
1492: Christopher Columbus arrives in America (GE1)
1530: Mughal Empire established by Babur (I6)
1566: Death of Suleiman the Magnificent Ottoman Empire at its height (I7)
1607: First successful English colony in Jamestown, Virginia (GE2)
1644: Ching Dynasty begins (C4)
1720: Beginning of Chinese rule of Tibet (C5)
1736: Formal end of Safavid Empire Iran founded under Nader Shah (I8)
1757: Battle of Plassey Beginning of British East India Company rule in India (GE3)
1788: Establishment of first Australian colony (GE4)
1795: Abdication of Qianlong Emperor Chinese Empire at its greatest extent (C6)
1815: Congress of Vienna European co-operation and diplomatic relations firmly established (GE5)
1830: End of Greek war of independence last major pan-European conflict until WW1 (GE6)
1848: Series of revolutions establish very similar democratic systems throughout Europe (GE7)
1912: Fall of Ching Dynasty (C7)
1914: Beginning of World War 1 end of old European system (GE8)
88
1922: Dissolution of Ottoman Empire (I9)
Anachronistic Map of All European Empires:
Red = Britain, Pastel Green = Russia, Light Blue = French, Yellow = Spanish, Purple = Portuguese, Bright Green
= Germany, Orange = Dutch
5: Discussion
For this segment, Darwins theory of
Now, having researched and a Greater European empire will be
dismissed more minor empires, there accepted as a concept, and measured
is now the final shortlist of empires accordingly as one of our three main
the Chinese empire-state, the empires. We assume that the
Islamic religion, and the Greater prerequisite central governance
European Empire concept which came from the Great Powers or
we shall now closely analyse the Concert of Europe, a competitive yet
power structures and influences of to co-operative grouping of France,
form our conclusion. These Britain, Russia, the Holy Roman
international power structures, Empire, and (intermittently) others
better described as forms of such as Prussia, Spain, and the
imperialism and expansion rather Ottomans, which helped to develop
than empires, will be fully links and work through problems to
evaluated in order to judge which ensure further European
held the greatest power after the fall advancements.
of the Roman Empire. As can be seen in this anachronistic
map demonstrating all the areas of
the world which have been part of
5.1: Greater European Empire
the empires of European states,
Europe has managed to invade,
89
subjugate and influence most of the economies to European methods and

countries of the world at some point systems, gave Europeans crucial
in time the only area which even opportunities to get into countries
mildly escaped European ownership and influence them, slowly turning
is China, and even then there was them into economic extensions of
significant European influence Europe and giving excuses for their
through the Open Door policy. This European overlords to intervene to
is one of the primary indicators of a protect their interests and formally
strong empire that territorial create a colony. However, this also
power has been both achieved and shows the great power of Europe, as
maintained, to create this massive through this they were able to create
cross-continental empire subservient a world economy from this for their
to the whims of the authority of one own benefit, forcing these areas to
small portion of the Earths surface. produce for them a key example
Judged purely on territory owned at being the exploitation of India and
any point in history, Europe would the Bengal, arguably the treasure
be the most powerful empire. chest of Britain and Europe.
However, there are a multitude of Christianity was also effective when
other elements to an empire: used as a weapon along these lines,
primary among these are the allowing European influence to
considerations that the conquered stretch across the world through
territories must be made subservient missionaries, and so creating excuses
to the central authority, and to intervene as Europeans had a
significant links built within the moral duty to protect other
imperium. This is going to be the Christians if they were threatened.
main element of this discussion on This was an especially potent tactic
Europes empire. in Africa, where Europeans
One way of assessing Europes power intervened to protect missionaries
is in how they advanced and took and spread Christianity further form
over new areas. A strong weapon of local tribesmen or unbelievers
Europe in this area was their highly who were then later kept loyal by
industrialised society, which was this European connection.
able to produce cheap and mass However, these opportunities for
produced goods for export such as intervention would be nothing
pottery, metal and cloth. Often these without military force to exploit
goods flooded into foreign markets, them. Europeans could exert a
and broke open the economic areas of powerful professional military force
self-sufficiency that had previously due to their economic strength, and
given areas the ability to resist had the technology to deploy
foreign influence and intervention, powerfully with rifles, helmets, and
both making the Europeans richer lightning tactics and deploy fast
and destabilising pre-existing using locomotion and steamships
regimes due to the collapse of local to intimidate and defeat local forces.
industry, such as in India were Using these riches, armies could be
cheap Lancashire cloth flooded out also recruited, equipped and
the high quality local weavers. The mobilised directly from the colonies,
advance of European credit alongside allowing an even larger military
this, as well as advisors on adapting power.
90
Europeans also managed to entrench directly. However, beneath that

themselves very effectively in the regional and tribal loyalties were
areas that they conquered. One way enhanced, and became the foci of
that this occurred is in the pervasive power and societies, ensuring that
and insidious touch of European pre-existing power structures
culture, helping to bind countries to remained in place and could be
Greater Europe, even if they exploited, while also dividing the
werent formally part of the empire. opposition against European rule.
The Anglophone influence of Britain Gandhi very specifically campaigned
and the US is most important here, against this, highlighting that the
which also helps to ensure that a many Indian provinces were working
European empire of culture still against one another, with both
persists to this day, cementing their regional and religious divides being
position at top of the international exploited by the Europeans,
food chain. This culture also spread demonstrating the effectiveness of
ideas on historiography, state this system of European rule.
philosophies, and modernity, which However, is this really ruling?
made Europeans seem like righteous Initiative was largely left in the
leaders of the rest of the world. hands of natives, who arguably
Racial stereotypes also entrenched dominated the decision making in
during colonial rule, especially in each colony, so Europeans never
places such as India and Africa truly had all the power to fully
where even locals began to perceive rebuild and reshape society in their
themselves as inferior, ensuring that own image, demonstrating that they
Europeans ruled by acceptance and may not be as powerful as previously
the population didnt rise up against suggested.
them. This ruling by acceptance Furthermore, this empire suffered
granted them incredible power over from many significant weaknesses in
any who they conquered. Ethnic other areas. Firstly, the theory of a
imperialism was another inter- shared Europeanness is rather
linked element of this, as part of negated by the distinct nationalisms
European colonial rule involved the of each of the European states over
creation of a white ruling class to this period, which did lead to some
rule the natives, who would then be significant tensions bubbling over
the key leaders who themselves in into conflict such as the Franco-
turn forced loyalty to Europe. The Prusso war, which occurred despite
settlement drive in new areas such being during the main period of
as Australia and America also European dominance and co-
created new colonies automatically operation in the long 19 century,
th
and closely linked by ties of culture demonstrating that European co-

and ethnicity, creating even greater operation was never fully realised,
imperial links and building both and so the central control needed in
Greater Europe itself, and the an empire (and so the empire itself)
power they wielded. was questionable in its realtiy.
The structure of European rule was Furthermore, even John Darwin
also very interesting. As has been admits that this empire broke down
mentioned, a white ruling class was irrevocably in 1916, when because of
created, which then ruled for Europe the escalation of WW1, greater
91
reparations were needed for whoever was very little active co-operation
won, so the fabric of Europe had to and common objective in the actions
be irrevocably changed to account for of Europe as a whole as well as
this, with nationalisms, small states their very internecine history does
and antipathies thereby created suggest that this concept may be
completely preventing future co- artificial (not fulfilling the definition
operation. This demonstrates the of empire set down in 2.1), and even
weakness in this empire by co- if real loses great amounts of power
operation that was Europe, as a in the excessive devolution to local
small disagreement over the Balkans rulers, meaning that colonial rulers
eventually ballooned into the had very little direct and pure power
collapse of Europe as a united at their disposable. So has there ever
imperial power so surely if the been a great landmass truly united
empire couldnt withstand a minor into one massive empire that
challenge to their unity, they could expanded coherently?
not have been powerful at all.
Overall, while the Greater Europe 5.2: China (From Yuan dynasty)
concept is convincing and has China has always been a great
evidence in support, the strength of territorial force, rising and falling
over time with dynastic and
cartographical alterations. However,
our focus will be from the beginning
of the Yuan dynasty that ruled
China, as it is at this point in
Chinese history that both the North
and South areas of old China were
closely united into one coherent and
integrated state, with both areas
equal under the Emperor. This both
demonstrates the power of the Yuan
emperors to forge lasting links one
The Chinese empire under the Ming dynasty, of our key definitions of empire but
growing from traditional, coastal China. (Early it also gave them greater power in
17th C.) future, and a springboard from
which to gain even greater power.
the empire that was controlled from This is because this unified two very
this central authority is not as great. different economies (the largely
The wide set of methods of drier, wheat producing North and
imperialism used by the Europeans the wetter, rice producing South)
from mechanised military into one vast and powerful economy,
deployments to cultural as the very different forms of
entrenchment allowed large agriculture complemented and
amounts of territory to be acquired supplemented one another into a
by European powers (in implicit co- massive powerhouse of agrarian
operation with one another), and production. Not only did this allow
then these territories and peoples to an autarky that insulated them from
be subjugated and then controlled. the insidious advance of European
However, the pure fact that there trade, but it also meant that
92
extensive territorial growth could scholar-bureaucracy who could rule

occur later on, as there was a firm the empire for him on the lower
economic and resource base to fuel it, levels of the state, giving greater
so greater power could be exerted efficiency to the system while also
through this expanding empire. The ensuring that he didnt have to rely
uniting also created a set of cultural on local warlords instead of fully
values which reflected and united all loyal civil servants. This meant that
of China Han, Manchu, Tibetans, the daily running of the empire an
and more another potent weapon area in which the European empire
used to further grow the power of the had negligible influence was
Emperor. conducted in a manner that ensured
This cultural imperialism and total loyalty to the centre, so no
strength also shows itself in another devolution occurred which would
potent weapon of the Chinese state: reduce the Emperors direct power,
Confucianism, and the influence this showing the intense control that he
then gave the Emperors central had over all Chinese. The strength
control. As a quasi-religious and unity provided by this cultural
philosophical movement, it stressed homogeny also acted as a very
a loyalty to the divine, yet also effective defence from cultural
encouraged obedience to worldly invasions such as those of the
authority amongst its followers Europeans, preventing the insidious
themselves being the vast majority of advance of European influence and
the Chinese population. As the interventions, expressing itself in
Chinese Emperor represented both such movements as the Boxer
of these (he was seen as a divine Rebellion which firmly rejected
being as well as an all-powerful Europeanism and allowed the idea of
ruler), an incredible amount of independent China to persist to the
obedience and loyalty was at his modern day while also
fingertips, with the Chinese demonstrating the great power that
the central Chinese authority
had over such a large number
of people in such an intimate
way.
However, while this cultural
domination was important, and
allowed an establishment of a
Chinese state which still exists
today, it only complements the
The Ottoman Empire under Suleiman military power of the Chinese
the Magnificent (AD 1580) state to expand and entrench
itself. This did occur in China,
with the crushing of the
population loyal to his rule, edicts Mongol hordes by Chinese forces
and general leadership in all things, opening up much of Inner Asia to
so great power was held in his hands Chinese expansion, and removing a
over the Chinese empire. The key threat to the Chinese state. This
scholarly values of Confucianism gave the Chinese central authority
also created for the emperor a greater foreign and expansionary
93
power, so they could expand their a direct control to be passed down

borders from a smaller state near the without too much devolution to
coast to one that dominated most of disloyal or interpretive
Inner Asia. The incorporation of independents. However, it can also
these imperial possessions and be seen that the military power of
advancements into the Chinese state the Chinese state allowed expansion
itself rather than seeing them as a into territories which were then
separate and distinct entity as thoroughly incorporated into the
Europeans did with their separate empire allowing greater expansion
colonial administrations and and cartographical control that
departments meant that more meant the centre had even greater
permanent institutions were power. The economic and cultural
established in these areas, giving the zones established throughout China
State greater power. This stands in also encouraged an incredible unity
stark contrast with the British and solidarity within China,
colonial institutions that collapsed meaning that European forms of
after around a century, suggesting imperialism worked very hard for
that the Chinese were more powerful very little, making real gains only in
than the Europeans who expanded the late 19th and early 20th century
and only dominated for a short which were then quickly reversed.
This pervasive influence of the
Chinese may qualify them as a
stronger empire than Europe, in the
astonishing loyalty to the Emperor
that dominated the lives of his
subjects, the effective opposition of
the Chinese people to all foreign
interventions, and the permanence of
the institutions and incorporation of
new territories.
5.3: Islam
From one man on a mountain, to 1.7

billion people worldwide, Islam has
had an astonishing expansion
throughout history, with a
significant empire forming over this
The Chinese empire at its
time to create arguably one of the
greatest extent under the Ching
largest and most powerful
dynasty, by province (AD 1820)
imperiums ever seen. The
period. astonishing territorial acquisitions
Overall, Chinese power was largely began with the uniting of Arabia
held over the ruled through the under Muhammads own personal
effects of Confucian ideology in leadership, and really kicked in with
encouraging loyalty to the Chinese the astonishing advances made by
emperor, and the setting up of the Abbasid and Umayyad Caliphs,
bureaucratic structures that so that by AD 750, the Caliph (leader
emphasised this while also enabling of Islam) ruled a territory almost the
94
size of Russia, stretching from Spain law that has been set down in the
and Portugal, to Transoxiana and Sharia, and is guided by the ulama
the Iranian borders, which was all who administrated it. These laws
completely under his will (for were extremely comprehensive so
reasons that will soon be explained). much so that in no areas was it
Even when the Caliph wasnt possible to find any acceptable
directly in charge of one large mass deviation or individual
of Muslims, the empires which interpretation (after all the ijma had
formed as part of the been decided), meaning that the life
of a Muslim was completely
dominated and controlled by these
laws demonstrating incredible and
quantifiable power in Islam as it
dominated all the hours of its
adherents days. This power is
exacerbated by the fact that Islam
did not divide state and religion,
ensuring that on no counts could
local rulers usurp control over any
The Umayyad Caliphate (AD 750)
decentralisation were astonishingly
large. Shown in these maps are the
three greatest of these empires the
Safavids of Persia, the Mughals of
India, and the Ottomans of Anatolia.
This demonstrates the territorial
influence and power that Islam and
its followers had throughout history,
but as has been said before
cartographical ownership does not
mean that they were powerful. The Safavid Empire under Shah
We have argued that the central Abbas (AD 1629)
authority in this Islamic Empire of
all the Islamic world (not just the
Caliphates) comes from the Islamic
areas as in European empires
where devolution was key to survival
and so detracted from the amount of
real power wielded so Islam
remained the sole influence on the
lives of its subjects. The power of the
administrators of this law the
ulama, and their head the Sheikh ul-
Islam is clearly demonstrated in
the constant traditions of deference
required to them by all Muslims,
Arabia united under Muhammad (AD 632) even sultans and local rulers who
while they may be seen as more
95
powerful in the European sense (i.e. who travelled from Tunis to

they own the land) are in fact mere Damascus, and met the great
servants in the wider Islamic Tamerlane in between teaching,
superstructure. The Sheikh ul-Islam judging and creating greater Islamic
in fact exerted considerable power unity by fostering more of a link to a
through this Islamic law, and as the wider Islamic world, rather than a
most influential of all the ulama specific country. This close linkage
could call for jihads against clearly demonstrates the great power
unorthodox or uncompliant rulers of Islam to bind a massive area from
such as Shah Abbas of the Safavids, Morocco to India together under a
who were then toppled by their own joint religion, culture and law.
people merely because they did not International power was also had by
precisely follow the Islamic laws set the control of lucrative trade routes
down clearly demonstrating that such as the Silk Road, which were
Islam was the higher, central well exploited and protected by the
authority even when not all the caravanserais (fortified medieval
Islamic world was united, and a service stations) that dotted the
greatly powerful one at that. Islamic world from the Balkans to
The binding of the Islamic states India. This gave Islam great
together also demonstrates how economic power in the world, which
powerful Islam was, as it was able to was amplified by the control (and
fundamentally shape these areas in growth) of domestic industries such
ways still seen today. A key way as textile production in areas which
influence was the binding culture of were conquered, allowing Islam to be
Islam that pervaded everywhere that a major economic force on the world
they became prevalent, which stage.
expressed itself in many ways be it Through examination of Islam
artistically in the influence of Arabic during foreign (and specifically non-
and Persian styles, linguistically in Islamic) occupations, we can also see
the prevalence of Arabic (ensured the immense power Islam had.
through the necessity of studying the During such occupations, Islam was
Quran in its original language) and often able to grow such as the
in the societal structures that it experience in East Africa described
helped create. This increased the in 4.3 demonstrating their
amount of loyalty that the different adaptability and resilience, and the
nationalities of the Islamic empire fact that they were often fostered
had to the Arabic, Persian, Egyptian and complied with by conquerors, an
and other Islamic centres, as well as interesting aspect to the Islamic
to the Islamic law itself. This intra- empire that granted them the
Islamic loyalty was also ensured by incredible power of survival. The
the criss-crossing of the ulama across ability to often overthrow these
the Islamic world, which created empires through Islamic efforts
very strong teacher-student links alone primary among them the
over massive geographical areas that strongly Islamic anti-Dutch
were far greater than those to movement in Indonesia also shows
sultans or other local rulers, helping that this power wasnt tamed by
to negate individual nationalities. occupiers, and was still
Such scholars included Ibn Khaldun,
96
independently powerful and Islamic superstructure provided.

influential enough to topple empires. These advances include medical ones
An astonishing feature of Islam is on the use of certain procedures or
the fact that the religion has medicines, astronomical ones such as
managed to survive for over a under Al-Battani, mathematical ones
including the creation of algebra,
and even historiographical ones
surrounding the accurate uses of
evidence and biography writing. The
fact that these still influence our
society today demonstrates a power
over the present that only comes
from historical importance, so Islam
must have been powerful enough to
The Mughal Empire at its create this.
height (AD 1700) However, Islam does also suffer from
millennia, and still come out as a some very significant weaknesses in
dominant world religion, and the its power structure. The absence of a
fastest growing large one at that, single leader or ruler for a large part
according to a recent study by the of its history has already been
Pew Research Centre44. This when discussed, yet is extremely
coupled with the immense significant to our definition of Islam
international power of Islamic as an empire (in whether it fulfils
organisations such as the OIC, or the definition in 2.1), and detracts
organisations such as OPEC which from the international power of
are dominated by Islam countries Islam as there was no single ruler
clearly demonstrates the power that who could negotiate with other
must be in Islams empire for it to states and represent Islam in the
survive for so long (compare it to wider world. Furthermore, local laws
Europe, which only really stood for a did take over some of Islams legal
century), and still forge links (in the areas, especially in the strong
form of these global organisations) Islamic empires such as the Mughals
that allow further expansion and and Safavids which were able to take
continuing international influence. greater initiative in enforcing local
This influence over the present can rather than Sharia laws. In these
also be seen in the intellectual empires, the ulama were often side-
advances that were made in the lined, with their roles more as
Islamic world, which were arguably advisors or bureaucrats rather than
only made feasible by the safe the leaders of the Islamic community
environment and support which the themselves. This didnt happen
everywhere in the Islamic world, but
44 Pew Research Centre. (2015). The was a significant enough element
Future of World Religions: that it did significantly detract from
Population Growth Projections, their power.
2010-2050. Available: As can be seen, Islam has been able
http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02 to exert itself through religion in
/religious-projections-2010-2050/. permanent, irrevocable ways,
Last accessed 25/10/16. weaving itself into the lives of many
97
Muslims throughout history through also creating a bureaucracy that

its comprehensive Islamic law. ruled efficiently and loyally for the
Through the advances they made, as emperor. No other empire could
well as their survival, they were also match this incredible domination of
able to affect the present, the lives of individuals Islam came
demonstrating historical power. The close through the pervasion of their
strength of Islam is also shown in Islamic laws, but the subversion of
the fact that they didnt need the ties this that occurred in strong states
of ethnicity so essential to the such as the Ottoman or Safavid
Europeans, and could in fact just empires significantly detracts from
rely upon the strength of their the power that can be wielded
society. However, the economic links through this, while the Europeans
and power that Islam had were in had to almost completely rely upon
fact fairly small, so there was no locals who could subvert European
massive reshaping of the world to directives and loyalties.
favour and subjugate everyone as Furthermore, China was also able to
Europe (especially Britain) did. create massive zones of cultural
Furthermore, the decentralised similarity and economic co-operation
nature meant that there was no that ensured a collective unity that
single ruler who could represent even included newly conquered areas
Islam on the world stage as a sole such as Tibet or East Turkestan that
negotiator and powerful figure as previously were rather different, but
there was for instance with China in once brought into the Chinese
the form of an emperor which is a empire by an efficient military, were
very important detraction from made incredibly similar and loyal.
Islams empires power. European approached a similar
6: Conclusion economic zone that still persists to
today, but the devolution already
discussed left large cultural diversity
6.1: Answering the question:
that led to areas breaking free of the
empire, and while Islam was able to
So on the basis of the close analysis
foster a sense of Islamic cultural
of these three historically significant
similarity and unity, the fact that
and pervasive empires, which
trade was mostly locally controlled
Eurasian or Western empire exerted
and not fully exploited by the Islamic
the greatest power after the fall of
superstructure meant that Islam
the Roman Empire? From the facts
couldnt match China in this area of
researched and discussed in this
power.
project, China from the Yuan and
Chinas resilience and constant
Ming dynasties appears to be the
resistance to foreign intervention
most powerful of all the empires to
(including that of Europe) also
exist after the Romans.
meant that they stayed independent
Under the Chinese emperor, power
and homogenous, and that the
was wielded through the Confucian
institutions in place remained
ideology that created incredible
permanent. Islam was very similar
loyalty to the Emperor in the
in the fact that they were able to
individuals he ruled that was not
grow and survive despite all foreign
matched in any other empire, while
occupations, but they didnt remain
98
in overall power in those areas so taking advantage of the world

werent equivalent to China overall. economy created by the Europeans to
Therefore, China is the most spread their influence globally, so
powerful of all the empires to rise perhaps in future the maintenance of
after the fall of the Romans. this dominance to resist advances
After China, Islam probably comes made by other economic powers such
second in terms of power, with their as the EU or China could help to
decentralised nature further cement any other advances or
removing power compared to China, imperialism that the USA carries
but the astounding out. However, the prevalence of
comprehensiveness of the Islamic Anglophone culture that America
law and the strength of the Islamic has spread and grown has also
unity created means that the power helped to entrench their influence
under the Islamic superstructure throughout the world, beginning to
was still mighty and impressive. build the entrenched stereotypes
Third of our three major empires is that come with cultural domination,
therefore the Greater Europe allowing other cultures to accept
concept, which while able to them as rulers potentially a key
dominate the globe cartographically element of US expansion in future.
by working in implicit co-operation When coupled with the astonishing
together (which also shaped a world size and technology of the American
economy that still exists and benefits military, American expansion does
them today) and entrenching look distinctly possible in future,
stereotypes in the colonial with trade and culture at the
population, were extremely vanguard, before political and
internecine and had only a weak real military influence/force create
control of their colonies due to the modern-day US colonies in a massive
devolution required to rule them, empire of Anglophone corporatism
and so comes third of these three and militarism.
greatest empires. If we wish to stop this form of
empire, we should be on the lookout
6.2: Wider implications for ways to negate this influence, for
instance through the creation of
But how does this affect us today? trading blocs that can collectively
The study of history is (arguably) resist US economic advances, or the
only useful for what it tells us about fostering of non-English culture to
the present, so what can we learn resist the onset of American
from the insights drawn from this stereotyping and protect native
project? cultures.
As was mentioned in section 4.4.2,
the USA is a current and still 6.3: Suggestions for further work
growing empire, which while not
(yet) one of the major empires to Further research in this field could
have risen since the Romans, is still assist these efforts to negate US
relevant to the insights that can be imperialism. For example, if we
drawn from the research in this examine closely the extent to which
project. Currently the USA is a American culture has pervaded
predominantly economic empire, extra-European societies we could
99
see the amount of influence that the 8.1: Books

US currently has throughout the Darwin, John (2008). After
world. Additionally, we could Tamerlane: The Rise and fall of
examine how much control Global Empires, 1400-2000. London:
international organisations such as Penguin Books
NATO and the UN (which some Gardner, Daniel (2014).
argue are completely dominated by Confucianism: A Very Short
America and the West) actually give Introduction. Oxford: Oxford
the USA over world politics, and to University Press.
what extent they truly do dominate Robinson, Francis (1991). Atlas of
these organisations. the Islamic World since 1500. 4th
Alternatively, greater research into ed. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books
the economic element of Islam could Kaufman, Joyce P (2010). A Concise
be conducted, to expand upon the History of US Foreign Policy. 2nd
current limited body of research in ed. London: Rowman & Littlefield
this area. Recently, Peter Publishers, Inc.
Frankopans The Silk Roads 45 Brogan, Hugh (1990). The Penguin
attempts such a reimagining of History of the USA. London:
world history through a focus and Penguin Books.
emphasis upon the large trade links Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1965). The
that existed in Asia, and how that Rise of Christian Europe, London:
affected the growth of certain Thames and Hudson
societies (primarily Islamic ones) Frankopan, Peter (2015). The Silk
more than others. This could give a Roads: A New History of the World.
greater insight into the economic London: Bloomsbury
power of the Islamic superstructure
as against that of the individual
states, helping to develop our 8.2: Websites
analysis of the power of Islam as a Jasanoff, Maya. (2007). After
collective empire. Tamerlane review. Available:
Another possible avenue of research https://www.theguardian.com/books/
could be into the extent to which the 2007/may/12/featuresreviews.guardi
history of Islam, and the influence of anreview7. Last accessed 23/09/16.
the superstructure we have Bajpai, Prableen. (2016). The World's
examined, has influenced current Top 10 Economies . Available:
Islamic extremist groups such as http://www.investopedia.com/articles
Daesh, and how their aims fit into /investing/022415/worlds-top-10-
the historical narrative of Islam if economies.asp. Last accessed
at all. 23/09/16.
8.3: Picture Credits

Bibliography Anachronistic map of all European
empires (Page 14). Reddit. Available:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/b/bc/European_E
45Frankopan, Peter (2015). The Silk mpires.svg/1000px-
Roads: A New History of the World.
London: Bloomsbury
100
European_Empires.svg.png. Last
accessed 18/10/16.
China under the Ming Dynasty
(Page 16). China Highlights.
Available:
http://www.chinahighlights.com/map
/ancient-china-map/ming-dynasty-
map.htm. Last accessed 18/10/16.
China under the Ching Dynasty
(Page 17). The Art of Asia. Available:
http://archive.artsmia.org/art-of-
asia/history/ching-dynasty-map.cfm.
Last accessed 18/10/16.
Arabia united under Muhammad
(Page 18). Wikipedia. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ara
bianpeninsulaAL.PNG. Last
accessed 18/10/16.
Umayyad caliphate 750 AD (Page
18). Wikipedia. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Um
ayyad750ADloc.png. Last accessed
18/10/16.
Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas
(Page 18). Wikipedia. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Th
e_maximum_extent_of_the_Safavid_
Empire_under_Shah_Abbas_I.png.
Last accessed 18/10/16.
Mughal Empire in AD 1700 (Page
18). Wikipedia. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mu
ghal1700.png. Last accessed
18/10/16.
Ottoman Empire under Suleiman
the Magnificent (Page 18). All About
Turkey. Available:
http://www.allaboutturkey.com/otto
man.htm. Last accessed 18/10/16.
101
Higher Projects
The Higher Project allows GCSE students to plan, manage, realise and then
review a topic in depth. This year, students have researched a variety of subjects,
and have fully embraced the opportunity to produce an extended essay on
anything that interested them most. A selection of some of the best pieces of
work has been published in this journal.
Is rehabilitation in UK prisons effective in

preventing re-offending?
Oliver Wright-Jones
Introduction drug addiction is a factor, and they will do

anything to fund their habit. But with effective
Rehabilitation is the most important part of the and targeted rehabilitation, the problem of
Criminal Justice System. It is defined as the reoffending can be reduced. Offenders can be
action of restoring someone to health or normal taught an alternative lifestyle - a life outside of
life through training and therapy after gang culture, how to find work, a way break
imprisonment, addiction, or illness.1 A through the vicious and perilous cycle of drug
punishment, if it is to fulfil its purpose, should addiction.
serve as a deterrent to criminals wanting to
commit crimes in the future, thus saving the This report aims to provide both factual
government money on imprisonment and law information and some food for thought. It will
enforcement in the long-term. In a world where cover topics such as government policy on
we are generally at peace with other nations, the rehabilitation, including some of the programs
focus of the UK, both in government and society, available, why people commit crime and what the
should be in sorting out our own internal affairs re-offending rates in the UK are, what the
and creating a country where everyone is treated public's perception of prisoners is currently, and
fairly; those who do not respect others by how the use of drugs slows down the
committing crimes must receive an appropriate rehabilitation process. I chose to undertake this
punishment. After completing their sentence, project because I was interested in learning about
prisoners should be able to return to society to a part of society often neglected, but arguably the
start again with a changed attitude and a new most important: prisoners.
life away from criminality. However, even after
leaving prison, offences are still committed for Section 1 Background on
many reasons, sometimes because the Rehabilitation 1.1 A brief history
perpetrators have little choice. Perhaps it is
because they need to renew their allegiance to the The first state prisons in the UK were built in the
gang they were separated from. Perhaps it is early 1800s after the Penitentiary Act was passed
because they need to shoplift to support their in 17792. Throughout the 17th century, harsh
children because they cant find work. Maybe a
102
punishments for petty crimes, such as theft, were The programmes are rather varied in their focus
becoming less popular. Prisons were considered and end goals, although there is occasional
overlap and most target specific groups of people.
to be a suitable alternative for execution or exile
One such targeted course is COVAID (Control of
to faraway British colonies. Initially, UK prisons
violence and anger in impulse drinkers). The
were rather harsh a hard labour regime with
various versions of this programme can be
little human interaction. Gradually the treatment delivered as group work, or individually. It is
of prisoners improved as the law changed. Now, designed to help alcoholics find ways to prevent
in modern times, prisons are viewed as a place for stress and deal with day-to-day situations in a
social reform, with many opportunities to change calm manner. Another programme is ART, or
Aggression Replacement Training. It helps people
criminals attitudes. In exchange for committing
who have been convicted of violent offences by
crimes, prisoners have their liberties taken away.
challenging offenders to take responsibility for
Imprisonment acts both as a punishment and a
their actions and think before they speak.
chance for renewal.
Perhaps the most common programme is called

1.2 EU Policy and Legislation
Stress Management and Rehabilitation Training
this is a form of holistic education, meaning
The European Unions prison legislation has a
clear policy on what should be achieved inside that people can find their purpose through their
prisons. It has two main goals: Deprivation of interactions with the world and the community.
liberty, and preparation for re-integration into It requires self-awareness, and willingness to
free society. Prisons must also carefully maintain change. SMART is a UN-accredited program
conditions which do not infringe human
which, according to its own figures, has so far
dignity3. The aim is for criminals to come out of
helped around 350,000 prisoners worldwide since
prison with a support network co-operation
1992.5
with outside social services...shall be encouraged
- and with a positive attitude. However, the
2.2 Why are they sometimes not
reality is sometimes vastly different. Thousands
effective?
of prisoners are being released with no place to
live, and have little support from local councils.
While these programmes may, on the surface,
Many suffer from various mental health
problems, from depression to eating disorders, seem to be able to help, there are a number of
sometimes as a result of the difficulty of prison reasons why they are not always effective and
life. Two- thirds of convicts in the UK have drug worthwhile. The majority of OBPs focus on
problems4, making it hard for them to break free helping to improve yourself, however mental
of the cycle of imprisonment recreational drug illnesses such as depression and anxiety make it
use is still illegal in the UK.
difficult for offenders to have confidence in
themselves and to trust others. With most of
Section 2 Current these programs having sessions that last for over
Rehabilitation in Prisons two months, some people do not commit
2.1 Rehabilitation Methods themselves fully, which is both a waste of money

and time. There is a great need for prison
HMs Prison Service currently offers 47 Offender education as well - figures from the Prison
Behaviour Programmes (OBPs) to its inmates. Reformation Trust show that around one quarter
103
of prisoners have learning difficulties, affecting many members use it as leverage to get a higher
their ability to cope in the Criminal Justice position in the chain. The police are in a constant
battle with these dangerous organisations.
System, and nearly half do not have any
Frequently young members are caught on the
qualifications.6
supply runs, and are either cautioned and place
in a juvenile detention centre. While the time
The strongest evidence for the failure of prisons
spent there might convince some to cut their ties
to provide effective rehabilitation is re- offending
with the gang, some see time spent in prison as
rates. A crime is considered to be a re-offence if it an inconvenience gang culture is such that
is committed within 12 months of a previous imprisonment is seen as a medal of honour,
conviction. From January to December 2014, the which is perhaps the most shocking thing.
proportion of re-offenders was 24.5%, with an Prisons need to do more to reach out to youths to
average number of re-offences per re-offender at ensure that they can see alternative options to
crime it is never too late to change ones life
3.19, a worrying increase on the previous year.7
around.
These statistics are clear proof that more needs to
be done to stop prisoners falling into the cycle of 3.2 Prison conditions: how are
crime and prevent the upward trend from their mentalities affected?
continuing. Of course, it is not always a problem
with the prison programmes, and often it is down Often locking up a criminal gives a short-term
to what happens in prisoners free time that resolution to a long-term problem. What
means programmes do not have a 100% success prisoners can be exposed to has a negative effect
rate. on their mental states. In 2014 alone, there were

18,995 incidents of self-harm across all prisons.8
Section 3 How can Understaffing and overcrowding mean that
rehabilitation be ineffective?
prisoners individual needs are not always taken
3.1 Why do people commit
care of, and this may leave them feeling isolated
crimes?
and unsupported. There is an ongoing lack of
opportunities provided in mens prisons, with
Desperation: Difficult home circumstances mean
that people can no longer stay with their families. ratings being only good or reasonably good in
Such people have to learn to feed themselves 25% of adult male prisons, compared to womens.
through stealing and pickpocketing. They find it 1 in 5 said they spent less than two hours a day
difficult to get a job because employers prefer to outside of their cell this causes behavioural
hire those higher up in the social ladder. Often it problems, such as compulsive violence and
is not these peoples fault they have missed out
restlessness. It is no wonder that prisoners find it
on a full education and are not in touch with
difficult to re-integrate into society.
social services.
As mentioned earlier, 2/3 of prisoners have a

Gangs: Very few members enter gangs as adults.
They are recruited from childhood, at a time narcotics or alcoholic problem. It is likely they are
when belonging to something seems cool and in prison for an offence pertaining to drugs.
mature. Initially, some may do drugs or weapon Overcoming withdrawal symptoms requires an
runs, in which they act as couriers, going to incredible amount of willpower and medical
different locations as part of a supply chain.
support. Some describe their life without drugs as
Sometimes they make some money from this, but
104
being grey and monotonous9, and speak of The majority of acquisitive crime, such as
needing the drug to feel happy. Withdrawal stealing, occur with the intent to earn money. As
symptoms from alcohol include shakiness and mentioned previously, the money is likely for
hallucinations the only way that most see to drug use. Estimates say that drug users need
prevent this from happening to them is drinking anywhere between 15000 - 30000 per year to
more alcohol. Often inmates rely on suppliers, fund their habits.11 Suppliers of drugs that are
either bribed guards or other prisoners, to keep caught often face prison sentences of two years or
their habit going. more. The most popular illegal drug in the UK is
cannabis. The drug was first made illegal in 1928,
So, how easy is it to obtain harmful substances
after no parliamentary debate or reason. There
in prison? Often it is a case of asking other
are no proven long-term negative effects of
prisoners to put you in touch with a supplier, or
weed, in fact, it is used by sufferers of chronic
calling in a personal visitor to arrange a supply.
neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis.
Drugs can be disguised in the post or in clothes,
It is impossible for the police to try and stop the
and recently smugglers have come up with
circulation of cannabis therefore, it would be
creative ways to get past searches, such as hiding
better for the government to legalise it, and then
powders underneath stamps and inside childrens
it can be taxed as a commodity, providing a large
picture books. Drones are sometimes used to drop
boost to the economy. One would expect to see a
supplies directly into the prison yard. A
significant drop in crime rates and prison
commonly available prescription drug given to
numbers if non-harmful drugs such as marijuana
prisoners is Subutex, meant to help with heroin
were legalised.
addiction. Instead, it is used as a drug substitute,
ground into fine powder and snorted like
cocaine. 10 Debt and violence as a result of drug 4.2 What problems do prisoners
dealing cause heightened tension between face after completing their
prisoners. sentence?
Section 4 Addressing the issues Life can be difficult for ex-convicts when coming
with the Criminal Justice System to the outside. Difficult family relationships
4.1 How to improve the mean that some cannot find a place to sleep
rehabilitation system safely. The lack of support offered by local
councils make it hard to get back on their feet.
As has been shown, the current system is in need
Often prisoners get so accustomed to life inside a
of desperate reform. The biggest problem is the
prison that some did not know how to live in
lack of staffing. Working in a prison is currently
not seen as a desirable job due to the medias society12 after being released. One ex-prisoner
negative portrayal of prisoners, however, with a said "It's actually amazing to realise how stress
greater financial incentive and promotion, more free prison is. You have no housing worries; you
people can be encouraged to work there. More get your food made. There's nothing to worry
funding must be given by the government to about., which shows why some speak of wanting
increase capacities in prison, which will make
to go back to prison.
inmates feel more comfortable and eases
relationships between themselves.
105
As part of my research, I conducted a brief from re-offending. There are many problems, both
survey13, hoping to determine what people inside and outside prisons, such as the
thought of prisons and prisoners. When asked the availability and addictive nature of drugs and the
question, Would you feel safe if you knew that a lack of life prospects. It means that criminals
criminal convicted for a violent crime lived very have little choice but to rely on crime to survive
close to you?, 60% of respondents answered No, and to finance their choices. What is needed is
citing reasons such as rehabilitation might not better adult education and social mobility. In
have been effective, or they are likely to re- addition, the government needs to change its
offend. On the other hand, those who said yes attitude to narcotics, and provide more funding to
said that people are too quick to judge someone, help those who have fallen into addiction: the
and I trust the prison to rehabilitate effectively. current legislation does little to tackle the
When asked if they thought that the current CJS problem: people will always want to take drugs,
is effective in punishing criminals, 20% answered no matter how much you prohibit it.
Yes, showing that the majority wish for change.
The negative opinion towards convicts extends to
wider parts of society, particularly when looking
Bibliography
1. 1 From the OED
for employment. Long absences from work on 2 From politics.co.uk
2.
CVs after convictions that means employers are 3 An extract from European Prison
3.
less likely to hire someone who has spent Rules 2006
4. 4 A quoted statistic, no citation from
considerable prison time. This makes it more
article found
difficult for prisoners to reintegrate into society 5 From their Welcome Page
5.
and reform themselves. 6. 6 Research conducted as part of their
No One Knows Campaign
5. Conclusion 7. 7 Official UK government figures
8. 8 From HMs Prisons Inspectorate

Report
In summary, while it can be said that current
9. 9 Quote from one alcoholic
rehabilitation is, in theory, very effective as a
10. 10 Revealed in a video sent from inside
result of the targeted and focused approach to HMP Bullingdon
prisoner reform, in practice it is simply not
enough to prevent a large proportion of prisoners
106
How will Quantum Computing Affect

Cryptography?
Manav Babel
Introduction
classical example is paying for an item with a
In this project, I will investigate both quantum card. The computer system is present in the card
computing and cryptography, their history, reader, as is the algorithm, and the required goal
technology, uses, and how they can be combined, is deducting money.
as well as what effect this would have on society The definition can even be stretched to include
and our ways of life. I hope that this project will simple tasks such as raising a hand. Many
give me an insight into some essential skills for a theories posit that the brain is a biological
career as a researcher, such as documenting and computer [2] [3], with the world as input and
presenting, and also some useful and interesting actions as output. Indeed, there is a little
knowledge about quantum phenomena and evidence for quantum phenomena being essential
cryptographic techniques. I find this topic to the functioning of the brain; however, as this is
extremely interesting, as not only does quantum a fringe theory with few links to the overall
computing it have the capability to change our question, we shall focus more on typical
entire view of the world, but is also extremely computers.
important to our way of living with privacy and
security. I wish to be a physicist, and this topic
will give me some knowledge, and may help
direct me in the specific path I could take. I chose 1.2 - What is Quantum
to do this task because I am very interested in Computing and how does it
computing and physics, and I would like to
continue in this area for my career path. It would work?
further my knowledge and help me in this
direction. Cryptography is also increasingly To answer this question, one must first dive into
important to governments and businesses, so the murky and poorly-understood world of
investigating the impact of quantum computing quantum mechanics. This is the world on the
is important. micro-scale, dealing with subatomic particles and
the weird and wonderful phenomena that occur
For this project, I shall be using the internet, there.
some magazines or newspapers I might be able to One of the bases of quantum mechanics and
find, my teachers, and my family and the public computing is quantum superposition [4]. One of
for opinions. the best ways to express this is through a thought
experiment developed by Erwin Schrdinger
(18871961), a Nobel-prize winning Austrian
Physicist. The experiment is called Schrdingers
Key terms: Cat [5]:
Quantum computer: a computer which makes use
of the quantum properties of subatomic particles
to increase computing power and speed.
Cryptography: the science of writing or breaking
codes or ciphers
1 - Computing
1.1 - What is Computing?
Figure 1:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger
Computing is an activity that requires a
's_cat
computer system and an algorithm that is fed
into it to reach a required goal [1]. One example of Imagine a cat in a steel box, with a Geiger
this is a dishwasher: the computer system is the counter, a radioactive source, a hammer and a
integrated chip (IC) inside, and the algorithm is vial of deadly poison. The counter is set so that
present in the Read-Only Memory (ROM). The the first radioactive particle detected causes the
required goal is to clean the clothes. A more hammer to fall upon the vial and shatters it,
107
killing the cat. The source is such that one quantum computing, since each qubit represents
radioactive particle could be released in an hour, both 1 and 0 simultaneously, a qubyte represents
or none, with equal probability. Now we close the each and every value from 0 to 255 at the same
lid of the box. After an hour, is the cat alive or time. Say a calculation wants the square of all
dead? the numbers up to 255. A classical computer
would run the operation 256 times. If each
According to quantum mechanics, it is both alive iteration took 1 second, the total time would be
and dead at the same time. Because we cannot more than 4 minutes. A quantum computer
know which, both have an equal probability, and simply creates 8 qubits, runs the calculation once,
so the cat is said to be both, in what is called a and outputs 256 values in one second.
superposition of states.
This is a very non-intuitive thought experiment, Now the true power of quantum computing
and was originally intended as a jab at quantum shines. A quantum computer would outperform
theories at the time, until the famous double slit any classical computer in iterative calculations by
experiment [4] gave further evidence towards a vast amount [7], drastically reducing the time
superposition and another theory called wave- needed and improving efficiency to
particle duality. The double slit experiment unrecognisable levels. A world of truly instant
involves firing a photon at a piece of card with information would be at the worlds doorstep.
two parallel vertical slits in it. We do not know However, there would be a huge price to pay. Due
which slit it goes through, and so it goes through to the very nature of quantum computers, the
both. Then, the photon interferes with itself, slightest interaction with a qubit would collapse
creating an interference pattern on the screen the superposition of states. This is a part of the
behind it. However, if detectors are placed at the difficulty in building a quantum computer: the
slits, the interference pattern disappears, largest yet built has 9 qubits, but it still managed
showing that the photon has only gone through to accurately simulate a hydrogen molecule. This
%&
one slit. This is like the cat, because obviously, is compared with over 810 bits in an everyday
the cat is alive or dead, but because we do not classical computer. The cost and power needed to
know which, from our perspective, it is both. If insulate the qubits from particles and fields may
the box were left open, the superposition could drastically reduce the areas it could be used in.
not happen because we would be observing it. Despite the drawbacks, there are still two major
Now that we have the analogy in Schrdingers fields a quantum computer would revolutionise:
Cat, we need to substitute the objects in order to optimisation [8], and number factoring [9].
get the application in real life. Substitute the cat Optimisation problems are problems where there
for a particle such as a photon, the act of closing are many solutions, and the best one is required.
the lid with a laser beam, and the process of The difficulty can be explained through the
opening the box with something interacting with following thought experiment:
the photon (e.g. a magnetic field or another Imagine you are in a mountain range, and cannot
photon). see anything except the reading on the barometer
in your hand. Your task is to get to the top of the
Classical (non-quantum) computing depends on
electrical charges of 1 or 0. For quantum
computing, which depends on individual
particles, the direction of the spin of a particle
dictates the value. A photon has a spin with a
value of 1, but it can be clockwise or
anticlockwise. A clockwise spin could represent
the binary value 1, and an anti-clockwise spin
could be 0.
When a low-energy laser hits a spinning particle,
the spin changes direction (i.e. from 1 to 0, or vice
versa), the spin either remains the same or Figure 2: http://molchip.unizar.es/res_qubit.html
changes. The crucial thing is that we do not know
which. This means that it enters a superposition
of states, and is spinning both clockwise and highest mountain. Naturally, you start moving
anticlockwise. Such a particle is called a qubit, uphill, but when you reach the top of the nearest
or quantum bit [6]. mountain, how do you know that you arent on
So, create a series of qubits, so a quantum the highest mountain? So you go down again to
computer can run a normal calculation on them, the valley, and up another mountain. Eventually,
and output the value. This may not seem like after weeks or months, you might find the
much. What is the point of all this when it has highest mountain, after a huge expenditure of
the same effect? time and effort.
In classical computers, 8 bits (1 byte) can
represent any value from 0 to 255, with each This is an analogy of a classical computer trying
permutation representing one value. However, in to solve an optimisation problem. It would have
108
to go through every solution, remember the best The first real and well-known encryption method
and compare it each time. A quantum computer, was the Caesar shift [12], credited to the same
due to its inherent properties, could simply Julius Caesar of "Et tu, Brute?" This is one of the
compare all of the solutions at once, and simplest encryption methods, relying on simply
immediately output the best. It is analogous to shifting every letter of the message a certain
simply looking at a map, finding the highest point number of places along the alphabet. The number
and being dropped there by helicopter. shifted becomes the key to decrypting it. To
Optimisation problems include the best way to decrypt it, Alice simply gives the key to Bob, who
route airport or telephone traffic, or the moves all the letters backwards in the alphabet.
Travelling Salesman problem. For example, the message Quantum Computing
and Cryptography, when encrypted with a key of
5 results in: Vzfsyzr Htruzynsl fsi
Factoring is the process of splitting a number Hwduytlwfumd, which seems to be gibberish. To
down into its prime factors. For example, the decrypt it, one simply moves all of the letters
factors of 12 are 2 and 3. This is a simple back 5 spaces.
calculation for any computer. But what if the However, this encryption method is not very
number to be factorised is 256 digits long, and is effective. There is only a maximum of 25 different
made of only two prime factors, each with vast keys to try, so Eve would be able to crack it very
numbers of digits? A classical computer would quickly.
take so long that it would be useless to start the
calculation, but a quantum computer would solve In search of a better encryption method, Alice
it with ease. The use of this type of problem will decides to vary the keys. Every letter of the
be discussed later. message will have a different key. All as will
have a key of 1, bs of 2, and so on. Eve (a
malicious eavesdropper) is stumped. How can she
2 - Cryptography possibly decrypt this without the knowledge of
2.1 - What is Cryptography? the different keys? She thinks for a while and
comes up with frequency analysis [13]. In every
Cryptography is a science which involves language, each letter has a different frequency of
changing information being sent between two use. In English, e is the most frequent letter,
parties (typically Alice and Bob) in order to followed by t and so on. If she analyses the
prevent a third party (Eve) from understanding letters in the message, the most frequent letter is
it. It is split into two parts: encryption, and likely to be e, and so on. Eventually, she knows
decryption. Encryption is the encoding of the enough to guess all the letters, and the key is
information by Alice, and decryption is the cracked.
decoding of the message, hopefully only by Bob. A
code is a form of encryption where whole words This progression, of new encryption methods and
are changed. For example, password could better ways to crack them, has continued since
become orange. On the other hand, ciphering is the birth of ciphers, and so far only one method
changing individual letters, so hello could has proven to be completely uncrackable, but
become jrvvk. When encryption is used here, it even that has a major weakness. This method is
will refer to enciphering. The oft-quoted called the one-time pad [14]. In this method, Alice
encryption methods of tattooing the message on a encodes the message with a completely random
shaved slaves head or using lemon juice are in unique key, so that even frequency analysis
fact methods of steganography [11], where the cannot be used. Then, Bob uses the same key to
message is not changed, but hidden. decrypt it. In fact, the only weakness of the
method is the distribution of the key. If Eve
gained a list of the keys, she would be able to
2.2 - How does Cryptography crack all communications.
work?
factorise. This difference is negligible for
This major weakness has led to ever stronger relatively small numbers, but for numbers 1000
encryption until one revolutionary idea led to digits long which decompose to two primes that
modern encryption. An encryption method does are just as large, factorisation is a huge task.
not need to be unbreakable: it simply needs to One-way functions are the basis for modern
resist cracking for as long as possible, until the encryption, but due to their mathematical
information within is irrelevant. This requires complexity, they are more commonly used to
mathematical operations called one-way exchange a single symmetric key via the Diffie-
functions [15]. These functions are easy to Hellman [16] key exchange, which is then used for
calculate in one direction but fiendish in reverse. the rest of the communications. To demonstrate
One example of this is number factorisation. It is this method, the following example will be used:
trivial to multiply two numbers, but harder to
109
Bob is an entrepreneur and is looking for a secure and so the method is almost completely
way to transfer important financial information. unbreakable, relying on the inefficiency of
He chances upon a system he calls public-private classical computers.
key encryption, or asymmetric key encryption,
However, due to Moores Law [17], which states
that computing power doubles every 18 months,
the time required to crack the encryption will
decrease until it is feasible and efficient.
Although we are now approaching the limit of
Moores law with transistors on the 7 nm scale, it
is possible that the smallest possible transistor
could provide the necessary computing power, but
this has a very low probability. However, the
more certain advance of quantum computing will
pose great problems to encryption, as the function
used to derive the symmetric key is related to
factorisation, an area quantum computers are
especially good at.
Figure 3:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-
key_cryptography
and decides to try it out. One day Alice wants to
but something from him. They agree upon two
primes, say a and b. Then, they both perform a
one-way function using those two numbers and
another number which only they know (say c for
Alice and d for Bob). This function is: Figure 4:
!" $%& ' ) for Alice and !" $%& ' ) for Bob. http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/257890/how-
do-light-waves-get-their-size
Now, they exchange their results (A and B) and
perform the same one-way function, but this time 3 - How does Quantum
substituting the results in. This is shown
# "
Computing affect
by " $%& ' for Alice and ! $%& ' for Bob. Now,
due to the function, they both end up with the Cryptography?
same number, because:
(("# %&' ()* %&' () +,&% -&( = "#* %&' ( = Modern encryption methods use the
#
(("* %&' ()# %&' () +,&% /0123 function " $%& ' , which means multiplying a by
. itself x times, and getting the remainder of
division by b. Getting x from the result when one
Now, they can use this as a symmetric key knows a and b is difficult for a classical computer
(because they both use the same key) to encrypt due to the properties of one-way function, but for
the rest of their communications. Even if Eve has a quantum computer, it would be trivial. Herein
managed to intercept all of their communications, lies the crux of the problem quantum computing
without knowing both of their secret numbers (c poses for cryptography. Quantum computers
and d), she cannot find out the symmetric key, would render almost all modern encryption
and so their communications are secure. It is methods obsolete by simply being very efficient at
possible for her to work out c and d from A and B the one area of mathematics those methods rely
because she knows the prime numbers a and b, upon being inefficient to solve. If a full-scale
but because a one-way function is used, this working quantum computer was produced and
would take so long the information would be set to work cracking encrypted messages, for all
irrelevant. Once Alice and Bob have finished intents and purposes, there would be no
communicating, they discard all of the numbers, encryption, a devastating possibility.
and go their separate ways, leaving Eve
bewildered. If modern encryption techniques were
compromised, there would be huge implications
This system eliminates the major weakness of for security and privacy. One of the main types of
exchanging the keys, and so is secure while the information to be targeted would be financial,
one-way function remains easy one way and and indeed 64% of people thought that their
impracticable the other. With classical financial information would be the information
computers, the time required to reverse the they least wanted to be compromised. Companies
function and find the two secret numbers is so like Google also gather a huge amount of data
large that it is completely impracticable to try, about peoples personal lives: book a plane ticket
110
and it is likely that a notification will pop up on / and \ oscillating photons are randomly
your phone reminding you of your flight number. changed to either | or - and then detected. The
Of course, this information is encrypted, but what opposite occurs for a diagonal filter.
does that matter with quantum computing? The Alice wishes to send a message to Bob
possibility of such a lack of security with personal determining the symmetrical key they can use,
information could lead to wide outrage and fear, without it being cracked by Eves quantum
and rightly so. However, private information computer. She encodes the message in binary,
would not be the only information to be and then converts it into polarisation directions.
compromised. Government security would also be For example, a 1 could be | or /, and a 0 could
greatly weakened, with confidential data be - or \. When she converts the binary into
becoming instantly accessible to anyone with a polarisations, it is random. A 1 has an equal
quantum computer. This is especially important probability of either direction and the same
with regards to military activities and spying. For applies for 0.
instance, the United States National Security Having converted the message, she sends it to
Agency (NSA) has terabytes of data such as Bob, via a fibre optic cable. Eve misses this
witness protection lists, spies in other countries message, and it goes straight to Bob. He does not
and terrorism intelligence. It would be a know which filter to use, so he guesses randomly.
catastrophe if this were to be breached. Clearly, He detects and records the orientation of each
new encryption standards are needed that can photon, and then tells Alice which filter he used
stand up to quantum computing. These already for each photon. She tells him which filters were
exist and are called quantum-safe [18]. right, and Bob discards the results from the
incorrect filters because the photons could have
Quantum computing does not simply mean been originally one of two orientations. Now both
processing power through quantum phenomena: parties know the results Bob still has, and this
it means the ability of a computer to interact with becomes their symmetric key.
and process information from subatomic
particles. These particles can be used for Alice wants to send another message to Bob, but
processing, or they can carry information from this time Eve is awake and tapping the fibre optic
one computer to another. One form of quantum- cable. Alice converts her message into binary, and
safe encryption utilises the quantum properties of thence into polarisations. Eve intercepts each
photons to encrypt information. photon, using a random filter. She has a 50%
chance of getting the first photon right, but after
All photons have polarity, or direction of just 10 photons, the odds decrease to less than
oscillation. In this example, vertical, horizontal 0.1%. Once she has recorded her results, she will
and two diagonal oscillations (|, -, \, / send her results on in the polarisation of photons,
respectively) will be used, although in practice because the original photons are irretrievably
they could be at any angle. Normal light has gone. Bob will again use random filters, detect
photons of all different polarities, but laser light and record the results, and tell Alice which filters
has photons which are all oscillating in the same he used. She will reply, telling him which ones
direction and at the same time. This means that were right. However, because the orientations of
the polarity of the photons produced can be the original photon were changed by Eve, neither
controlled. In order to measure the polarisation of Eve nor Bob will have the same key as Alice,
photons, a calcite crystal is used, which is in because Eve did not use the same filters as Bob.
effect a polarising filter with a lattice. In this Alice will send a test message with no useful
example, it will be orientated either rectilinear + information. If Bob cannot decode it, they know
or diagonal x. In a rectilinear filter, | and - someone has intercepted their messages, and
oscillating photons are detected unchanged, while they will start again.
The method is described visually in the following table, with 0 as - or \ and 1 as | or /:
Alices message 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
Orientations - | / \ / - | \
Bobs filters x + + x x x + x
Bobs photons / | / \ / / | \
Bobs results 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Alices filters + + x x x + + x
Alice says x x x
The key 1 0 1 1 0
The key becomes 10110.
111
If Eve is present and intercepting, the following would occur:
Alices message 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
Orientations - | / \ / - | \
Eves filters x + + + x + x +
Eves photons / | - - / - \ -
Eves results 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Eves message | / - \ | - \ \
Bobs filters + x x x + x x +
Bobs photons | / / \ | \ \ |
Bobs results 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Alices filters + + x x x + + x
Alice says x x x x x
Alices key 0 1 0
Bobs key 1 1 0
Eves key 1 0 0
Example credited to [19]
Now all of their keys are different so when Alice messages, Eve could even simply continuously
sends a test message to Bob, neither Eve nor Bob tap the line, preventing this method of
will be able to decrypt it. Bob will tell Alice, and communication altogether, despite the costs and
they will do the method again. Alice and Bob can time.
also check for eavesdroppers by each selecting a
random sample of the message. They will then Quantum-safe encryption techniques would be a
count the number of 1s, and perform a parity blessing towards the government, as they would
test, comparing their numbers. It has been have the time, money and knowledge to put them
proven that if their numbers are significantly into practice. However, people were generally not
different, there is a 50% chance of eavesdropping. unhappy with the way the government treated
With around 30 samples, the odds decrease to their data. More important to them were social
about 1 in a billion. This method seems to have media services, with a quarter of respondents
great advantages and could be a viable way to being very unhappy with the safety of their data.
quantum-proof encryption. The greatest However, social media services would lack very
weakness in any encryption system is the strong incentives to employ quantum-safe
distribution of the key because using older encryption methods, not least due to the vast
methods, it was very easy to gain knowledge of amounts of information communicated every
the key without either party realising. However, minute, but also due to the huge costs of using
using this method, if Eve intercepted the this method. Respondents were on average not
message, the information she would glean would happy with paying for encryption of data despite
become useless as Alice and Bob would choose a the importance they gave it, so it is unlikely that
different key, knowing that she had intercepted social media services will use quantum-safe
the old one. However, this method is complicated, techniques in the event of quantum computers
time-consuming and has a high probability of being readily available.
error, which is why it has only been proposed for
key exchanges. Instead of trying to get the
communication, a huge blow to cipher cracking.
Privacy would be absolute, but criminals and
4 - Conclusion terrorists would be able to exchange information
without fear of it being intercepted and
In conclusion, I believe that quantum computing deciphered. Of course, every encryption method is
will have a revolutionary effect on cryptography. only as secure as the people using it, and hackers
It will provide a far more efficient and practical will always find a way to crack encryption
method of cracking encrypted messages, both a methods, be it by deceiving people or utilising
boon and a blow to security as intelligence some loophole of quantum mechanics. For
agencies such as the NSA will have better access civilians and businesses, it will ensure more
to information to prevent terrorism, while in the secure and private communication of information,
hands of hackers, confidential data would be whether it be personal, financial or any other
made public, which could lead to devastating type. The same will apply for the largest part of
results. On the other hand, it might provide a the government, but it will greatly reduce the
theoretically unbreakable method of
112
efficiency and ability of security services to future. Technology and science are progressing
protect citizens. On the other hand, quantum-safe now at a faster rate than ever before, and it will
methods are likely to be expensive, time- be very soon in the future when we can do things
consuming and inefficient, and therefore only only dreamt of, and harness the huge potential of
useful for important government actions. the quantum world.
I hope this dissertation has provided a useful and

informative insight into the world of quantum
Bibliography
mechanics and modern cryptography techniques
and how they may change in the not-too-distant
[10] -
[1] - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling_salesma
[2] - n_problem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_theo [11] -
ry_of_mind https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganography
[3] - http://phys.org/news/2014-01-discovery- [12] -
quantum-vibrations-microtubules- http://practicalcryptography.com/ciphers/caesar-
corroborates.html cipher/
[4] - [13] -
http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/superposit https://learncryptography.com/cryptanalysis/freq
ion uency-analysis
[5] - [14] - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-time_pad
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/08 [15] - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-
/130812-physics-schrodinger-erwin-google-doodle- way_function
cat-paradox-science/ [16] -
[6] - http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/qubit http://security.stackexchange.com/questions/4596
[7] - http://gizmodo.com/the-quantum-d-wave-2-is- 3/diffie-hellman-key-exchange-in-plain-english
3-600-times-faster-than-a-super-1532199369 [17] -
[8] - http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/Moores_Law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_opti .html
mization
[9] -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_factorizatio
n
113
Did Punk music reflect the dissatisfaction of
young people in the 1970s?
James Harms
Dissatisfaction- this word, in the context of my

Introduction project title, means the dislike of the political
1.1 - Project outline policies and changes taking place, as well as the
To help answer my question, I have disregard for the needs and requests of young
thought of sub questions to answer before people.
coming to an overall conclusion:
What were the feelings of young people 1.3 - A history of the origins of
in 1974? punk music, and the 1970s
What were the government doing at the
time particularly with regards to
education and university, as well as The 1970s were viewed by many to be a fairly
jobs? negative era. The fashion was stale and leftover
What was the appeal of punk music to from the 50s, there was much political unrest
the youth of the 1970s? with many international relations being very bad
How did the music represent the mass and the failures of post war Conservatism leading
opinions of many young people? the country into many problems.46
However, despite the negative aspects of the 70s,
I feel that these foci are very useful when there was a great revolution in music, such as
conducting research because they deal directly Funk, Disco, Rock and most relevantly, Punk. It
with the different aspects of the period affecting is generally regarded that Punk music originated
the question, whilst also encompassing the genre from the garage indie scene, around 1974, with
relevance of punk which will be crucial when the ends of bands such as The Velvet
answering the question. Underground (managed by Andy Warhol) led the
way for other bands such as The Sex Pistols and
The Ramones. These were the pioneers, pushing
1.2 - Key terms the limits of music without even realising it
(http://punkmusic.about.com/od/punk101/a/punkh
Punk- A movement of music and culture, focusing istory2.htm) and would provide a medium for
on nihilistic ideals and having a strong rebellious grumpy teens to shoot a big gun about all the
flare. The culture encouraged doing whatever you problems they were facing.
wanted and kicking back against something. It
didnt matter what the something was. The music 1.4 - Other questions to be
is most well known as a series of fast, driving
guitar power chords and a hard drum beat, answered
accompanying primal screams and self-
destructive lyrics. The other side of the argument is that actually
Young people- a slightly ambiguous group, it Punk music didnt represent the dissatisfaction of
counts as everyone over the age of 14 and under youth, and in fact there was another movement
the age of 30. I have chosen to use this group of which was a better representation of the youth.
people to focus my research on because they are Also, there is the counter argument that actually
old enough to be conscious of changes in political Punk represented something other than
policies and young enough for it to still be dissatisfaction, and that it was just a product of a
relevant to them in their lives. collection of circumstances.
1970s- Also slightly ambiguous, I have counted it
between the years of 1974 and 1983, as this is the
time when punk had the biggest initial impact.
46 See bibliography entrance 18
114
Dissertation
2.1 What were the feelings of

young people in the 1970s?
The feelings of young people in the 1970s is regarding education and universities, as well as
mostly anger and annoyance, as well as boredom, jobs. Around the 1960s going into the early 70s,
due to various factors. The 70s could be seen as there was a period of relatively low
the parents generation, since the fashion, music unemployment51. Yet, as the decade progressed,
and lifestyle was reminiscent of the 50s and 60s. the rates soared, making the availability of jobs
The young people had nothing they could really much lower. This lack of job availability meant
call their own initially. Coming out of the 1950s that people were told from a young age52 that
and 60s, the 70s seemed to be one step behind they would not have a good job and essentially
other decades, where you can see in any they had no future. No future became a defining
photograph of the 1970s, you can often see people feature of the Punk mentality, and this mind set
wearing clothes that would been cutting edge in is at least partially due to the government not
1958.47 This old style of dressing felt very out of providing for their school students. A notable
date to the younger people of the 1970s, since example of this is the removal of milk by
children and young adults want to be able to Margaret Thatcher (see 2.2.1). This caused a
experiment and live in the moment, rather than great kick back attitude in children, and
setting their views in the past. This is politically polarised them against the
emphasised by the Pub Rock Generation. This Conservative party. As well as this, in the 70s,
type of music was very popular with middle aged teaching standards were decreasing. The
men who would get small bands together and expansion of the public school system lead to
play gigs at pubs. The Pub Rockers were more children being brought into the education
categorised by their obsession with 50s and 60s system. This caused schools to require more
music, either covering songs or producing very teachers and simply by the laws of probability the
old fashioned tunes. This also made the youth teaching quality decreased. This is shown by thee
feel bored as all the music they really had to quote In our headlong rush to educate everybody,
listen to was their parents music, and wanted we are lowering our standards.53 This was a
something to call their own. The school system failing by the government to gives students the
was known in the 1970s and 80s for continuously best possible chance in the rising levels on
failing the pupils, with increasing parental unemployment and lowering availability of jobs,
dissatisfaction and Margaret Thatchers Milk and is further reason for the youth to want to
Snatching removal of free school milk (see 2.2.1) rebel against the establishment and do their
giving the students a great dislike for their own thing, rather than have the government
teachers and the MPs who would decide their dictate it to them.
futures.4849 The sense of anger was mixed with
one of annoyance because of the no future
mentality (see 2.2.2) that existed for the young 2.2.1 The Margaret Thatcher
people in the school system, despite a low Milk Snatcher removal of
unemployment period from 1964-1970.50
free school milk
2.2 What was the appeal of In 1971, Margaret Thatcher was made the
Punk music to youth of the education secretary for Edward Heaths
Conservative government. To maintain Tax
1970s? Pledges54 promised in the election, the
government had to make cut backs in as many
My second question to answer was what were the places as possible. This is when Margaret
government doing at the time, particularly Thatcher implemented the policy of no free school
47See bibliography entrance 3.

51 See unemployment graph, bibliography
48 School System refers to upper primary (ie. Year entrance 10.
52 Young age refers to under 16s, but in this
6) through until upper secondary and lower
tertiary education (ie. 7th year and University (or context it applies to everyone in secondary and
other) 1st years) tertiary education.
49 See bibliography entrance 1. 53 See bibliography entrance 1.
50 See bibliography entrance 1. 54 See bibliography entrance 11.
116
milk as a cost cutting measure. This was said to John Lydon (Sex Pistols frontman aka. Johnny
be the meanest and most unworthy thing Rotten) said that [the fashion shop SEX run by
introduced by the government.55 Vivienne Westwood and Malcolm Maclaren] was
so brazen and anti-establishment, I loved it!.
2.2.2 The No Future Mind- This was a very popular opinion, as many young
people were bored and fancied a change of style
set (see 2.1), and Punk provided that to them.
The no future mind set was the product of a

number of different circumstances. For example, 2.2.4 What other aspects to
there was great industrial insecurity, and this Punk were there?
had a large knock on effect. For example, it
meant that large swathes of the country would
A major part of what Punk music was about was
not have power for hours in the evenings due to
the fashion aspects of it. The grand statements
miners strikes, and rubbish would not be
designed by Vivienne Westwood and Malcolm
collected in many parts of London. This was
Maclaren gave a great DIY side to the Punk
almost a degeneration of society which people
subculture. People would self-accessorise with
were seeing unfold right in front of them. This,
safety pin earrings, trousers made from leather
combined with a bi-decade high of
and bondage harnesses and self-cut, self-dyed
unemployment56, the crumbling of traditional
hair in all kinds of different wild and unique
security in jobs and high inflation led to a very
styles. This fashion aspect was what drew many
negative view of life in the future, if all that
into the culture. As well as this, many people just
would happen is it would get worse.
enjoyed listening to the harsh 3 chord patterns of
the Punk records being released60, and would just
2.2.3 What was the appeal listen to the music but not engage with other
listeners.
of Punk music to the youth of
the 1970s? 2.3 - How did the music
The major appeal of Punk music was the represent the mass opinions of
kickback aspect of it. Many people saw Punk as
actually a way to simply rebel against their
many young people?
parents, and the political aspect didnt become a
significant reason until the post punk era of the The music had very strong and powerful
1980s57. There was also a majority of people who language and lyrics, and was designed to almost
really liked the fashion statements and be a commentary on the things going on at the
statements about taste that Punk music carried present time. For example, the song A Bomb in
with it. There was a certain amount of wearing Wardour Street by The Jam was a description of
your interests on your sleeve, as it was a greater a riot that took place in Lewisham and spread
financial investment to be interested in a certain through the city.61 The songs also in a sense
type of music58. Also, Punk encouraged represented the movement itself. Taking A Bomb
individuality and being your own person, whether in Wardour Street as the example again, which
thats by rejecting all the norms or by owning describes a bomb spreading through the city into
them in your own way. Along with this, there was the country. The city of course being London,
a sense of collectivism in Punk communities, where UK Punk was said to originate. Also in the
everyone coming together just to rebel, it didnt song New Rose by The Dammed, the lyrics
matter what you were rebelling against, whether describe something blooming and coming into life,
it be your parents or the government, it didnt which was very similar to the Punk movement.
really matter.59 The fashion was also a major However, the music was more of a narrative of
part of why people followed the Punk movement peoples lives, so in that sense it represents the
(see 2.3.1). opinions of every single young person who was a
participant in the movement. The narrative
aspect does also mean that its representation
55 See bibliography entrance 11. spreads far beyond just the participants and
56 See unemployment graph, bibliography represents the second wave of Punks to be, the
entrance 10. Council Estate Punks, who found out later in the
57 See interview with 70s Punk, bibliography existence of Punk that their situation was
perfectly described by the music and themes
entrance 12.
presented, of being anti-establishment and the
58 Financial investment, see Youth no future mentality (see 2.2.2).
subcultures, where have they gone?,
bibliography entrance 14.
59 Quote: Paul Belchamber, see bibliography 60 See bibliography entrance 15.
entrance 12. 61 See bibliography entrance 15.
117
2.4 Counter Arguments would later divulge into what we now know as
Emos, as well as keeping its traditional roots.
There are two main counter arguments to the This represented severe self-dissatisfaction and
point that Punk did represent the dissatisfaction focused on the fact that you would die soon and
of youth. These are that Punk actually you actually werent worth anything. Hippies on
represented something other than dissatisfaction the other hand represented the hate of the
(if anything at all), and that something else Vietnam War at first, and then grew into a larger
represented dissatisfaction better than Punk did. movement and focused on peace and love, and
This section only explores two of the counter were the epitome of anti-government protesters
arguments which I see to be the most convincing, who only wanted peace. Both of these movements
yet there are others such as Did the youth want represented dissatisfaction, and both were very
to have Punk reflect them?. strongly opinionated. This did allow young people
some choice on what they felt angry about and
2.4.1 Did Punk really they could choose a path to follow.
represent dissatisfaction?
To answer this question you have to find out 3 Conclusion- Did Punk Music
what Punk represented and what its appeal was represent the dissatisfaction of
to young people (see 2.3). Punk could have
represented a number of things, including the youth of the 1970s?
dissatisfaction. However, the reoccurring theme
in my research was that actually Punk was more In conclusion, Punk did represent the
about kicking back against everything, rather dissatisfaction of the youth for a number of
than kicking back against something political.62 reasons. Firstly because it was an accurate
For example, the inclusivist attitude of Punk representation of the way the youth felt, which
meant that you could actually be rebelling was angry and bored. As well as this, the
against anything, and that you didnt need to be government was not giving young people any
against the government to be a follower of the opportunities in life, due to a number of factors
Punk. The phrase that has come up a lot as well such as inflation, miners strikes and
is being anti-establishment. This essentially unemployment. Also, the musics lyrics were very
means, with no context, breaking away from the popular due to their commentary on everyday life
norms of everyday life and the established order and kick back mentality they have. Finally, it
of things. This allows the establishment to take represents dissatisfaction better than other
on many different forms for different forms, and movements because it was all about being anti-
if that is the baseline attitude of Punk, it can be establishment, meaning it is able to change itself
argued that actually Punk music doesnt for the individual, so it created a wider audience
represent anything specific, and that Punk is for itself, and this also contributed to its longevity
much more personal than representing huge and success as a movement.
mass opinions.
2.4.2 Did something else

represent dissatisfaction
better?
During the 1970s and 80s, many movements
made themselves known in the UK. Punk was
one of these, but there were also big followings of
groups such as Hippies, Goths and New
Romantics. For this, I am looking at the Goth
movement and the Hippy movement63, as they
were both at the same time as Punk and both in a
sense represented dissatisfaction. Goths were a
movement who dressed in neo-Victorian clothes
and had strong feelings about death and self-
destruction and the no future mind set (see
2.2.2) even more strongly than Punks. Goths
62 See interview with Paul Belchamber,

bibliography entrance 12.
63 See bibliography entrances 16 and 17.
118
2016 Oxford University Press
4. Bibliography 16. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/hippie
2016 Dictionary.com, LLC.
1. 17.
http://www.educationengland.org.uk/history/chap http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/heat
ter06.html h_edward.shtml
Gillard D (2011) Education in England: a brief Copyright c BBC 2016
history
www.educationengland.org.uk/history
2.
http://punkmusic.about.com/od/punk101/a/punkhi
story2.htm
About inc. (2016) All Right Reserved
3. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17703483
Copyright c BBC 2016
4. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00s81jw
Copyright c BBC 2016
5.
https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jun/01/
no-future-punk-youth-rebellion
2016 Guardian News and Media Limited or its
affiliated companies. All rights reserved.
6. http://britishrock.weebly.com/1-politics-and-
punk.html
Politics and Punk, British Rock 2016
7.
https://unireadinghistory.com/2013/09/04/punk-
politics-and-youth-culture-1976-84/
8. Anger is an Energy My life uncensored. An
autobiography by John Lydon
9.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/7932963
/How-Margaret-Thatcher-became-known-as-Milk-
Snatcher.html
How Margaret Thatcher became known as Milk
Snatcher, Rebecca Smith 2010
10. Graph showing unemployment rates from
1881 to 1990.
11. Interview notes with Paul, see source records

12.
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/gallery/201
1/jul/10/10-best-british-youth-cultures
13.
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/mar/2
0/youth-subcultures-where-have-they-gone
14. Song analysis to write up
15.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/goth
How Does Music Affect the Body?
Harshdeep Gulati (Year 11)
to your muscles, getting them ready for activity,

Introduction by increasing
Music is a part of everyones modern life. It is

encountered everyday either by choosing to listen
to music on your phone or mp3 player or
unintentionally in the background of a shop or
restaurant. It would be incorrect to bind this as the breathing and heart rate resulting in the
just a modern occurrence. The relationship release of glucose as respiration occurs. Cortisol
between humans and music travels back through helps this whole process by increasing blood
time to since we were apes, communicating sugar levels and redirecting energy to the arms
through only various calls to send messages. It is and legs keeping them ready to move. However, if
an essential part of many religions around the you feel stressed very often, you will constantly
world like hymns in Christianity and Rags in be flooded by adrenaline and cortisol even though
Hinduism. the situation is not life threatening. This can lead
Music is everywhere, but what does it do to the to depression [1].
body? According to Charles Darwin, we keep our
evolutions as they are an advantage of sorts. Music can be used to treat this as listening to
What is the advantage of music? Despite its large calming music has been shown to lower
involvement in daily life no-one really seems to adrenaline and cortisol levels in the blood and
know. instead stimulate the release of serotonin and
dopamine which make you feel good. Think of
this treatment the same way as cats and dogs are
now used as treatment. Being around the cat or
1.Music and its Medical Uses dog and petting them calms you down and
because it is pleasurable it makes you happy.
1.1 Depression Some may argue that medicine already exists to
Music has many medical applications that may tackle depression, however this is only available
not be all that well known. One condition that once depression has been confirmed by a doctor in
many people suffer with is depression. During most cases. Using music does not require any
this condition, Adrenaline and Cortisol are prescribed medicine and is more of a preventative
constantly pumped into the body. Normally these method of fighting the condition.
hormones are released in large quantities when
the body needs to react and move quickly usually
when scared or in a life-threatening situation as 1.2 Insomnia
a fight or flight response (Fig.1). In these
Figure 2: How the different parts of the brain are

stimulated by music.
circumstances, these hormones would be very

helpful as adrenaline increases the oxygen supply
120
Figure 1: How Adrenaline and cortisol affect the body
through the fight or flight response.
Another use for music is to help insomniacs to get daily life. A different issue with making people
to sleep. Research shows that just 45 minutes of eat slower is that tables are freed up less quickly
listening to classical music before going to bed and the flow of customers is halted, which is
can result in a better sleep [2]. The only issue with easily countered by making the music slightly
this is that if the insomniac does not like classical faster. In a research by two professors in Cornell
music it will end up as more of a distraction University, they found that eating in an
rather than an aid to help with sleep. environment with fast music made people eat
This phenomenon does not occur simply because faster.
it is classical music, instead it is induced by the In a shop, slow and calm music causes people to
tempo of the piece. For example, a slow pop song walk slower for the same reasons and so spend
will likely be better at aiding sleep than a fast more time shopping making them potentially
classical piece. This is because the motor cortex buying more. In fact, the choice of music can
and cerebellum (Fig.2), which are in charge of even influence our decision on what we buy. In an
movement in the body, attempt to match the experiment in 1999 by Psychologists at the
tempo of the music and send signals at the same University of Leicester, the background music
rate. This in turn causes the heart to attempt to was changed near a section of French and
beat at a similar speed. If this is a slower song, German wine. When German music was playing,
the heart rate will decrease and having a low the German wine sold twice as fast and when
heart rate is one of the triggers of sleep. French accordion music was playing, the French
Slower music is usually much less complex in its wine sold 5 times more than the German wine.
nature as well. This aids in sleep as fewer areas This is likely because the ambience created by
of the brain are stimulated allowing it to rest. the French or German music stimulates the
hippocampus which is in charge of memories and
made the person remember everything related to
2.How Music Affects mood and the culture matching the music. As a result, they
would end up being in the mood for that
Behaviour particular wine.
2.1 Manipulation of behavior
2.2 The Mozart Effect
Music is used in media as well to enhance our
experience; an obvious example for this is in Film Another
and TV. Imagine a scene in your head of someone phenomenon to do
simply sitting down. Without music thats all it with music is the
would be, some person sitting down without any Mozart Effect.
further expectations for something to happen. This is the idea
Now imagine the same scene with slow emotional that listening to
piano in the background, suddenly this has added Mozart will
context to the scene and causes us to also become improve IQ levels
slightly emotional and feel what the character and mental
feels as well which is presumably sadness. capabilities. In an
At a more subconscious level, music can affect our experiment in
behavioural patterns. In a research it was shown 1993 by US Figure 3: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
that selecting the correct choice of music in a psychologist Dr
shop or restaurant can increase the income by Frances
10% [3]. Something which normally would seem so Rauscher,
small and insignificant is actually a secret to young adult
success. This is because playing slower and students split into 3 groups were made to listen
calmer music in a restaurant makes people want to either ten minutes of silence, ten minutes of a
to eat slower because the motor cortex and tape of relaxation instructions, or ten minutes of
cerebellum try and match the tempo of the music. Mozart. It was concluded that the students who
Eating at a slower pace means that they are more listened to Mozart did better at tasks where they
likely to buy more drinks normally to had to create shapes in their head showing an
complement their food. Obviously, some people improvement in spatial abilities. Unfortunately,
may have issues with such subconscious it was also concluded that these abilities were
manipulation of our actions, it may be compared only for a short period after listening to the
in a more extreme light to brainwashing. music. They also further concluded that the
However, this is nothing new; advertising has Mozart effect was not actually to do with the fact
used these methods to send subconscious it was Mozart, it is more to do with music that
messages for a very long time. For example, the you enjoy. This works by increasing levels of
McDonalds logo is specifically in red and yellow norepinephrine which improves alertness.
as these colours in combination make people Finally, music can in fact improve productivity
hungry [4]. Such practice has been part of society when doing work like homework. However, it can
for so long that it has become accepted as part of be seen by many as a distraction. Both sides of
121
the argument are partially correct. Music can be before sleeping to calm down or during exercise.
a distraction but this is usually when doing work Most of this is already common practice.
that requires a lot of attention and if the music is If music were to develop and have further
with lyrics. If the music is only for ambience and applications in the future, it would likely be as a
is heard when doing mundane tasks which can be wider used method of treatment in medicine
easily boring such as cleaning, it can easily boost perhaps for conditions it has yet to be tested
the quality of work as the person is kept with. In the future science may even discover
interested by the music so continues work at a some link to music and cancer.
high level.
5.Conclusions
Music affects the body by stimulating different
3. How music affects physical regions in the brain to send specific impulses or
capabilities to release specific hormones. The effects of these
impulses and hormones can vary and depend on
3.1 Exercise the music that was played. Many applications of
music are yet to be discovered however it will be 7
difficult to predict what they could be as music
As mentioned previously, people almost
itself is constantly evolving and changing so
subconsciously move to match the tempo of the
fundamentally changing its properties allowing
music playing. This means that, in theory, if
for new discoveries to be made.
someone was to listen to a faster piece, they
would be able to run faster. They are also able to
exercise for longer because it shifts their focus to
the music and away from the pain and discomfort Glossary
of the exercise. This is why when exercising many
often listen to music. Adrenaline- A hormone that is released during
life threatening/ scary situations. It causes
3.2 Pain deeper breathing to allow more gas exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as increasing
heart rate and directing blood to major muscle
Music also provides pain relief as tested by
groups.
Psychologists Laura Mitchell and Raymond
Macdonald. By asking their test subjects to put
Cortisol- This hormone is used to numb your
their hand in extremely cold water they
bodys response to injuries and pain.
simulated pain and they found that when people
listen to music especially if the music is chosen by
Serotonin- Hormone that helps in regulating
the subject (presumably because it is music they
appetite, sleep, memory and mood.
like) they were able to withstand pain for longer
[5].
Dopamine- Hormone that is used in focussing as
well as being the feel good hormone to affect
3.3 Mind over Matter mood.
Tempo- The speed at which a piece of music is

In both cases however, this can be discounted as
played.
mind over matter rather than actual
improvements in physical capabilities. While this
Rag/Raga- six basic musical modes which express
is true it seems that in many cases improving
different moods in certain characteristic
physical capabilities does come hand in hand
progressions in Indian classical music.
with improving mentality as well. For this
reason, this should not be an issue.
Bibliography
4. Future Applications
1.
Future applications of music are in fact all of the http://www.emedexpert.com/tips/music.s
above and more. Music is already applied for html
many things apart from simple enjoyment as 2. How Music Affects Us and Promotes
shown by its uses in restaurants; in medicine Health. Accessed on 11/8/16
many people already lower their risk of 3. http://www.bbc.com/future/story/2013010
depression simply by listening to music and they 7-can-mozart-boost-brainpower
may not even know it had that effect. There are 4. Does listening to Mozart really boost
also many people who already listen to music your brainpower? Accessed 31/8/16
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5. Dr Gulati, Gurpreet. Doctor/Musician
1/9/16
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7. Published August 30th 2016
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House, Fairfax St., Bristol BS1 3BN
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12. Author: Dr John Powell
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h/fast-food-restaurant-lighting-and-
music-can-reduce-calorie-intake-and-
increase-satisfaction
14. Fast Food Restaurant Lighting and
Music can reduce calorie intake and
increase satisfaction. Accessed 26/10/16
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why-red-yellow-is-used-by-the-fast-food-
industry/
16. Branding- why red & yellow is used by
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014/12/12/stress-management-the-
effects-of-stress-on-your-health/
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ng-mozart-9417115
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the-brain
22. 8 Surprising Ways Music Affects and

Benefits our Brains. Accessed
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123
Are Autonomous cars really the future and
can they be implemented in less than a
decade?
Dejan Fernandes (Year 11)
product and their manufacturing process and

Introduction make it ready for mass market. Unfortunately, I
dont believe the same principle will be true for
Mans obsession for automation has guided many fully autonomous vehicles that hopefully explain
modern inventions from pipe-dreams reserved for later on in my dissertation.
the financially gifted to common appliances found I wanted to do this as my HPQ topic for a
in almost every home around the world. multitude of reasons. Personally, I think that
Examples include the humble mobile telephone autonomy as a concept is beneficial to humanity
which cost $3995 in 198364 but can now be as humans have and always will make mistakes
purchased a for as little as 10, the bag less meaning human error is responsible for the
vacuum cleaner which James Dyson originally majority accidents that happen on roads at the
sold in Japan during the 1980s at a cost of moment. Although it is almost guaranteed there
$180065 but nowadays similar machines can be will be accidents with autonomous vehicles I
purchased for 250 and original personal think that there will be proportionally fewer if
computers such as the Atari 800 which was autonomy is implemented in the correct way.
released at a price of $999.9566 which corresponds However, the correct way will differ between
to $3,325.00 if I adjust for inflation. Even though country to country and even place to place and
these products were innovative, they were thats where I believe where the problem arises.
certainly not essential and were originally In my eyes the only way complete automation
targeted towards niche markets but they have will happen on a mass scale is if automated
gradually reduced in price as more people vehicles relay information to each other instead
adopted them meaning they were eventually of relying on the vast majority of sensors
affordable for the general population. Almost attached to each and every vehicle to decipher
every single product in your household has the world around them for themselves. The only
followed this general trend and the theory is reason humanity has succeeded in solving
autonomous cars will not be any different. High- problems thus far is our ability to communicate
End cars like the BMW 750i xDrive and the Tesla ideas in a universal language or one that can be
Model X and S have started to roll out beta easily translated from one form to another. In the
versions of their semi-autonomous software same way, I think the only way that complete
with Tesla promising their budget Tesla Model 3 automation will really hit the mainstream
which is rumoured to cost just $35,00067 will market is if the big players like Mobileye, Tesla,
come with the software as an option. This shows BMW and Volvo create a universal system that
just how quickly emerging technology reduces in becomes the de facto standard for automation
price when early adopters inject enough capital like USB or DNLA has. In addition to this, I am
into a company to allow them to refine their extremely interested in the ethical complications
of driverless cars such as who is responsible in an
accident and hope to see if ethics will hinder the
adoption of driverless cars in the future.
64 The History of Mobile Phones From 1973 To 2008:
The Handsets That Made It ALL Happen, Know Your
Mobile, accessed October 29, 2016,
http://www.knowyourmobile.com/nokia/nokia- 1. Define an Autonomous Car
3310/19848/history-mobile-phones-1973-2008-handsets-
made-it-all-happen.
65 James Dyson and Giles Coren, Against the Odds: An
Autobiography, 1st edition (London: Orion Business 1.1 What is an Autonomous
Books, 1997).
66 Atari 800 Computer, accessed October 29, 2016,
Car
http://oldcomputers.net/atari800.html.
67 New Tesla Model 3: Price, Specs, Pictures and 2017
At the moment, autonomous driving is just a
concept and one that has not been executed thus
UK Release Date, Auto Express, accessed October 29,
far. Therefore, it is open to interpretation and
2016, http://www.autoexpress.co.uk/tesla/model-
3/87867/new-tesla-model-3-price-specs-pictures-and- has no strict definition. Generally speaking, it is
2017-uk-release-date. the public who assigns what a product is
124
especially when it cannot be clearly defined. as possible by using humans as a scapegoat by
Possible examples of such products are letting them deal with situations that the car
smartphones or supercars. Using the same cannot. Personally, my vision of a fully
logic, autonomous vehicles must also be ones autonomous car is one that follows that
that conform to widespread public opinion. I corresponds to level 5 on the NHTSA scale and
therefore asked my peers on what they thought therefore does not need any intervention even
the word autonomous in the context of cars when conditions are outside the realm of what
meant to them as it is only by their definition I the vehicle was routinely designed to perform in
can answer my question in a fair and unbiased or during an emergency.
way as I might have a different opinion to theirs As these levels are so different to each other and
due to my personal interest in the subject. These there is no real overlap between them, I am going
are a few of their responses. to define what fully autonomous is going to
imply in this report based on the thoughts of
If a car can make conscious those that I have interviewed and those of my
decisions which affect the own.
car's movement without any A fully autonomous car is a car where both
input from a person, using hardware and software work in unison in
the information given to it order to control a cars trajectory without any
by its sensors Matti driver input or driver intervention. If a fully
Mitropolous (15) autonomous car does detect a situation where
the hardware and/or software cannot cope with
Autonomous is a system a situation which the car was not designed to
be used in, the car should provide adequate
that does not require the
warning for the driver to rectify the cars
driver's input in order to
trajectory or take over from the autonomous
make decisions. It should system with manual control via conventional
operate automatically, systems such as a steering wheel and pedals or
acting when it is programed by other means such as voice recognition or a
to believe is appropriate touchscreen. A car is deemed to have given
Oliver Bennet (15) adequate warning if appropriate actions may
be undertaken by the average driver with
The car can drive itself average reaction time in order to prevent an
Akshay Karthikeyan (15) accident or unsafe trajectory from occurring. A
car must also log any data leading up to a
I think that Matti Mitropolous thoughts are crash/accident in order to deem if the accident
what most people think when autonomous or was unavoidable and if the systems controlling
self-driving car comes to mind and that is a the car or the driver could have done anything
vehicle that does not require any human input to to avoid the accident from occurring. Finally, a
function and judging by this definition there is a fully autonomous car be programmed based on
high chance that this vehicle might not have any the following rules:
means for a human to alter the trajectory of a car -If the car is involved in an accident without
such as pedals or as steering wheel. Oliver warning the driver, the fault lies either with
Bennets and Akshays definitions are ones that the autonomous car and its associated systems
seem more achievable at this current moment in or the party involved with the accident if it is
time and seem easier to adopt. Both specify a car a vehicle to vehicle collision. Further
that does not require a drivers input or can investigation is required.
drive itself but in both instances the driver can -If an accident does occur and the autonomous
choose to override the system in an emergency or car gives the driver a warning but not in
when road conditions are unfavourable such as adequate time, it is deemed the fault of the car
when roads are covered in heavy snow or black or the other party and not the driver.
ice. Although these cars are still technically -If adequate warning was given and there was
autonomous according to the National Highway an obvious route out of an impending crash
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)68 albeit that the driver could have taken but so could
at a lower level 4 compared with Mattis the autonomous car, the fault again lies with
definition which is closer to a level 5, it does the autonomous car or the other party
seem that manufacturers are trying to avoid involved.
dealing with the ethics of automation and the -If the autonomous car does give adequate
complications resulting from accidents for as long warning and cannot avoid a situation and the
driver intervenes and causes an avoidable
accident, the driver is at fault.
68 Hope Reese | January 20, 2016, and 10:47 Am Pst, -If nothing can be done by both the vehicle or
Autonomous Driving Levels 0 to 5: Understanding the the driver to avoid an accident, neither are at
Differences, TechRepublic, accessed October 29, 2016, fault but further investigation is needed to
http://www.techrepublic.com/article/autonomous- determine if an external party is at fault.
driving-levels-0-to-5-understanding-the-differences/.
125
Figure 5.2.1: A scale depicting the levels of automation as determined by the NHTSA
Even though this definition might not appease 2. What Problems will they Face and are there
everybody, I think it fairly outlines the Solutions that can be Implemented in a Realistic
characteristics associated with what the majority Timeframe?
of people believe a fully autonomous car would
be. I decided to make what I have outlined closer
2.1 Ethics and Morality
to level 4 (High Automation) on the NHTSA scale
than level 5 (Full automation) for a multitude of
reasons. Firstly, many of the problems that I will 2.1.1 Introduction
highlight later on in this report will be solved or
not solved irrespective if the car is a level 4 or a Personally, I feel that ethics is the main problem
level 5 on the NHTSA scale. that manufacturers are facing when designing
In addition, public perception of the word autonomous cars. The chances of an autonomous
autonomous is a key part of why I decided to car crashing are extremely close to 100% and
orient my definition in this way. Examples therefore when an accident does occur, especially
include robotic vacuum cleaners like the if it is fatal and between an animate object and
Roomba which can clean a space automatically not just a building for example, the way in which
but might sometimes experience difficulty getting the car calculated what to do in the build up to
caught on pieces of furniture or an uneven floor. the crash will be put under scrutiny. Unlike other
This might require human intervention in order factors that can be solved with relative ease such
to allow the Roomba to continue with its task as the amount of storage space required for the
but up to that point the majority of people would vast quantity of data being produced by the cars
still think of that product as autonomous. I was sensors (4,000GB a day)69 or the speed of which a
surprised about how important public perception car can process this data for example, the
was until I conducted a survey which will be
analysed later on.
69Intel Autonomous Cars, Intel, accessed November
1, 2016, http://www.intel.com/content/www/uk/en/it-
managers/autonamous-cars.html.
126
problems of ethics has no obvious solution due to to kill others especially to
how different people have different personal save yourself. I wouldnt be
morals. Morality is subjective. There is no way willing to live with the guilt
you can quantify morality by recreating it in a Akshay Karthikeyan (15)
lab as by definition morals are the personal
distinction between right and wrong and abiding Ethics is a human
by those principles70. As ethics is how morals are invention, and therefore
presented by an outside society or group71, ethics applies to human decision
also are subjective and therefore the laws
only. However, these ethics
regarding ethics are extremely broad and open to
will certainly be present in
interpretation which is why there is always a
judge or other authoritative 3rd party in a court the manufacturing process
room. Computers on the other hand share none of of the program. This will
these traits as computers cannot define for vary between countries,
themselves on what is right and what is wrong as companies and employees.
they can only take an input and return an output For example, [if] car
using a pre-programmed set of instructions. manufacturing moves to
Instead, programmers must decide on how ethics China, ethics will likely be
are implemented in the respective systems and more utilitarian, due to
as each programmer will have different opinions Communist rule and
on the correct ethics and these ethics will mentale. Nonetheless, this
ultimately undermine the fate of peoples lives, should be a decision for the
most people want these ethics to conform to their
cars owner, rather than
own beliefs and not those shared by a stranger.
manufacturer. Oliver
Bennet (15)
2.1.2 Survey
I chose this question in order to see the reaction
I was interested on what my peers thought on the of my peers to probably the least subjective and
ethics of automation by asking them to complete widely known theory on ethics there is. By using
a short survey I had made in an informal utilitarian ethics, an autonomous car could more
environment. I asked 3 questions: easily distinguish between right (save the many)
Would you buy and autonomous car with or wrong (save the few) decision based on its
utilitarian ethics? I.e.: It will kill you if it were consequences. In this case, how many people it
to save 5 others? kills.
Even though this theory is relatively objective
I would the car to kill me however, it still introduces some moral dilemmas
because I would own the that cannot be solved objectively such as should
car and so it would be my
the car maim a homeless man who is worth very
little to society or a rich man who is a renowned
responsibility even if the
philanthropist. Or should the car instead use the
accident was not my fault.
values and principles of the person to
I also would not like to live characterise who is valued more or who is valued
with knowing I had less? This would make utilitarian ethics much
effectively killed 5 people harder to code for as judging who to kill using
in the accident and yet I wealth might appease one person whereas a
didnt die-This is called judgement based on values might appease
survivors guilt another. I therefore asked:
syndrome Oliver Farrell Would you want an autonomous car to treat all
(15) people the same? Would you want it to value 5
murderers equally to 5 children?
I would save the 5 others
because 5 lives are worth The only fair way that I
more than one. Ethics would would agree with would be
persuade me to take this to treat everyone the same
route because its not right way. However, that being
said, I would feel worse if I
killed 5 children compared
70 What Is the Difference between Morality and to 5 murderers. Oliver
Ethics?, Reference, accessed November 1, 2016, Farrell (15)
https://www.reference.com/world-view/difference-
between-morality-ethics-e5a83d5135b93204. People should be treated
71 Carneades.org, Ethics vs Morality (Philosophical
equally as there is always a
Distinctions), accessed November 1, 2016,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fAkqh9pfVkc.
chance of bad people
127
changing their minds and knowing that the car would do everything it
redeeming themselves. could to save you at the cost of others?
Akshay Karthikeyan (15)
Yes, it would affect my
Moralistically, I think that decision [but] I would not
the more a person can give pay more for a car that
to society, the more valuable saves my live at the cost of
they are. For example, of a others. However, a scary
100 year old man, and a 20 [realisation] is that some
year old man, the 20 year people would pay for that
old man is more valuable, as advantage Oliver
he has a longer lifespan to Farrell (15)
generate domestic product.
Equally, a wealthy person is I wouldnt buy an
more valuable to society, as autonomous car [altogether]
they pay more taxes, and because it is too risky and
presumably, generates more [my ethics] compel me not to
domestic product. However, buy it. I would rather be in
it is very difficult for a car to control and make my own
determine these factors, decisions. Akshay
especially in the short space Karthikeyan (15)
of time during which the
As more companies develop
decision needs to be made.
automated motive
Hence, the car should make
technology, the ethics of a
the decision that statistically
car could well become a
results in the best outcome
selling point. I have faith in
to a situation. This should
the markets to ensure
consider the drivers safety
amorality, as morals sell
first, not for moral reasons,
badly, due to the vast
but instead for economic
diversity of beliefs held by
ones. Should, for example,
the market. Furthermore,
Tesla produce cars that
since the design of the
favour pedestrians, it would
software is a trade secret, it
give, say, Google, a
is unlikely that companies
competitive advantage by
will be willing to share the
promoting technology that
exact ethics of their
protects the driver.
software. It is more likely
Therefore, unless the
that the exact decisions the
standards agency were to
technology makes will be
intervene, the Drivers
mid-range between
safety should always be
utilitarian and moralistic.
ensured where possible.
Oliver Bennet (16)
However, there should also
be limits, for example, it
should never mount a 2.1.2.i Solution 1: An International
pedestrian area, drive into a Law
shop etc. Moralistically, [if
possible,] I would like to see In order for car ethics to be fair, unbiased and
the car disregard the life of remain consistent between cars, a 3rd party must
whoever causes the accident be enlisted to create the ethical code that
- e.g. if a pedestrian steps ultimately determine the fate of passengers and
into the road, they deserve pedestrians. This will prevent car manufacturers
effectively profiting by putting peoples lives in
to die. Oliver Bennet (15)
their hands which in my eyes, as well as many
Finally, I wanted to see if the ethics others, is unacceptable. Sadly, I believe this
underpinning a car would affect their decision to might not be the case especially in first
buy it and if they would pay more for ethics that generation of fully autonomous vehicles where
suited their own personal feelings on morality. companies are likely to see a return on their
Would the ethics underpinning an autonomous research and development investment by the use
car affect your decision? Would you pay extra of patents in order to fuel the manufacturer of
second generation of fully autonomous vehicles.
128
Some people believe that companies protecting One of the features the majority of people I asked
their intellectual property is a completely was the implementation of a manual override
legitimate thing to do and in some cases I agree. which would allow any passengers up until the
However, the simplest way to accelerate the point of a crash to control their fate based on
release of a universal ethics engine is to their own morality versus the ethics programmed
accumulate all the code currently available by into the car. In addition, the fact that it is the
different manufacturers, rigorously test its driver who would be responsible for the actions of
capabilities and efficiency in all key aspects such the car during the build up to the crash also
as vehicle to vehicle collisions, inanimate object prevent companies such as Tesla, BMW and
collisions, vehicle to pedestrian collisions etc Volvo being sued for not allowing the human
and create new code based on the best aspects of occupant to prevent an accident and therefore
the old. This code must then be sold for a effectively committing manslaughter if the code
reasonable price to all autonomous car companies was analysed and deemed to be faulty. For many
with contributors to that code receiving a small people this would solve the problem of ethics and
percentage of capital created by these sales based automation but I think that a manual override is
on how much code was used in the final product. not the solution the general public and car
Using this concept, the speed of which ethical manufactures want it to be for a multitude of
artificial intelligence development will increase reasons. Firstly, if an accident were to occur, it
massively as new code constantly replaces the old would be extremely unlikely that the human
whilst consumers get the best and fairest product occupants inside would have enough time to react
possible in return. Although companies might to the danger and take over from the car to
make more money by not adopting this concept prevent an accident. In addition, the actions
and instead producing proprietary software taken by the human occupants might not always
instead I think they should still follow Nils be the correct decision and might result in a more
Bohlin example. Nils Bohlin was the creator of severe accident with more injuries than if an
the 3-point safety harness used in almost every autonomous car calculated the physics and
single car on this planet. It was a genius probability behind an accident and taking that
invention that allowed passenger and drivers to into account before calculating a final decision on
stay safe in a crash whilst still being comfortable what it should do. Hypothetically, lets say that
to sit with and easy to put on. Volvo-the company you were driving along a blind corner and you see
he worked for- could have easily patented the a car pull out and a car unexpectedly turned out
design and used it either exclusively for of a junction and onto a road you are on. Human
themselves or sold it to other companies at a fee. instinct would be to swerve into the opposing
Instead, he made the patent free to use as the lane to try to prevent impact between your car
role out and mass adoption of this lifesaving and the opposing car. This however could lead to
design was more important to him than profiting a head-on collision with a car in the opposing
from his invention72 which has saved an lane leading to a much more serious impact than
estimated quarter of a million peoples lives since if the driver braked, reducing speed as best he
197573. In addition, the implementation of this could before intentionally driving into the front
concept will also allow code to be freely disclosed wing/bonnet area of the other car reducing the
meaning adopters of autonomous cars know what chance of injury both of the occupants and any of
they are buying and how their purchase will the surrounding public. Therefore, allowing a
carry out its duty in the event of an unavoidable manual override might not be in the best
crash. interests of the general public due to how it
would likely increase the amount of injuries due
to the poor decisions people make in the stressful
2.1.2.ii Solution 2: A Manual moments leading up to a car crash which is the
Override cause of 90% of all road crash accidents
worldwide74. A manual override is not the answer
in my opinion as it adds human error into an
equation that autonomous cars are meant to
solve.
72 Why Volvo Gave Away the Patent for Their Most
Important Invention, ArnoldClark Newsroom, accessed
November 1, 2016,
https://www.arnoldclark.com/newsroom/265-why-volvo-
gave-away-the-patent-for-their-most-important-
invention.
73 Seatbelts - Saving Thousands of Lives around the
World Everyday... - News & Blog - Yours, accessed 74 Human Error Accounts for 90% of Road Accidents |
November 1, 2016, Driver Risk Management Solutions | AlertDriving,
http://www.youthforroadsafety.org/news-blog/news- accessed November 2, 2016,
blog- http://www.alertdriving.com/home/fleet-alert-
item/t/seatbelts_saving_thousands_of_lives_around_the magazine/international/human-error-accounts-90-road-
_world_everyday. accidents.
129
being run in order to add new functionality and
improve the level of automations within cars, this
2.1.3 Is this a Problem that will be problem is going to become bigger and bigger as
time goes on if it continues to be tackled using
Solved in the next 10 Years? existing methods.
Unfortunately, I feel that there are too many
complications that arise for the implementation
of ethics into autonomous cars to be solved in 2.2.2 Microprocessor Technology
such a short time frame. It is obvious from the Where it Was, Where it is and
outset of autonomous car design that the ethics
engine of each car will always make mistakes
Where it Needs to Go
and immoral decisions but this cannot be
completely avoided and most moral problems Back in 2014 when Teslas autopilot rose to fame,
cannot be solved. Consequently, I think that car the microprocessor powering the system was
manufacturers will continue to use a manual Mobileyes EyeQ3 processor which was built from
override for the autonomous cars of the future the ground up to excel in ADAS (Advanced Driver
even if it might increase the chances of accidents Assistance Systems)77 processing. With an
and invalidate one of the key selling points of extremely low TDP of just 2.5 watts it offered 102
autonomous transport. Million Multiply and Accumulate operations per
second performance and was the perfect
foundation for ASIC (Application-specific
integrated circuit)78 based car control systems.
2.2 The Hardware and Software Unfortunately, after the fatal accident where a
Needed for Autonomous Driving Tesla Model S hit a tractor trailer as it was
driving on the highway at full speed without any
signs of slowing down both before, during and
2.2.1 Introduction after the impact, Mobileye and Tesla severed
their relations79 and ended their partnership
even though that Mobileye were already
An autonomous car only differs from a regular
developing their next generation EyeQ4 Chip
one in two key points. The hardware it utilizes
with them promising it to be 10 times more
and the software it uses to fuse all that
powerful than the EyeQ3 whilst still being in the
information into rational decisions that affect the
TDP envelop of <5 watts80. This spells what
movement of the car. In all other aspects, it uses
seems to be the end for ASIC processors in
the same parts that have been utilized by cars for
autonomous cars with companies instead turning
decades. These two differing aspects however are
to more well-rounded but much less efficient
extremely important in the development of
offerings from large PC processor companied such
autonomous cars and are another key area that is
as Nvidia, Intel and AMD. Unlike Mobileyes
lacking a solution which is ultimately hindering
EyeQ series that was built specifically for the
the release of autonomous cars to businesses and
visual analysis of camera footage in real time,
eventually the general public. This is because due
Nvidia and AMD are using their respective
to the complexity of the code required to make
GPUs which excel in parallel processing in order
such decisions as well as the amount of data
to execute the car manufactures code using
created by sensors that must be processed and in
existing technologies such as CUDA and
some cases stored, the computing hardware used
by autonomous systems must be extremely
powerful as all decisions are time dependent. At September 6, 2016, https://electrek.co/2016/09/06/tesla-
the moment, the hardware being used in current autopilot-2-0-glimpse-bosch-model-s-prototype-video/.
generation semi-autonomous vehicles are not 77 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)
powerful enough to execute the code required for Processors, accessed November 2, 2016,
level 4 or 5 automation as shown by Tesla http://www.ti.com/lsds/ti_de/automotive/processors/adas
admitting in a statement they are running out of /overview.page?DCMP=adas_tda3&HQS=adas.
78 Application-Specific Integrated Circuit, Wikipedia,
processing power in current generation cars for
developers of the software to utilize and create October 11, 2016,
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Application-
code for75. With more and more sensors being
specific_integrated_circuit&oldid=743816607.
fitted to driverless cars76 and more complex code 79 Dana Hull danahull, Tesla Breakup With Mobileye
Turns Ugly, Bloomberg.com, September 16, 2016,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-
75 Fred Lambert, Tesla Is Reaching the Limit of 16/tesla-says-mobileye-tried-to-block-its-auto-vision-
Autopilot Hardware, but Fleet Learning Will Improve capability.
for Years, Says Musk, Electrek, September 12, 2016, 80 Exclusive: The Tesla AutoPilot - An In-Depth Look
https://electrek.co/2016/09/12/tesla-reaching-limit- At The Technology Behind the Engineering Marvel,
autopilot-hardware/. WCCFtech, December 3, 2015,
76 Fred Lambert, A Glimpse at Tesla Autopilot 2.0 http://wccftech.com/tesla-autopilot-story-in-depth-
Capabilities with a Bosch Model S Prototype, Electrek, technology/5/.
130
OpenCL. In Nvidas case their new Drive PX2 to every factor that might exist on the road
which was released just a few months ago seems including ones not regularly encountered such as
like the most powerful offering currently animals or those driving on the wrong side of the
available for motor manufacturers to utilize with road are not feasible due to the amount of data
12 CPU cores (To put it into context most that must be stored. Another problem
Desktop PCs have around 2-4), 2 GPUs which programmers face is the sheer number of
allow 8 TFLOP or 8 trillion floating point conditional statement they need to use in order to
operations per second (which is around the same create a program capable of producing a
performance as a GTX 1080 (the most expensive methodical and rational output based on sensory
mainstream graphics card produced by the PC input. Existing programs use conditional
division of Nvidia only superseded by the Titan statements to determine if a set of inputs result
XP) with a TDP of 250 watts which is fully liquid in true or false and then take an action based on
cooled it is clear that Nvidias vision of the future this Boolean outcome81. Unfortunately, these
is general and unspecific processing power that Boolean outcomes are binary with only 2 set
automotive companies can in whatever way they possibilities true or false. Without any middle
see fit with a complete disregard for system ground, programmers must create an almost
efficiency unlike with the image comparison endless list of statement ranging from the
specialist chips like Mobileyes EyeQ series. obvious If person enters car path, stop and
steer to the obscure If log falls of lorry in
front, stop and steer as well as the fact that all
2.2.3 Autonomous Software conditional statements must have yet more
Features conditional statements embedded within them in
order to determine the magnitude of the action
With almost an infinite amount of possibilities such as if person < 5 metres from car, apply
that could happen on roads on a given journey, breaks 100%, if person>5 metres but < 10 metres,
an autonomous car must therefore be able to apply breaks 90% etc This fact makes creating
process an almost infinite amount of rational an autonomous car on the basis of sequence code
actions. Traditional programs that range from that execute a long list of instructions based on
productivity applications such as Microsoft Word predetermined parameters an almost impossible
to cutting edge games such as Battlefield 1 all task even accounting for the rapid improvements
share one thing in common. Their use of in processor technologies over the next decade.
variables and conditional statements. A variable Car manufacturers must therefore take a new
put simply is a label/address to a value stored stance on programming if fully autonomous cars
within memory that a computer can access. Most want to be licensed to drive on the open road
programs use variables to store data that is instead of in a meticulously controlled test track.
constantly changing such as a players speed in
game or a character health for example. As
variables are frequently accessed and change
2.2.3.i Solution 1. Deep Learning
rapidly, they are usually stored in Random and Analysis
Access Memory (RAM). Most games however are
designed to limit the number of variables a Unlike autonomous cars, the main way humans
computer must store in order to reduce the learn how to drive is to distinguish between right
amount of computing power needed to run a from wrong after they make mistakes. Scientists
game and make it easier to run for people with are trying to apply this same thought process to
less powerful PCs. If for whatever case that more autonomous vehicles due to how programming a
variables are created that can be stored on a car using this method greatly enhances the
computers RAM, variables are instead stored in efficiency of the code meaning more code can be
secondary memory such as your laptops Hard implemented today using existing current-
Disk Drive or Solid State Drive. This solution is generation hardware without increasing the
always available to game developers as there is a processing power overhead. Multiple companies
high probability no one running a game will even have started to use deep learning technologies
run out of RAM in a normal use case scenario as where instead of programming a computer to
the number of variables are strictly limited but in perform a task based on a sequence of code,
an autonomous car, running out of RAM is programmers instead use algorithms in order to
relatively easy due to the amount of data a simulate how a human mind works. By then
computer must store on a given journey. entering data, a computer is able to distinguish
Furthermore, unlike game developers who can patterns in this data and effectively learn what to
cache unused variables onto slower secondary do based on what has already been done. After it
storage for later access, autonomous car has a fundamental understanding of these
programmers cannot use this option as data must
constantly be found using an index, read,
81 Conditional (Computer Programming), Wikipedia,
processed and written again in a time sensitive
November 4, 2016,
environment. Therefore, existing programming
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conditional_
technologies such as simply assigning a variable (computer_programming)&oldid=747867679.
131
patterns, it can enter data that it feels conforms gradually increase to full strength
to already existing patterns before researchers when it is approximately 99.99%
inform the computer if the data entered is correct certain of a collision. This may not
or incorrect. This process can be a continuous always prevent a collision entirely, but
process of trial and improvement and in theory the impact speed will be dramatically
there is no upper limit on the amount of data reduced to the point where there are
that can be entered or analysed. An advantage of
unlikely to be serious injuries to the
a system like this is that it is extremely easy to
vehicle occupants.
centralise this process. An example is Tesla82 who
actively collects data from its fleet even if Nvidias example of this technology is much more
autopilot is disengaged. By learning how humans radical and one that completely undermines the
act when a situation it cannot deal with arises it way current generation autonomy works and I
can learn what decisions need to be taken and feel is a game changing revolution in the field
can create code based on this that can be and one that sticks more closely to the roots of
implemented in future revisions of the software. deep learning. Instead of starting by creating a
The following is an example of how the Tesla program that can be run on a test car that can be
Team implemented deep learning in order to run on a test car equipped with processors and
improve their autopilot software: sensors, Nvidia instead decided to create a car
that could accurately map the telemetry of a car
When the car is approaching
with visual data gathered through high definition
an overhead highway road cameras mounted to the front. They then
sign positioned on a rise in offloaded this data to a supercomputer loaded
the road or a bridge where with a custom program to analyse how the
the road dips underneath, telemetry of a car such as steering angle changed
this often looks like a as the scenery changed by comparing both data
collision course. The sets. After this analysis was complete, the
navigation data and height program was then fed this data again and tried to
accuracy of the GPS are not effectively mimic what the human driver had
enough to know whether the done by the patterns it had observed. Although
car will pass under the not perfect initially, it learnt from its mistakes by
object or not. By the time the comparing frames it had simulated to frames
that were recorded in real life and by doing so
car is close and the road
was able to deduce a new algorithm to apply to
pitch changes, it is too late any future frames. Finally, after researchers felt
to brake. the car was capable of deciphering a wide range
of scenarios based on unseen visual data, they
This is where fleet learning comes in loaded it up onto a specially modified car where
handy. Initially, the vehicle fleet will instead of using its deciphered patterns to create
take no action except to note the a simulated frame, it would instead use this data
position of road signs, bridges and to change the steering angle of the car. This
other stationary objects, mapping the means without the use of hard programmed code
world according to radar. The car that programmers had written in advance the car
computer will then silently compare was able to steer itself with much fewer sensors
when it would have braked to the than its counterparts meaning the amount of
driver action and upload that to the data it had to process and store was vastly
Tesla database. If several cars drive reduced. In addition, as the car was designed to
follow visual patterns that humans had already
safely past a given radar object,
interpreted in only slightly different situations,
whether Autopilot is turned on or off,
the car was able to continue to function
then that object is added to the autonomously even if there was no centre line, no
geocoded whitelist. road lines and even no tarmac altogether. A feat
that would take months or years of development
When the data shows that false and innovation if achieved in the traditional way.
braking events would be rare, the car
will begin mild braking using radar,
even if the camera doesn't notice the 2.2.4 Is this a Problem that will be
object ahead. As the system confidence
level rises, the braking force will Solved in the next 10 Years?
82 Dan Frommer, Tesla Explains How Its Entire Fleet Even though this isnt the main problem
Is Learning to Be Better Self-Driving Cars Together, hindering the wide scale adoption of autonomous
Recode, September 12, 2016, vehicles, I still feel that it is one that is important
http://www.recode.net/2016/9/12/12889358/tesla- to solve due to how the solving of other problems
autopilot-data-fleet-learning.
132
regarding autonomous driving such as ethics and
ever increasing safety standards will inevitably
increase the complexity of the programs and the
2.3.2 Passenger Safety
resources needed to run them. I believe that the
interest in both the hardware and software side This is one of the most important aspects that
of autonomy is high enough to warrant rapid people research before buying a car and will
development in both fields accelerated by the inevitably be the one thing they question if the
shocking separation between Tesla and Mobileye car they are looking to purchase is autonomous.
and one that prompted many computer processor Generally speaking, most accidents are caused by
manufacturers to start to turn their attention human error and not mechanical failure and
onto the automotive industry and capitalise on therefore it seems that autonomous cars should
this severed relationship. This I feel in the long theoretically cut down the amount of accidents
run should (in theory at least) stimulate that happen on public roads. Unfortunately,
innovation as different manufactures rush to get Googles new autonomous car has proved that
market share by improving their products over this is not the case with it recording 5 accidents
multiple generation and this competition will within 200,000 miles of driving which is almost
eventually drive down the cost experienced by 10 times higher than the national average in
consumers. I also feel that the recent advances in America85. Interestingly, all of the car accidents
the way software is created will be widely were not the cars fault but instead were caused
implemented with large technology based by drivers behind rear ending the autonomous
companies like Google heavily investing in this car. Although not confirmed, Raj Rajkumar who
sector with their acquisition of DeepMind for is the designer of several autonomous suspects
400 million83. As first generation autonomous that the main reason why these vehicles is
cars are slowly phased out as they become involved in a disproportional amount of accidents
obsolete, I feel that manufactures will start to is due to drivers getting distracted by it causing
rewrite code from scratch as they transition their them to rear-end the vehicle. When taking into
focus from driver-aids to driver-free in the coming account accidents that was the fault of the
years and use this technology to facilitate this autonomous car, only one was reported by Google
shift. after in collided with a bus. According to eye
witness accounts and the statements released by
the bus driver in addition to the test driver in the
autonomous vehicles, the autonomous vehicle
2.3 Will Autonomous Vehicles and test driver assumed the bus was going to
Solve the Problems that they give way to the car and therefore started to pull
out which resulted in both vehicles colliding. This
Claim They Can? was the first incident in over 1.3 million miles
where the car was at fault. According to data
published by the Federal Highway
2.3.1 Introduction Administration, the average American Driver has
an accident every 165,000 miles86 meaning that
A product will only be bought by a consumer if it the Googles Driverless Cars (even in its early
has tangible benefits that improves their life. developmental stage with models not expecting to
Autonomous cars not only aiming to remove the be released to mass market until 202087) are
stresses associated with driving but also to almost 8 times safer than a human driver if
improve passenger safety, fuel efficiency and disregarding incidents where the car was not at
journey times by cutting congestion. Without fault. This number is almost certainly going to
these criteria being met, autonomous driving will improve in the future as algorithms responsible
remain a gimmick that will only be featured on for autonomous driving become more complex
high end vehicles and will not trickle down to
lower end cars by the laws of supply and demand.
This would effectively spell the end in the http://fortune.com/2016/11/15/intel-is-making-a-major-
development in this field as manufacturers investment-in-autonomous-vehicles/.
85 Mark Harris, Googles Self-Driving Cars Are
realise it is not profitable to invest last swathes
of money of up to $250 million into something Accident-Prone but It May Not Be Their Fault, The
with no foreseeable returns.84 Guardian, June 28, 2015, sec. Technology,
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jun/28/go
ogle-self-driving-cars-accidents.
86 Chris Taylor, Googles Driverless Car Is Now Safer
83 Samuel Gibbs, Google Buys UK Artificial Than the Average Driver, Mashable, accessed
Intelligence Startup Deepmind for 400m, The December 13, 2016,
Guardian, January 27, 2014, sec. Technology, http://mashable.com/2012/08/07/google-driverless-cars-
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jan/27/go safer-than-you/.
ogle-acquires-uk-artificial-intelligence-startup- 87 Google Inc. Says Self-Driving Car Will Be Ready By
deepmind. 2020, International Business Times, January 14, 2015,
84 Intel Is Making a Major Investment in Autonomous http://www.ibtimes.com/google-inc-says-self-driving-car-
Vehicles, Fortune, November 15, 2016, will-be-ready-2020-1784150.
133
and can be executed in increasingly powerful such as waving. Instead, a computer must
hardware. Obviously, these results must be assume what this road user is doing and choose
interpreted with some reservations as test its actions accordingly which is a scary
drivers have had to take over from the proposition to say the least and one that is
autonomous system numerous times to avoid preventing autonomous cars come to mass
collisions but considering within 7 years, semi- market.
autonomous cars have already had less collisions In the long run, I believe autonomy will help
that a human controlled counterpart, it seems reduce the amount of accidents between other
taking the human out of the equation of driving road users and cars but in the short term, I dont
is the most efficient way to make driving safer think the technology is available for the reliable
from the mass market. After all, human error is detection other road users at the moment and not
responsible for 90% of all accidents88. for the foreseeable future (<10 years) even
though massive strides have been made in this
area in a relatively short space of time due to
2.3.3 The Safety of Other Road how large the consequences would be for a
Users manufacturer should an incident occur. If
autonomous cars were to come to mass market in
Another aspect that must be taken into account this timeframe therefore, I believe a human
during the implementation of autonomous cars is would have to take control or at the very
the safety of other road users such as cyclists and minimum be prepared to take controlled in
pedestrians. Unlike cars which generally are situations where a vehicle to pedestrian collision
large and easily picked up by radar and laser was highly likely For example, a busy city
based sensors, picking up a pedestrian on a dimly square.
lit road is much more difficult due the difference
in composition and size. In addition, unlike an
urban vehicle to vehicle collision which often does 2.3.4 Fuel Savings
not leave the occupants with serious injuries due
to the low speed of the crash and the relatively It is well documented that smooth acceleration
good design of modern day vehicles, a vehicle to and constant speed is much more efficient than
pedestrian collision is often much more serious repeated acceleration and breaking89 and
and even a relatively low speed collision can be autonomous cars are widely believed to abide to
fatal. This means pedestrian safety is paramount this principle better than the average human
if autonomous cars are to come to mass market. driver due to their lack of emotions, precision on
Google has already made massive strides in this the throttle and predicting when to coast and
area due to its introduction of LIDAR sensors on when to accelerate reducing the energy wastage
its autonomous vehicles which utilize the same by pressing the brakes and converting kinetic
principle as radar but using light instead of radio energy unnecessarily into heat and sound.
waves. By doing so, cars are more easily able to Furthermore, the enticing benefits of
recognise animate objects much more effectively slipstreaming are also much easier to take
as radar waves are usually not reflected advantage of in an autonomous car due to the
sufficiently to be detected in an urban reduced reaction times of a computer system
environment making them unfeasible to detect compared with a human driver. This allows
humans on the road. This coupled with the use of vehicles to remain in closer proximity to one
thermal imaging cameras such as those used by another increasing the potential fuel savings.
the military should in theory at least cut the Statistics show that slipstreaming a HGV can
number of accidents as unlike human drivers, yield 11% fuel savings at 30 metres and 39% at
autonomous cars do not require adequate 10 metres90 which is a huge saving considering
street/head lighting and/or reflective or high how easily technology such as this could be
visibility clothing in order to detect pedestrians implemented on motorways. The lead car would
and take avoiding action. Cars must also be able set the pace and communicate to subsequent cars
to detect indications commonly used by other about any obstacles it detects ahead. All cars
road users. For example, they must be able to would then simultaneously slow down and
distinguish a horse rider indicating to turn and accelerate after the obstacle has been avoided
take appropriate action to avoid a collision. meaning. Furthermore, not all cars must be
Unlike indicators which can easily be modified to
send out a small infrared or Wi-Fi based signal
when they are activated, hand signals are much
harder for a car to interpret as there is no 89 Thomas, J.F., S. Huff, and B. West. 2016. Review of
objective way to determine if a road user is Measured and Modeled Fuel Consumption Changes
indicating or simply doing a similar hand gesture Due to Aggressive Driving on Conventional and Hybrid
Electric Light-Duty Vehicles. Internal Report. Oak
88
Ridge National Laboratory.
Human Error as a Cause of Vehicle Crashes,
accessed December 13, 2016, /blog/2013/12/human- 90MythBusters Episode 80: Big Rig Myths, accessed
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134
autonomous for technologies such as this to work. lights will also become redundant as instead of
Trucks for example that are not autonomous can vehicles inefficiently communicating via a
be followed at distances of around 20-30 metres lighting based system where green means go and
which is enough distance to detect a truck red means stop, cars can instead can
slowing down and apply its own breaks. As cars communicate with each other directly alleviating
usually stop much faster than trucks, an accident the need for them to come to a complete stop and
would always be mitigated if a car can sense the instead calculating the most efficient trajectory
change in velocity fast enough and this could based on the vehicles at intersections without
easily be achieved with a relatively basic (level 3) having to lose all kinetic energy. This will again
autonomous driving system assuming good save time and money with an average of 6
enough sensors and adequate processing power. months being spent at traffic lights over the
When multiplied with the whole driving course of a lifetime and 26 gallons of fuel wasted
population of America, fuel savings would be per year per person in the USA92 due to excessive
around 1.4 to 56 billion gallons91 which is a huge traffic. Mass acceptance and purchase of
amount considering how simple a system like autonomous vehicles however must happen in
this would be to implement considering how order for the benefits autonomous cars bring to
prominent radar cruise control is in this the table to be exploited to their full potential as
generation of cars. for systems such as those I have mentioned in
this subtopic rely on communication between
cars. Although not all cars need to be
2.3.5 Reduced Congestion autonomous for this to work, I feel the vast
majority of them do and this will only happen
with time and when autonomous vehicles reduce
Congestion is a problem faced with the majority
in price. 3.
of people in this country and is one that makes
car journey slower, less fuel efficient and more
stressful. Autonomous cars in theory at least 3. Conclusion
should solve all of these issues however, at the
moment, they are doing the polar opposite and Autonomous driving I feel is definitely going to
instead giving the impression to the mass market represent a huge turning point in the history of
that autonomous cars will actually make the automotive industry. Judging by how
congestion worse rather than better due to the vigorous development is at this moment in time
increased safety margins autonomous cars must and how much money is being invested into
give to their human counterparts early in their technologies that allow it to happen, I feel that it
development cycle. Unfortunately, this is far from is only a matter of time before its widespread
the case according to my research which states execution eclipses the achievements of Henry
that autonomous cars will be more time efficient Ford and his implementation of the assembly line
than their human driven counterparts but only if in order to make cars affordable for the masses as
implemented in the correct way and on a large well as the patent free release of seatbelts that
scale. Congestion is a phenomenon that stems has saved thousands of lives due to the
from miscommunication and desynchronization generosity of Nils Bohlin. However, it is public
between the vehicles involved. A perfect example adoption that will really determine if autonomy
is a car slowing down on a motorway after can permeate from commercial industry or large
another car cuts into a lane. The car behind the transnational co-corporations such as Uber and
car that also has slowed also has to slow down, as Google to domestic households and that will only
does the car behind that and the car behind that be a solution that marketing, reassurance and
etc After the first car, has cleared the obstacle widespread laws can solve and judging by my
and started accelerating, cars are still data is probably the main factor holding back my
decelerating behind due to the lag associated peers from buying an autonomous vehicle when
with breaking and accelerating. Eventually, one they are older and when autonomous vehicles
car will stop completely causing a traffic jam to become more readily available. I think this is
form as cars travelling at motorway speed will mainly because of a lack of free will and trust
have to come to a complete rest and accelerate between them and the creators which I feel is a
back up to cruising speed. However, if cars were problem only time can solve just like how the
always equally spaced and travelling at constant general population were suspicious of online
velocity, this would not be a problem as cars banking when that first hit the internet in the
would decelerate and accelerate at a uniform rate 1980s. I therefore deduce based on the current
prevent the lag time which causes congestion. evidence I have used and conclusions I have
Furthermore, traditional intersections and traffic drawn is that semi-autonomous (or driver-aided)
91 Fuels and Energy Independence, accessed January 92 Wasting Away in Traffic, TreeHugger, accessed
25, 2017, January 25, 2017,
http://www.americanenergyindependence.com/fuels.asp http://www.treehugger.com/cars/wasting-away-in-
x. traffic.html.
135
driving will become a widely available product in Review. Accessed October 11, 2016.
the next 10 years. I still feel, all that I have said https://www.technologyreview.com/s/542
above in my conclusion only corresponds to a 626/why-self-driving-cars-must-be-
level 4 on the autonomous driving scale and programmed-to-kill/.
believe what I defined earlier in this project or
vehicles that correspond perfectly to level 5 on 7. Atari 800 Computer. Accessed October
the NHTSA are still a long way off due to the 29, 2016.
refinement needed if they want to be released to http://oldcomputers.net/atari800.html.
businesses and consumers mainly because of the 8. Autonomous | Define Autonomous at
ethical shortcomings and public distrust of Dictionary.com. Accessed October 29,
software that will be used to power them and the 2016.
fact that in an undefined use case scenario a http://www.dictionary.com/browse/auton
driverless car might effectively murder people. omous.
My conclusion therefore is a simple one. Personal 9. Autonomous Cars - Patents and
opinion will dictate if you believe autonomous Perspectives| Patents & Patent Law.
vehicles will become a mainstream product in the IPWatchdog.com | Patents & Patent
next decade. In the same way, a person born in Law, April 7, 2016.
the 20th century might have a differing opinion to http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2016/04/07/a
what a mobile phone is than those born after the utonomous-cars-patents-
millennium I feel that only public definition will perspectives/id=68045/.
define the ultimate success or failure of 10. Beres, Damon. Autonomous Cars Will
autonomous cars and vehicles as a whole as Be Data-Consuming Monsters.
although benefits are definitely tangible, the Mashable. Accessed November 2, 2016.
sheer complexity both in terms of technology and http://mashable.com/2016/08/17/intel-
the laws required to utilize them will hamper its autonomous-car-data/.
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Fatal Crash, Tesla Will Quit Using
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Academic Journal - Issue 5

Încărcat de

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relationships developed between

Editorial peers. This journals collection of

For our readers we have included a

contributions, Olivia, Luke and offered by the curriculum. Through

Vithushan Nuges and Dawud Khan

With many of our peers graduating

Natural Sciences Society 6

Arts and Humanities

Similarities between DNA and communication Emma Tolmie (Year 12) - 13

Israel and Palestine Tanay Vankayalapati (Year 12) - 16

Science and Medicine

Symmetry and the laws of nature Josephine Jones (Year 12) - 30

Extended Project Qualification

Higher Project Qualification

Political Economy Society speakers in the form of Old Olavians or experts

William To (Year 12)

Political Economy Society offers a rich mix of

Debating Society is the most popular society in

History Society Philosophy Society

Gladstone Memorial Prize

Why did the actors in Greek tragedy wear

1 Euripides. Helen, line 253

3Nietzsche, F. The Birth of Tragedy, 1995

Taplin, O. (2016). Didaskalia - The Journal for

Golding, W. (1958). Lord of the flies (Orange

Gonville and Caius Linguistics Challenge Essay

Similarities Between DNA and Communication in

Israel and Palestine

How the breakup of the Ottoman Empire led to this century-long

Tanay Vankayalapati Palestine, in an attempt to gain the

special status for the City of Jerusalem, radical Palestinian independence

to be re-elected, creating the Iron Dome,

At the moment, the Israeli-Palestinian

The Snoopers Charter - A breach of our right

are, it is important to understand comparison has been made with

t_1998, Last accessed 11/08/17 Wikipedia,

Firstly, as Joanna Cherry MP19

17Snoopers Charter passes into law what it

Doughnut Economics; Seven ways to think like a 21st-

Now, that we as a nation, and yes, I Instead, she decided to embrace

prevalent policy for the leaders of to take a more holistic approach

wont last on people we dont care principles for the twenty-first-

some very plausible and thought-

To conclude, Kate Raworths plea

Is Physiological or Psychological Pain Worse?

Newnham College, Cambridge- Weston-

Symmetry and The Laws Of Nature

The Standard Model

Diracs work also initiated quantum field

Figure 3: Useless box

The destruction of symmetry is of

The Necessity of Symmetry

2. Abstract statistics: the practice or science of

2010), and contributes to expensive

Without better mathematics A causes B

studying their effectiveness against versa. This counterintuitive result

Figure 1: comparing two treatments Moreover, Simpsons Paradox

respect both to correlation and the The base-rate fallacy is again

which 2,997 would be identified. But gynaecologists by Gerd Gigerenzer

Only 21% said the correct result of 1

by psychological research recommendation to patients.

There are several different

It is important to note that the 4.4.1 Argument from rarity.

winner who has been accused of