Theories of Personality
oral (id dominates)
13.1 What is personality, and how do the
various perspectives in psychology view
personality?
Personality -unique way individuals think,
feel, and act.
Four traditional perspectives
1. psychodynamic,
2. behavioristic (including social
cognitive theory)
3. humanistic
4. trait perspectives.
The Man and the Couch: Sigmund Freud
and the Psychodynamic Perspective
13.2 How did Freuds historical view of the
mind and personality form a basis for
psychodynamic theory?
Three divisions of the mind
1. Conscious
2. Preconscious
3. Unconscious (can be revealed in
dreams)
Three parts of the personality
1. Id- pleasure principle
2. Ego- reality principle
3. Superego- moral center; contains
conscience; source of moral anxiety
The conflicts between the demands of the
id and the rules and restrictions of the
superego lead to anxiety for the ego, which
uses defense mechanisms to deal with that
anxiety.
The personality develops in a series of
psychosexual stages:
1.
2. anal (ego develops),
3. phallic (superego develops),
4. latency (period of sexual repression)
5. genital (sexual feelings reawaken
with appropriate targets).
The Oedipus and Electra complexes
(sexual crushes on the opposite sex
parent) create anxiety in the phallic stage,
which is resolved through identification with
the same-sex parent.
Fixation -conflicts are not fully resolved
during a stage, resulting in adult personality
characteristics reflecting childhood
inadequacies.
13.3 How did Jung, Adler, Horney, and
Erikson modify Freuds theory?
Jung developed a theory of a collective
unconscious.
Adler proposed feelings of inferiority as
the driving force behind personality and
developed birth order theory.
Horney developed a theory based on basic
anxiety and rejected the concept of penis
envy.
Erikson developed a theory based on
social rather than sexual relationships,
covering the entire life span.
13.4 How does modern psychoanalytic
theory differ from that of Freud?
Current research has found support for
the defense mechanisms and the concept of
an unconscious mind that can influence
conscious behavior, but other concepts
cannot be scientifically researched.
The Behaviorist and Social Cognitive View of
Personality
13.5 How do behaviorists and social
cognitive theorists explain personality?
Behaviorists define personality as a set of
learned responses or habits.
Social cognitive view of personality includes
1. Concept of reciprocal determinism,
in which the environment,
characteristics of the person, and
the behavior itself all interact.
Self-efficacy -a person perceives a
behavior as more or less effective based on
previous experiences, the opinions of
others, and perceived personal
competencies.
Locus of control is a determinant of
personality in which one either assumes
that ones actions directly affect events and
reinforcement one experiences or that such
events and reinforcements are the result of
luck, fate, or powerful others.
Personality determined by:
1. an interaction between ones
expectancies for success
2. perceived value of the potential
reinforcement.
Behaviorist personality theory has
scientific support but is criticized as being
too simplistic.
The Third Force: Humanism and Personality
13.6 How do humanists such as Carl Rogers
explain personality?
Humanism developed as a reaction
against the negativity of psychoanalysis and
the deterministic nature of behaviorism.
Self-actualization
-depends on proper development of the
self-concept.
- Carl Rogers
Self-concept includes
1. the real self
2. the ideal self.
*When these two components do not match
or agree, anxiety and disordered behavior
result.
Unconditional positive regard from
important others in a persons life helps the
formation of the self-concept and the
congruity of the real and ideal selves,
leading to a fully functioning person.
Humanistic theory is not scientifically
researched but has been effective in
therapy situations.
Trait Theories: Who Are You? 13.7
What are the history and current views of
the trait perspective?
Trait theorists describe personality traits in
order to predict behavior.
Allport first developed a list of about 200
traits and believed that these traits were
part of the nervous system.
Cattell reduced the number of traits to
between 16 and 23 with a computer
method called factor analysis.
Big Five or five-factor model.
-five trait dimensions that have research Assessment of Personality 13.9
support across cultures
What are the advantages and
The five factors disadvantages of the following measures of
personality: interviews, projective tests,
1. Openness behavioral assessment, personality
2. Conscientiousness inventories, and online personality tests?
3. Extraversion
4. agreeableness Interviews
5. neuroticism.
-used primarily by psychoanalysts and
Cross-cultural research has found support humanists and can include structured or
for the five-factor model of personality traits unstructured interviews.
in a number of different cultures.
Disadvantages of interviews
Future research will explore the degree to
which child-rearing practices and heredity 1. halo effect
may influence the five personality factors. 2. bias of the interpretation

Behavior genetics is a field of study of the Projective tests are based on the defense
relationship between heredity and mechanism of projection and are used by
personality. psychoanalysts. Projective tests include the
Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic
The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Apperception Test.
Genetics 13.8 What part do biology,
heredity, and culture play in personality? Projective tests can be useful in finding
starting points to open a dialogue between
Studies of twins and adopted children therapist and client but have been criticized
have found support for a genetic influence for being low in reliability and validity.
on many personality traits, including
intelligence, leadership abilities, Behavioral assessments are primarily used
traditionalism, nurturance, empathy, by behaviorists and include direct
assertiveness, neuroticism, and observation of behavior, rating scales of
extraversion. specific behavior, and frequency counts of
behavior.
CLASSIC STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY: Geert
Hofstedes Four Dimensions of Cultural Behavioral assessments have the
Personality disadvantage of the observer effect, which
causes an observed persons behavior to
Hofstedes cross-cultural management change, and observer bias on the part of
study revealed four basic dimensions of the person doing the assessment.
personality along which cultures may vary:
individualism/collectivism, power distance, Personality inventories are typically
masculinity/femininity, and uncertainty developed by trait theorists and provide a
avoidance. detailed description of certain personality
traits. They are objective tests rather than
subjective.
The NEO-PI is based on the five-factor
model, whereas the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator is based on Jungs theory of
personality types.
The MMPI-2 is designed to detect
abnormal personality.
Personality inventories include validity
scales to prevent cheating, but such
measures are not perfect and cheating is
sometimes possible.
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The
Biological Basis of the Big Five
Personality neuroscience is a growing area
of research and brain structure differences
associated with some aspects of the Big
Five dimensions of personality have been
identified using structural MRI.
What Is Abnormality?
Psychopathology is the study of abnormal
behavior.
14.1 How has mental illness been explained
in the past, how is abnormal behavior
defined today, and what is the impact of
cultural differences in defining abnormality?
Abnormal behavior, is deviant from social
norms, causes subjective discomfort, does
not allow day-to-day functioning, or causes
a person to be dangerous to self or others.
ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY: Abnormality
Versus Insanity
Models of Abnormality 14.2 How can
psychological disorders be explained within
the biological and psychological models?
In biological models of abnormality, the
assumption is that mental illnesses are
caused by chemical or structural
malfunctions in the nervous system.
Psychodynamic theorists assume that
abnormal behavior stems from repressed
conflicts and urges that are fighting to
become conscious.
Behaviorists see abnormal behavior as
learned.
Cognitive theorists see abnormal behavior
as coming from irrational beliefs and
illogical patterns of thought. Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Fourth Edition, Text Revision ( DSM-IV-TR )
14.3 What are the different types of
psychological disorders and how common
are they?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text
Revision (DSM-IV-TR) is a manual of
psychological disorders and their symptoms.
There are five axes in the DSM-IV-TR,
which include clinical disorders, personality
disorders and mental retardation, general
medical conditions, psychosocial and
environmental problems, and a global
assessment of functioning.
Anxiety Disorders: What, Me Worry? 14.4
What are the different types of anxiety
disorders,their symptoms,and causes?
 Anxiety disorders are all disorders in
which the most dominant symptom is
excessive and unrealistic anxiety.
Phobias are irrational, persistent fears.
The three types of phobias
1. social phobias
2. specific phobias
3. agoraphobia.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder consists of
an obsessive, recurring thought that creates
anxiety and a compulsive, ritualistic, and
repetitive behavior that reduces that
anxiety.
Panic disorder is the sudden and
recurrent onset of intense panic for no
reason, with all the physical symptoms that
can occur in sympathetic nervous system
arousal, and is sometimes accompanied by
agoraphobia.
Generalized anxiety disorder is a condition
of intense and unrealistic anxiety that lasts
6 months or more.
Psychodynamic explanations point to
repressed urges and desires that are trying
to come into consciousness, creating
anxiety that is controlled by the abnormal
behavior.
Behaviorists state that disordered
behavior is learned through both operant
conditioning and classical conditioning
techniques.
Cognitive psychologists believe that
excessive anxiety comes from illogical,
irrational thought processes.
Biological explanations of anxiety
disorders include chemical imbalances in the
nervous system, in particular serotonin and
GABA systems.
Genetic transmission may be responsible
for anxiety disorders among related
persons.
Mood Disorders: The Effect of Affect 14.5
What are the different types of mood
disorders and their causes?
Mood disorders, also called affective
disorders, are severe disturbances in
emotion.
Dysthymia is a moderate depression that
is typically a reaction to some external
stressor, whereas cyclothymia consists of
moderate mood swings usually tied to an
external stressor.
Major depression has a sudden onset and
is extreme sadness and despair, typically
with no obvious external cause. It is the
most common of the mood disorders and is
twice as common in women as in men.
Bipolar disorders are severe mood swings
from major depressive episodes to manic
episodes of extreme elation and energy with
no obvious external cause.
Psychodynamic theories see depression as
anger at authority figures from childhood
turned inward on the self.
Learning theories link depression to learned
helplessness.
Cognitive theories see depression as the
result of distorted, illogical thinking.
 Mood disorders are more likely to appear
in genetically related people with higher
rates of risk for closer genetic relatives.
Eating Disorders
14.6 What are the two primary types of
eating disorders, how do they differ,and
who are they most likely to affect?
Maladaptive eating problems
1. anorexia
2. bulimia.
Genetics,low levels of serotonin,and
insensitivity to leptin (a hormone that
influences appetite) may play a part in
anorexia and bulimia.
Dissociative Disorders: Altered Identities
14.7 How do the various dissociative
disorders differ, and how do they develop?
Dissociative disorders involve a break in
consciousness, memory, or both. These
disorders include dissociative amnesia,
dissociative fugue, and dissociative identity
disorder.
Psychodynamic explanations point to
repression of memories, seeing dissociation
as a defense mechanism against anxiety.
Cognitive and behavioral explanations see
dissociative disorders as a kind of avoidance
learning.
Biological explanations point to lower than
normal activity levels in the areas
responsible for body awareness in people
with dissociative disorders.
Schizophrenia: Altered Reality
Schizophrenia is a split between thoughts,
emotions, and behavior. It is a long-lasting
psychotic disorder in which reality and
fantasy become confused.
14.8 What are the main symptoms, types,
and causes of schizophrenia?
Symptoms of schizophrenia
1. delusions
2. hallucinations
3. emotional disturbances
4. attentional difficulties
5. disturbed speech
6. disordered thinking.
Three types of schizophrenic behavior
1. disorganized
2. catatonic
3. paranoid.
Positive symptoms are excesses of
behavior associated with increased
dopamine activity, whereas negative
symptoms are deficits in behavior
associated with decreased dopamine
activity.
Psychodynamic theories see schizophrenia
as resulting from a severe breakdown of the
ego, which has become overwhelmed by
the demands of the id and results in
childish, infantile behavior.
Behaviorists focus on how reinforcement
,observational learning, and shaping affect
the development of the behavioral
symptoms of schizophrenia.
Cognitive theorists see schizophrenia as
severely irrational thinking.
 Biological explanations focus on
dopamine, structural defects in the brain,
and genetic influences in schizophrenia.
Rates of risk of developing schizophrenia
increase drastically as genetic relatedness
increases with the highest risk faced by an
identical twin whose twin sibling has
schizophrenia.
Personality Disorders: Im Okay, Its
Everyone Else Whos Weird
14.9 How do the various personality
disorders differ, and what is thought to be
the cause of personality disorders?
Personality disorders are extremely rigid,
maladaptive patterns of behavior that
prevent a person from normal social
interactions and relationships.
Antisocial personality disorder
- a person has no conscience and uses
people for personal gain. A rare form is the
serial killer.
Borderline personality disorder
- a person is clingy, moody, unstable in
relationships, and suffers from problems
with identity.
Cognitive-learning theorists see
personality disorders as a set of learned
behavior that has become maladaptive
bad habits learned early on in life.
Biological relatives of people with
personality disorders are more likely to
develop similar disorders, supporting a
genetic basis for such disorders.
Biological explanations look at the lower
than normal stress hormones in antisocial
personality disordered persons as
responsible for their low responsiveness to
threatening stimuli.
Other possible causes of personality
disorders may include disturbances in family
communications and relationships,
childhood abuse, neglect, overly strict
parenting, overprotective parenting, and
parental rejection.
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life:
Taking the Worry Out of Exams
Test anxiety is a common and very
distressing experience for many students.
There are several things that can be done
to reduce test anxiety, including preparation
and relaxation exercises.
Social Influence: Conformity, Compliance,
Obedience, and Group Behavior
12.1 What factors influence people to
conform to the actions of others?
Asch used a set of comparison lines and a
standard line to experiment with conformity,
finding that subjects conformed to group
opinion about one third of the time,
increased as the number of confederates
rose to four, and decreased if just one
confederate gave the correct answer.
Cross-cultural research has found that
collectivistic cultures show more conformity
than individualistic cultures. Gender
differences do not exist in conformity unless
the response is not private, in which case
women are more conforming than men.
 Groupthink occurs when a decision-
making group feels that it is more important
to maintain group unanimity and
cohesiveness than to consider the facts
realistically.
Minimizing groupthink involves
1. impartial leadership
2. seeking outside opinions
3. stating problems in an objective
manner
4. breaking large groups into
subgroups
5. encouraging questions
6. alternate solutions, using secret
ballots
7. holding group members responsible
for the decisions made by the group.
12.2 How is compliance defined , and what
are four common ways to gain the
compliance of another?
Compliance occurs when a person
changes behavior as a result of another
person asking or directing that person to
change.
Four common ways of getting compliance
from others: are
1. the foot-in-the-door technique
2. the door-in-the-face technique
3. the lowball technique
4. the thats-not-all technique.
12.3 What factors make obedience more
likely?
Milgram did experiments in which he
found that 65 percent of people obeyed the
authority figure of a psychology professor
even if it meant hurting, injuring, or
possibly killing another person with an
electric shock.
Social facilitation - performance of an
individual is improved by the presence of
others.(easy task)
Social impairment -performance of an
individual is negatively affected by the
presence of others. (difficult task)
When a person who is lazy is able to work
in a group of people, that person often
performs less well than if the person were
working alone, in a phenomenon called
social loafing.
Social Cognition: Attitudes, Impression
Formation, and Attribution
12.4 What are the three components of an
attitude, how are attitudes formed,and how
can attitudes be changed?
Attitudes are tendencies to respond
positively or negatively toward
ideas,persons,objects,or situations.
Three components of attitude
1. affective (emotional) component
2. behavioral component
3. cognitive component.
Attitudes are often poor predictors of
behavior unless the attitude is very specific
or very strong.
Attitudes can be formed through direct
instruction from parents or others.
Interacting with other people who hold a
certain attitude can help an individual form
that attitude.
 Attitudes can also be formed through
watching the actions and reactions of others
to ideas,people,objects,and situations.
Persuasion is the process by which one
person tries to change the
belief,opinion,position,or course of action of
another person through
argument,pleading,or explanation.
The key elements in persuasion are the
source of the message, the message
itself,and the target audience.
In the elaboration likelihood model,
central-route processing involves attending
to the content of the message itself,
whereas peripheral route processing
involves attending to factors not involved in
the message, such as the appearance of the
source of the message, the length of the
message, and other noncontent factors.
12.5 How do people react when attitudes
and behavior are not the same?
Cognitive dissonance is discomfort or
distress that occurs when a persons actions
do not match the persons attitudes.
people use to make sense out of the world
around them.
12.6 What are social categorization and
implicit personality theories?
Social categorization -assigns that person
to a category or group on the basis of
characteristics the person has in common
with other people
Stereotype
- form of social category
-the characteristics used to assign a person
to a category are superficial and believed to
be true of all members of the category.
Implicit personality theory - has sets of
assumptions about different types of
people, personality traits, and actions that
are assumed to be related to each other.
Schemas are mental patterns that represent
what a person believes about certain types
of people. Schemas can become
stereotypes.

Cognitive dissonance is lessened by

changing the conflicting behavior, changing
the conflicting attitude, or forming a new
attitude to justify the behavior.

Impression formation is the forming of the

first knowledge a person has about another
person.

The primacy effect in impression

formation first impression lasts

Impression formation is part of social

cognition, or the mental processes that