Semicolon

The semicolon is sometimes described as stronger than a comma but weaker than a
period. In certain uses, this is a reasonably accurate definition. Yet there is more to the
semicolon than that.

Between independent clauses when a coordinating conjunction is

omitted

Most commonly, the semicolon is used between two independent clauses (i.e., clauses
that could stand alone as separate sentences) when a coordinating conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) is omitted.

The upperclassmen are permitted off-campus lunch; the underclassmen must remain
on campus.

The example above could be recast with the conjunction but, in which case a comma,
rather than a semicolon, would be required.

The upperclassmen are permitted off-campus lunch, but the underclassmen must
remain on campus.

Technically, the semicolon could be replaced with a period, since each independent
clause is a complete sentence. The semicolon, however, emphasizes the connection
between the two clauses.

Note: When the second clause expands on or explains the first, the colon is the better
mark.

Between independent clauses linked by a transitional expression

The semicolon is also used between two independent clauses linked by a transitional
expression (e.g., accordingly, consequently, for example, nevertheless, so, thus).

Heavy snow continues to fall at the airport; consequently, all flights have been
grounded.

Hyperinflation makes it extremely difficult to keep track of prices; thus a quart of

milk might cost $10 in the morning and $200 in the afternoon.

In lists with internal commas

The semicolon can also be used in lists with internal commas. In this usage, the
semicolon acts as a sort of super-comma.
The new store will have groceries on the lower level; luggage, housewares, and
electronics on the ground floor; mens and womens clothing on the second floor; and
books, music, and stationery on the third floor.

In elliptical constructions

When combined with a comma, the semicolon can be used in elliptical constructions. In
this case, the comma serves as an ellipsis, eliminating the need to repeat an understood
portion of the initial clause.

In 1992, Starbucks had under 200 stores; ten years later, over 5,000.

Some people brought food; others, clothing; yet others, merely a willingness to help.
Colon
The colon has primarily three grammatical uses and several non-grammatical uses.

Introducing a list

The colon is used to introduce a list of items.

The bookstore specializes in three subjects: art, architecture, and graphic design.

Do not, however, use a colon when the listed items are incorporated into the flow of the
sentence.

Correct: The bookstore specializes in art, architecture, and graphic design.

Incorrect: The bookstore specializes in: art, architecture, and graphic design.

Between independent clauses when the second explains or

illustrates the first

The colon is used to separate two independent clauses when the second explains or
illustrates the first. In such usage, the colon functions in much the same way as the
semicolon. As with the semicolon, do not capitalize the first word after the colon unless
the word is ordinarily capitalized.

I have very little time to learn the language: my new job starts in five weeks.

A college degree is still worth something: a recent survey revealed that college
graduates earned roughly 60% more than those with only a high school diploma.

All three of their children are involved in the arts: Richard is a sculptor, Diane is a
pianist, and Julie is a theatre director.

When two or more sentences follow a colon, capitalize the first word following the
colon.

He made three points: First, the company was losing over a million dollars each
month. Second, the stock price was lower than it had ever been. Third, no banks were
willing to loan the company any more money.

Emphasis
The colon can be used to emphasize a phrase or single word at the end of a sentence.
An em dash can be used for the same purpose. In the second example below, an em
dash is more common than a colon, though the use of a colon is nevertheless correct.

After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty.

Five continents, three dozen countries, over a hundred cities: this was the trip of a
lifetime.

Non-grammatical uses of the colon

Time

The colon is used to separate hours from minutes, with no space before or after the
colon.

11:35 a.m.

Ratio

The colon is used to express a ratio of two numbers, with no space before or after the
colon.

1:3

Biblical references

The colon is used in biblical references to separate chapter from verse, with no space
before or after the colon.

Genesis 1:31

Other references

The colon is used to separate the volume from page numbers of a cited work, with no
space before or after the colon.

Punctuation Quarterly 4:8689 (read as pages 86 through 89 of volume four)

Correspondence

The colon is frequently used in business and personal correspondence.

Dear Ms. Smith:

cc: Tom Smith

Attention: Accounts Payable

PS: Dont forget your swimsuit.

Em dash
The em dash is perhaps the most versatile punctuation mark. Depending on the context,
the em dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colonsin each case to
slightly different effect.

Notwithstanding its versatility, the em dash is best limited to two appearances per
sentence. Otherwise, confusion rather than clarity is likely to result.

Do not mistake the em dash () for the slightly narrower en dash () or the even
narrower hyphen (-). Those marks serve different purposes and are further explained in
other sections.

Em dashes in place of commas

A pair of em dashes can be used in place of commas to enhance readability. Note,

however, that dashes are always more emphatic than commas.

And yet, when the car was finally deliverednearly three months after it was
orderedshe decided she no longer wanted it, leaving the dealer with an oddly
equipped car that would be difficult to sell.

Em dashes in place of parentheses

A pair of em dashes can replace a pair of parentheses. Dashes are considered less formal
than parentheses; they are also more intrusive. If you want to draw attention to the
parenthetical content, use dashes. If you want to include the parenthetical content more
subtly, use parentheses.

Note that when dashes are used in place of parentheses, surrounding punctuation
should be omitted. Compare the following examples.

Upon discovering the errors (all 124 of them), the publisher immediately recalled the
books.

Upon discovering the errorsall 124 of themthe publisher immediately recalled the
books.

When used in place of parentheses at the end of a sentence, only a single dash is used.

After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction (or, rather, lack of
direction).
After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his directionor, rather, lack of
direction.

The em dash in place of a colon

The em dash can be used in place of a colon when you want to emphasize the conclusion
of your sentence. The dash is less formal than the colon.

After months of deliberation, the jurors reached a unanimous verdictguilty.

The white sand, the warm water, the sparkling sunthis is what brought them to
Hawaii.

Multiple em dashes

Two em dashes can be used to indicate missing portions of a word, whether unknown
or intentionally omitted.

Mr. J testified that the defendant yelled, Die, a, before pulling the trigger.

From the faded and water-damaged note, we made out only this: Was ney going
to m K, but now t.

When an entire word is missing, either two or three em dashes can be used. Whichever
length you choose, use it consistently throughout your document. Surrounding
punctuation should be placed as usual.

The juvenile defendant, , was arraigned yesterday.

Spaces with the em dash

The em dash is typically used without spaces on either side, and that is the style used in
this guide. Most newspapers, however, set the em dash off with a single space on each
side.

Most newspapers and all that follow AP style insert a space before and after the
em dash.

Producing the em dash

Many modern word processors will automatically insert an em dash when you type a
pair of hyphens. Otherwise, look for an insert symbol command. If you are using a
typewriter, a pair of hyphens is the closest you can get to an em dash.