Qualitative Analysis

- Is a rigorous and logical process through w/c data are given meaning.
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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative analysis?

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons,
opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for
potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions,
and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-
structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews,
and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given
quota.

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can
be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined
variables and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable
data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much
more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include
various forms of surveys online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic
observations.

Analytic Induction

- Induction involves the collection and analysis of data from a range of individual cases in order to
identify patterns from them for the development of conceptual categories.

CODING QUALITATIVE DATA

Coding is the organisation of raw data into conceptual categories. Each code is effectively a category or bin
into which a piece of data is placed.
As Miles and Huberman (1994, p.56) note:
Codes are tags or labels for assigning units of meaning to the descriptive or inferential information compiled
during a study. Codes are usually attached to chunks of varying size words, phrases, sentences or whole
paragraphs.
Codes should be:
Valid, that is they should accurately reflect what is being researched.
Mutually exclusive, in that codes should be distinct, with no overlap.
Exhaustive, that is all relevant data should fit into a code.
STAGES OF DATA CODING

1. The data is carefully read, all statements relating to the research question are identified, and each is
assigned a code, or category. These codes are then noted, and each relevant statement is organised
under its appropriate code. This is referred to as open coding.

2. Using the codes developed in stage 1, the researcher rereads the qualitative data, and searches for
statements that may fit into any of the categories. Further codes may also be developed in this stage.
This is also referred to as axial coding.

3. Once the first two stages of coding have been completed, the researcher should become more
analytical, and look for patterns and explanation in the codes.

Questions should be asked such as:

Can I relate certain codes together under a more general code?
Can I organise codes sequentially (for example does code A happen before code B)?
Can I identify any causal relationships (does code A cause code B)?
 4. The fourth stage is that of selective coding.

This involves reading through the raw data for cases that illustrate the analysis, or explain the concepts.

The researcher should also look for data that is contradictory, as well as confirmatory, as it is important
not to be selective in choosing data.

You must avoid what is referred to as confirmation bias, or the tendency to seek out and report data
that supports your own ideas about the key findings of the study.

WHAT SHOULD I LOOK FOR WHEN I HAVE CODED MY DATA?

You should look for patterns or regularities that occur.

Within each code, look for data units that illustrate or describe the situation you are interested in.
Try to identify key words or phrases, such as because, despite, in order to, otherwise and so on
and try to make sense of the data.
Look for statements that not only support your theories, but also refute them.
Try to build a comprehensive picture of the topic.

Steps in the coding process:

Transcribed the data: field notes from observations or reflective diaries should be written up into a format that
can be easily read.

Collect/code/collect: avoid waiting until all data are collected before starting the coding process, start as
soon as possible

Familiarization:read through all field notes, documents and transcripts but suspend the temptation to interpret.

Focused reading: underlining keywords or phrases and making notes in the margins. The underlined
words/phrases are the beginning of the coding process

Review/amend codes: on the second reading begin to modify your codes.

Generating theory: look for connections between categories and concepts that are emerging from the data.

Reflexivity the voice of the researcher

Is a concept used to describe the relationship between the researcher and the object of
research(Brannick & Coghlan,2007)

Involves the realization that the researcher is not a neutral observer, & is implicated in the construction
of knowledge

Analysing Secondary Data

Bryman and Bell(2007) suggest a checklist that researchers should use when making use of documents(for
both quantitative & qualitative secondary analysis. The criteria include:
Who produced the document?
Why was it produced?
Is the material genuine & produced by someone who could write authoritatively & objectively on the
subject?
Can the events or accounts presented in the document be corroborated by other evidence?
Content Analysis

- One of the most common approaches to analysing data, it involves the making of inferences about
data (usually text) by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics (classes or
categories) within them.
- Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts
within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and
relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the
texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part. Texts can
be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines
and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theater, informal
conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. Texts in a single study may also
represent a variety of different types of occurrences, such as Palmquist's 1990 study of two
composition classes, in which he analyzed student and teacher interviews, writing journals,
classroom discussions and lectures, and out-of-class interaction sheets. To conduct a content
analysis on any such text, the text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a
variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of
content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis.

Perhaps due to the fact that it can be applied to examine any piece of writing or occurrence of recorded
communication, content analysis is currently used in a dizzying array of fields, ranging from marketing and
media studies, to literature and rhetoric, ethnography and cultural studies, gender and age issues, sociology
and political science, psychology and cognitive science, and many other fields of inquiry. Additionally, content
analysis reflects a close relationship with socio- and psycholinguistics, and is playing an integral role in the
development of artificial intelligence. The following list (adapted from Berelson, 1952) offers more possibilities for
the uses of content analysis:

Reveal international differences in communication content

Detect the existence of propaganda
Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or institution
Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications
Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups

The ten step of content analysis are:

1) Copy and read through the transcript - make brief notes in the margin when interesting or relevant information is found
2) Go through the notes made in the margins and list the different types of information found
3) Read through the list and categorise each item in a way that offers a description of what it is about
4) Identify whether or not the categories can be linked any way and list them as major categories (or themes) and / or
minor categories (or themes)
5) Compare and contrast the various major and minor categories
6) If there is more than one transcript, repeat the first five stages again for each transcript
7) When you have done the above with all of the transcripts, collect all of the categories or themes and examine each in
detail and consider if it fits and its relevance
8) Once all the transcript data is categorised into minor and major categories/themes, review in order to ensure that the
information is categorised as it should be.
9) Review all of the categories and ascertain whether some categories can be merged or if some need to them be sub-
categorised
10) Return to the original transcripts and ensure that all the information that needs to be categorised has been so.
The process of content analysis is lengthy and may require the researcher to go over and over the data to ensure they have
done a thorough job of analysis.