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Phonetics & Phonology

Phonetics and phonology are inextricably intertwined, but the two have a fundamentally different
meaning. Phonetics is the study of the human speech sound per se. It studies the how to of the
production, and can be very pedagogically meaningful. Phonology, on the other hand, is the study of
mental organization of the sounds in the brain of native speakers. Phonology deals with the abstract
side of speech sound and is language specific, but it can also refer to a general umbrella term to refer to
the study of sound system of a particular language.

Phonetics is subdivided into three distinct studies:

1. Articulatory phonetics: the study of how sounds are articulated in the human organs. For
example, in phonetics we deal with where the sounds are produced (place of articulation), how
they are produced (manner of articulation), how the state of the glottis is (vocal folds vibrating
or not), and the state of the velum (raised or lowered).
2. Acoustics phonetics: the study of the physical properties of a sound as transmitted through the
air. In acoustic phonetics, we study intensity of the sound, frequency, length, and the like.
3. Auditory phonetics: the study of how sounds are perceived in the human brain, therefore
auditory has a bit of connection with phonology.

Speech sound is produced by modifying airstream from the initiators. Airstream mechanism is a term
that refers to the method by which a passage of air is modified to produce speech sounds through
certain initiators. There are three different initiators: the lungs (Pulmonic), glottis (Glotallic), and tongue
(Velaric). There are also two possible ways that these three initiators modify the airstream: Ingressive
(inhaling the air into the initiator) and Egressive (exhaling the hair from the initiator). Combining the two
different terms, we can arrive at six possible airstream mechanisms:

1. Pulmonic Egressive: is a type of airstream mechanism where the air is pushed by the ribs and
diaphragm into either the oral cavity or nasal cavity. This is the most common airstream
mechanism found in most language in the world. English makes use of this type of airstream
mechanism.
2. Pulmonic Ingressive: is a rare type of mechanism whereby the air is inhaled from the mouth into
the lungs in the production of speech sounds.
3. Glotallic Egressive: is another rare type of air mechanism where the air column is pushed
upward by the glottis. Sounds produced this way are called Ejectives.
4. Glotallic Ingressive: is yet another rare type of air mechanism where the air is rarefied as the
glottis moves downward. Sounds produced this way are called Implosives.
5. Velaric Egressive: also a rare type of air mechanism where the air column is pushed out into the
mouth by the upward movement of the tongue. Sounds produced this way are also known as
spitting.

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6. Velaric Ingressive: is an extremely rare type of air mechanism where the air is rarefied by the
downward movement of the tongue. Sounds produced this way are called Clicks[], found in an
African Language.

In describing any speech sounds phonetically, we could refer them by using four different descriptive
parameters: voicing, place of articulation, manner of articulation, and whether it is nasal or oral sound.
Since it is understood that English sounds are pulmonic Egressive (made by pushing the air from the
lungs into the oral or nasal cavity, we could leave out the air mechanism as one of the descriptive
parameters). Consonants are produced by involving some degree of constriction in the vocal track, while
vowels are produced with open approximation, where the airflow is freer.

1. Voicing / State of glottis:

Remember that there can be no speech sounds without modifying the airstream of some sort. There are
many ways in which the air can be modified. The first air modification may occur in larynx. Inside the
organ are vocal folds or vocal cords. The vocal folds may lie open are be wide apart so as to let the air
flow through the passage unimpeded, creating avoiceless sound. Or we could have a constant muscular
pressure to make a repeated succession of opening and closing these vocal folds, creating a vibration
and thus a voiced sound. One possible variation of air modification is the state in which the vocal folds
are wide apart but there is enough air pressure that sets them vibrating, which in turn produce a
breathy voiceas in Behind. Another interesting technique we use with the vocal folds is when they are
open, but one end of them are close enough as to set them vibrating, thus creating a creaky voiceas
found in Hausa / African Language.

2. Place of Articulation:

This refers to where the sounds are produced or the relationship between the active
articulators (the ones that move, usually the tongue), and the passive articulators (the one that
is still).

Glottal: sounds in which the air is modified by forming a constriction between both
vocal folds. In English there are two glottal sounds: [h] and [], both are voiceless but
differ in HOW they are produced.
Bilabials: sounds in which there is a constriction between the upper lip and the lower
lip. There are three bilabial sounds in English: [p], [b], and [m], all of which are voiced
except the former.
Labio-dentals: sounds in which there is a constriction between the upper teeth and the
lower lip such as [f] and [v], where the former is voiceless and the later voiced.
Dentals: sounds in which there is a constriction between the upper teeth and the tip of
the tongue, such as: [] and [], again this is a voiceless and voiced contrast like above.

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Alveolars: sounds in which there is a constriction between the tip of blade of the tongue
and the roof of the mouth or alveolar ridge. There quite a number of alveolar sounds in
English: [t], [s], [d], [n], [], [l], and [z]. The first two are voiceless, the rest is voiced.
Post-Alveolars: sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade of the tongue
and the palato-alveolar such as [], [], [], and[].The first two are voiceless, the rest is
voiced.
Palatals: sounds in which there is a constriction between the front of the tongue and
the hard palate. Only one sound is found in English: [j].
Velars: sounds in which there is a constriction between the back of the tongue and the
velum or soft palate, such as: [k], [g], and [].
Labial-velars: sounds produced by using two different articulators. The first one is the
rounded lips, and the second one is the back of the tongue forming a constriction with
the velum, one English sound produced this way is [w].

3. Manner of Articulation:

Manner refers to the degree of constrictions involved in producing the sounds, or how close
both articulators are to each other. There are three different degrees of constrictions: complete
closure, close approximation, and open approximation. The sounds produced from these three
different degrees of constrictions are labeled stops or plosives, fricatives, and approximants
respectively.

Stops: are sounds that entail a bringing together of two articulators to the point where
they are in contact with each other, completely blocking the airflow, then the closure is
released quickly causing a sudden outflow of air. There are three known stages in the
production of stops:
Closing stage: The two articulators move towards each other.
Closure stage: The two articulators touch each other.
Release stage: The two articulators move away from each other.

Interestingly, all stop sounds in English most come in pairs:

Bilabial stops: [p] and its voiced counterpart [b]

Alveolar stops: [d] and its voice counterpart [t]
Velar stops: [g] and its voice counterpart [k]
Nasal stops: [m], [n], and []
Glottal stop: [] found in many Scottish and Cockney English when pronouncing the
middle sound of butter.

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Fricatives: are sounds that are formed with a close approximation where two
articulators are brought together to the point where they are very close to each
other,but not so close that it blocks the airflow. Enough of a gap makes it possible for
the air to escape, causing friction. There are quite a handful amount of fricatives found
in English: [f], [v], [], [], [s], [z],[], [], and [h].

Affricates: are sounds that are formed by using a complete closure in the initial stage,
but are released slowly as a fricative where friction is produced. The three stages
involved in the production of affricates:
Closing stage: the two articulators move towards each other.
Closure stage: the two articulators come in contact with each other.
Release stage: the active articulator does not move away quickly and further apart
but quite slowly and are still quite close with the passive articulators, causing
friction.

Affricates sounds in English include:[], and []

Approximants: are sounds with the least radical amount of constriction, where the
articulators are close but not too close as to create friction like in fricative.
Approximants include: [j], [w], and [] or all liquids and glides. Glides are vowel-like, and
hence have been referred to as semi-vowel. However, phonologically, glides behave like
a consonant because they do not form a nucleus in the rhyme section of the syllable.

Lateral Approximant: are similar to approximants except that the air escapes not
through the central groove of the tongue, but to the sides of the tongue. One sound
that can be identified as a lateral approximant is [l] where the blade of the tongue forms
a stricture of complete closure (or touches) the alveolar ridge, blocking the air in the
central groove, but what counts in the production of the sound is the open
approximation between the sides of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, where the air
escapes freely.

Rhotics: are variant sounds of the same alveolar approximant [] sound, hence they
differ phonetically, but are phonologically similar. There are at least three identifiable
rhotic sounds in English:
Alveolar Tap [] :produced by forming a momentary constriction of complete
closure. Taps mostly occur after stops, therefor the sounds is akin to that of alveolar
stops. Taps are used mostly by Scots when they utter better, header, etc.

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Alveolar Trill [r] :are a series rapid succession of taps where the blade of the tongue
vibrates repeatedly against the roof of the mouth, Indonesian speakers use this
when they pronounce letterr: kemarin, rasa, ragu.
Alveolar Continuant [] :is produced by raising the blade of the tongue towards the
alveolar ridge, with the sides of the tongue touching molars.

4. State of the velum:

The state of the velum can attribute a sound whether it is a nasal sound or an oral sound. It is
nasal when the velum is lowered, causing the air to escape through the nasal cavity such as:
[m], [n], and []. All nasal sounds are voiced. Oral sounds, on the other hand, are produced
when the velum is raised, blocking the nasal cavity and hence escapes through the oral one.

Using the four parameter descriptors above, we could thus describe [d] as a voiced, alveolar,
stop, and oral sound. Alternatively, [d] may be described as a sound where the air is pushed by
the ribs and diaphragm in the lungs and out into oral cavity because the passage through the
nasal cavity is blocked by raising the velum. During its production, the vocal folds are vibrating
because there is a constant pressure of air that rapidly closes and opens them. More
specifically, [d] is produced when the tip of the tongue as the active articulator forms a stricture
of complete closure with the alveolar ridge in its initial stage, and is quickly released to produce
a sudden outflow of air.

The table below sums up the manner and the place of articulation described so far.

Labio- Post- Labial-

Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
dental Alveolar Velar
[k],
Plosive [t],[d] []
[p], [b] [g]
Nasal [m] [] [n] []

Trill / tap [r],[]

Fricative [f], [v] [],[] [s], [z] [], [] [x] [] [h]

Affricate [], []

Approximant [] [j] [w]

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Lateral
[l]
Approximant

Extra notes:

1. Secondary Articulation:
Sounds can involve more than two articulators. For example, the sound [l] may be
produced with its primary articulators of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, and
secondary articulation of the back of the tongue and velum. If the secondary articulator
is velum, the process is called velarization as in dark l [] of the final sound in milk. If the
secondary articulator is palatal, the process is known as palatalization and the resulting
sound is clear l [lj] as in the initial sound of light.

2. Aspiration:
It is a term used to refer to an audible puff of air that is released by a plosive in the
initial word or in a stressed syllable. We can say that the bilabial stop in push is aspirated
and is transcribed with diacritic [h], while in ship it is unaspirated.

3. Assimilation:
Assimilation is a process whereby a sound becomes similar to an adjacent sound. If the
sound becomes similar to the sound following it, the process is called regressive
assimilation. If the sound is affected by the sound preceding it, it is called progressive
assimilation. One example of regressive assimilation is found in the word pamphlet,
whereby the bilabial stop [m] becomes labio-dental stop [] because of the following
labio-dental fricative sound [f]. Still another example of regressive assimilation is dental
stop [] which occurs before a dental sound [] as in tenth.

Reading Skills
Introduction
Reading is one of the language skills that you will study and practice in this textbook. Remember reading
is one of the most important activities any successful student does in any course of study. It is important

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to note that reading is an active process; you need to apply strategies that will enable you make sense of
what you read.

A good way of getting started on developing your reading skills is to think about how you read a text or
passage. There are three main reading techniques that you can use: scanning, skimming, and focused
reading. Let's discuss each in turn.

Scanning: The technique of scanning is a useful one to use if you want to get an overview of the
text you are reading as a whole its shape, the focus of each section, the topics or key issues that are
dealt with, and so on. In order to scan a piece of text you might look for subheadings or identify key
words and phrases which give you clues about its focus. Another useful method is to read the first
sentence or two of each paragraph in order to get the general gist of the discussion and the way that it
progresses.

Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. Run your eyes over the text looking for the
specific piece of information you need. Use scanning on schedules, meeting plans, etc. in order to find
the specific details you require. If you see words or phrases that you don't understand, don't worry
when scanning. Scanning is what you do to find an answer to a specific question. You may run your eyes
quickly down the page in a zigzag or winding S pattern. If you are looking for a name, you note capital
letters. For a date, you look for numbers. Vocabulary words may be boldfaced or italicized. When you
scan for information, you read only what is needed.

Examples of Scanning
The "What's on TV" section of your newspaper.
A telephone number in the directory
A horoscope guide

Skimming: Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information, or 'gist'. Run your
eyes over the text, noting important information. Use skimming to quickly get up to speed on a current
business situation. It's not essential to understand each word when skimming. Skimming is covering the
chapter to get some of the main ideas and a general overview of the material. It is what you do first
when reading a chapter assignment. You dont read for details at this point. Here is how you skim a
chapter:
Read the first paragraph of the chapter line by line.
Next, read all the bold print headings starting at the beginning.
Read the first sentence of every paragraph.
Study any pictures, graphs, charts, and maps.
Finally, read the last paragraph of the chapter. As you skim, you could write down the main ideas and
develop a chapter outline. Examples of Skimming:
The Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day)
Magazines (quickly to discover which articles you would like to read in more detail)

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Business and Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed)

Focused Reading: Focused reading employs two sub skills namely extensive and intensive
reading. However, the idea is to have an area of emphasis or focus. In other words, it is a purposeful
kind of reading, during which you target a specific area of study. Let us examine how the two skills relate
to and differ from each other.
EXTENSIVE READING Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject
and includes reading longer texts for pleasure, as well as business books. Use extensive reading skills to
improve your general knowledge of business procedures. Do not worry if you do not understand each
word.
Examples of Extensive Reading
The latest marketing strategy book
A novel you read before going to bed
Magazine articles that interest you

INTENSIVE READING Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific
information. It includes very close accurate reading for detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the
details of a specific situation. In this case, it is important that you understand each word, number or
fact.
Examples of Intensive Reading
A laboratory report
A journal or newspaper article
A business letter

Listening Skills
Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the
communication process.

Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively
messages are easily misunderstood communication breaks down and the sender of
the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.

If there is one communication skill you should aim to master then listening is it.

Types of listening
Here are six types of listening, starting with basic discrimination of sounds and ending in deep
communication.

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Discriminative listening Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby
the difference between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear differences, then you cannot
make sense of the meaning that is expressed by such differences. We learn to discriminate between
sounds within our own language early, and later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of
other languages. This is one reason why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak another
language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another person's voice will
be less likely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is experiencing. Listening is a visual as
well as auditory act, as we communicate much through body language. We thus also need to be able to
discriminate between muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.

Biased listening Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear,
typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on the stereotypes and other biases that
they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature. Evaluative listening In evaluative
listening, or critical listening, we make judgments about what the other person is saying. We seek to
assess the truth of what is being said. We also judge what they say against our values, assessing them as
good or bad, worthy or unworthy.

Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying to persuade us,
perhaps to change our behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs. Within this, we also discriminate
between subtleties of language and comprehend the inner meaning of what is said. Typically also we
weigh up the pros and cons of an argument, determining whether it makes sense logically as well as
whether it is helpful to us. Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening.
Appreciative listening In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate,
for example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are
listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

Sympathetic listening In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this
concern in the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their
joys.

Empathetic listening When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer

understand how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the
nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually feel what they are
feeling. In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to
demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a way that
encourages self-disclosure.

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Therapeutic listening In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing
with the speaker but also to use this deep connection in order to help the speaker understand, change
or develop in some way. This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many social
situations, where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems from listening and also to help the
speaker cure themselves, perhaps by some cathartic process. This also happens in work situations,
where managers, HR people, trainers and coaches seek to help employees learn and develop.
Relationship listening Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or
sustain a relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to what each other has to say
when the same words from someone else would seem to be rather boring. Relationship listening is also
important in areas such as negotiation and sales, where it is helpful if the other person likes you and
trusts you.

False listening False listening occurs where a person is pretending to listen but is not hearing
anything that is being said. They may nod, smile and grunt in all the right places, but do not actually take
in anything that is said.This is a skill that may be finely honed by people who do a lot of inconsequential
listening, such as politicians and royalty. Their goal with their audience is to make a good impression in
very short space of time before they move on, never to talk to that person again. It is also something
practiced by couples, particularly where one side does most of the talking. However, the need for
relationship here can lead to this being spotted ('You're not listening again!') and consequent conflict.
Initial listening Sometimes when we listen we hear the first few words and then start to think about
what we want to say in return. We then look for a point at which we can interrupt. We are also not
listening then as we are spending more time rehearsing what we are going to say about their initial
point.

Selective listening Selective listening involves listening for particular things and ignoring others.
We thus hear what we want to hear and pay little attention to 'extraneous' detail. Partial listening
Partial listening is what most of us do most of the time. We listen to the other person with the best of
intent and then become distracted, either by stray thoughts or by something that the other person has
said. We consequently dip inside our own heads for a short while as we figure out what they really mean
or formulate a question for them, before coming back into the room and starting to listen again. This
can be problematic when the other person has moved on and we are unable to pick up the threads of
what is being said. We thus easily can fall into false listening, at least for a short while. This can be
embarrassing, of course, if they suddenly ask your opinion. A tip here: own up, admitting that you had
lost the thread of the conversation and asking them to repeat what was said.

Full listening Full listening happens where the listener pays close and careful attention to what is
being said, seeking carefully to understand the full content that the speaker is seeking to put across. This
may be very active form of listening, with pauses for summaries and testing that understanding is
complete. By the end of the conversation, the listener and the speaker will probably agree that the

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listener has fully understood what was said. Full listening takes much more effort than partial listening,
as it requires close concentration, possibly for a protracted period. It also requires skills of
understanding and summary.

Deep listening Beyond the intensity of full listening, you can also reach into a form of listening that
not only hears what is said but also seeks to understand the whole person behind the words. In deep
listening, you listen between the lines of what is said, hearing the emotion, watching the body language,
detecting needs and goals, identifying preferences and biases, perceiving beliefs and values, and so on.

Speaking Skills

Introduction:

Speaking:

Speaking is an act of making vocal sounds. We can say that speaking means to converse, or
expressing one's thoughts and feelings in spoken language. To speak often implies conveying
information. It may be from an informal remark to a scholarly presentation to a formal address.

Speaking skills:

Speaking skills are the skills that give us the ability to communicate effectively.
These skills allow the speaker, to convey his message in a passionate, thoughtful, and
convincing manner.
Speaking skills also help to assure that one won't be misunderstood by those who are
listening.

Description:
Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated
than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.

There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves:

1. interactive,
2. partially interactive, and
3. Non-interactive.

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Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in

which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for
clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner.
Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a live
audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech. The
speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and
body language whether or not he or she is being understood.
Few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive, such as when recording a speech for
a radio broadcast.

In all the above explained conditions speaking is always a headache for most of the people.
Although the fear of speaking is common, studies show that ability to speaking can be enhanced
by improving speaking skills.

What to do before speaking?

The first step to speaking is to think and the first step to perfect speaking is to thick positive.
Good speakers have the ability to quickly analyze and absorb the information given to them,
assess it fast and to make a decision and communicate that decision to other. Keep in mind to:

1. Be an active listener:
The key ingredient towards making you a person who can think on the spot and respond
intelligently is to be an active listener. This means listening carefully and giving your full
attention to the words, tone, emotion and logic behind what the other one is saying.

2. Be a quick organiser of thoughts:

All of us have the ability to think fast. The trick is to adopt some frameworks or models to
structure new information into something coherent that we can respond with. One can break
down issues or ideas into past, present and future.

3. Structure your speech in your mind:

These are useful frameworks to organise ideas and thoughts quickly.
The basic structure of any speech involves:
Opening
Body
Conclusion
It is very useful in delivering speeches and especially for speaking in situations such as table
topics during meetings or other times when called upon to "say some words". Thinking before

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speaking is important for us to add value in terms of communicating our thoughts, ideas and
feelings. We can touch lives through deeds and we can touch lives through speech.

1. Be prepared and practice.

The more you know what you want to say, the better you'll get at it. First, brainstorm the topic of
your speech and research it, if you need to. Write down all the points you want to make and then
organize them into an outline. Then, practice your speech out loud at least 3 to 5 times.

2. Know your audience.

The better you know your audience or listeners, the easier it will be to connect to them as you
speak. When you are able to make that connection, you'll hold their attention.

3. Pay attention to the old KISS principle, that is, Keep It Short and Simple.
When you are speaking don't beat around the bush or try to impress with complex metaphors.
Stories, however, can be a powerful public speaking tool, especially when they contain at least a
hint of humor. But again, keep them short and on point. Shorter messages leave more
impression. They're also easier for your audience to remember.

4. Interact with your audience.

Lectures will rarely have the same impact on an audience that an open discussion will. Look for
opportunities to involve your audience in what you are speaking about. Ask for validation of
points you are making ("Am I right?" "Has that ever happened to you?") Or allow time for
questions. Also, make sure to establish eye contact with your audience, and keep it throughout
your speech.

5. Speak with sincerity and passion.

When a person wants to leave a lasting impression with the audience about ones topic then be
sure that you are true to yourself and your topic as you speak .Don't be afraid to inject
enthusiasm and passion into the speech as well.

6. Close your speech in a memorable way.

Give your audience something to think about as you finish up your speech. Certainly, it's a good
idea to summarize your main points one more time, but then finish up with an inspiring story or
quote, or leave them with a thought provoking question.

7. Fluency
The main goal is fluency. Remember that one don't have to know many complex grammatical
structures to achieve that goal! First of all try to speak as fluent as possible (even making some
grammar mistakes). Then, after making ones speaking fluent, one can focus on grammar
aspects.

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Speaking skills required in meeting:

Speaking skills are very important in business. Those who are at ease conversationally have the
ability to "connect" with others which builds rapport and, eventually, relationships. Effective
business meeting communication is very much a learnable skill. Here are important tips on
speaking well as a meeting participant.

1. Talk to the entire group.

When speaking in groups moves your eyes around and talk to anyone who's listening to what
you have to say. "When responding to a question, address the entire group, not just the person
who asked the question,"

2. Reach out and encourage feedback.

Actively encourage comment and feedback based on what you have to contribute.

3. Mirror the tenor of the meeting.

Another business meeting basic is establishing a comfortable atmosphere where everyone feels at
ease. One effective way to achieve that is to establish a consistency in communication. If, for
instance, most participants are keeping their remarks short, do the same. If their tone is low and
reserved, follow their lead.

4. Dont be a time hog.

Be thorough, but don't take much time to get your message across that you lose others' attention.

Micro-skills:
Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking.

The speaker has to Pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that
people can distinguish them. This includes making tonal distinctions.
Use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes in the tense, case, or
gender.
Put words together in correct word order.
Use vocabulary appropriately.

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Use the language that is appropriate to the situation and the relationship to the conversation
partner.
Make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information.

Barriers while speaking:

There are certain barriers to speaking:

1.Unclear messages.
2. Lack of consistency in the communication process.
3. Incomplete sentences.
4. Not understanding the receiver.
5. Words can have different meanings to different listener.
6. Use of negative words.

Now the question arises how we can improve our speaking skills

How to improve speaking skills:

1. Practice where you can, when you can: Any practice is good whether you speak to someone
who is a native English speaker or not.
2. It's important to build your confidence. If possible, use simple English sentence structure that
you know is correct, so that you can concentrate on getting your message across.
3. Try to experiment with the English you know. Use words and phrases you know in new
situations. Native English speakers are more likely to correct you if you use the wrong word
than if you use the wrong grammar. Experimenting with vocabulary is a really good way of
getting feedback.
4. Try to respond to what people say to you. You can often get clues to what people think by
looking at their body language. Respond to them in a natural way.
5. Try NOT to translate into and from your own language. This takes too much time and will
make you more hesitant.
6. If you forget a word do what native English speakers do all the time, and say things that 'fill'
the conversation. This is better than keeping completely silent. Try using um, or err, if you
forget the word.
7. Don't speak too fast! It's important to use a natural rhythm when speaking English, but if you
speak too fast it will be difficult for people to understand you.

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8. Try to relax when you speak you'll find your mouth does most of the pronunciation work for
you. When you speak English at normal speed, you'll discover that many of the
pronunciation skills, such as linking between words, will happen automatically.
9. Remember, when speaking English Try to become less hesitant and more confident. Dont be
shy to speak the more you do it, the more confident you'll become. Remember to be polite
use "please" and "thank you" if you ask someone to do something for you.

Conclusion:

Unlike a written text where we can re-read information, a speaker has to speak the word. These
words cant be removed. There is no opportunity for listeners to recapture the words once they
have been said. To maintain listeners attention, speech needs to be well planned.

While speaking consider these:

Happy is the hearing man; unhappy the speaking man.

The difference between a smart man and a wise man is that a smart man knows what to say,
and a wise man knows whether or not to say it.
Speak well and live well.

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