While: Civil But Ruling

Lima's civil
Lima's civilcourt
courtsystem.
system.But
But no
no ruling
ruling concerning
concerning marriage
marriage and
and children
children
better illustrated
better illustrated Bourbon
Bourbon patriarchai
patriarchal absolutism
absolutismthan the pragmatic
thanthe Pragmatic Sanction
Sanction
on unequal
on Unequal Marriages,
Marriages, issued
issued in
in ry76
1776and
andexrended
extendedtotothe
the American
American colonies
colonies
in 778.
nry78.
The ruling
The ruling requied
required minors
minors of
of age
agetotoobtain
obtain elders'consen
elders' consent inorder
t in ordertotomarry
marry
and forbade
and forbade priests
priests fiom
from performing
performing marriagcs
marriages withour
without the
the approval
approval of of elders,
elders,
principally fathers.IfIf children
principallyfathers. children married
married "unequally"
"unequally" oror over elders' l,rational,,
over elders, "rational"
objections, elders
objections, elders could
couldappcar
appearbefore
beforesecularjudges
secular judgestotoha-1t
haltthe
thenuptials
nuptialsand
and to
to
levycivil
lerr civilpunishments
punishmentson
ontheir
theirchilden
childrenby
bydisinheriting
disinheritingtrem
them or
or denying
denyingtheir
their
daughters dowries.73while
daughters dowri.es.73 While historians
historians have
have long
long pondered
pondered what
what precisely
preciselycom-
com-
pelledthe
peiled the king
kingtotoissue
issuethe
theedict,
edict,the
thesanction
sanctionitseL[states
itself statesthat
thatthetheintention
intention was
was
"the conservation
"the conservation ofthe
of the rightfirl
rightful and
and orderly
orderly authoriq,
authority that
that isis due
due toto parents
parents for
for
their intervention
their intervention and consent in
and consent in the
the marriages
marriages of
of their
their children,
children, and
and of
of the
the
greater good
greater good and
and utiliry
utility of
of the
the children
children themselves,
themselves, for
for their
their families,
families, and
and for
for
the State."7a
the State."74
In
In asserting
asserting state control
control of intdiyenerational disputes ovcr
intergenerational disputes over marriage,
marriage, the
the
PragrnaticSanction
Pragmatic Sanctioncame
carneclose
lose to
to infringing
infringing on
on the
the rwo-century- old riiden-
two-century-old Triden-
tine philosophy
ine philosophy offree
of freewill
willininmarriage
marriagechoicc.
choice.stitl, CharlesIII
Still,charles III avoid.ed
avoidedviolat-
violat-
ing catholic
ir:g Catholic doctrine
doctrine byby drawing
drawing aa stark
stark line
line berween
between parcntal
parental coecion
coercion and and
consent. The
consent. The king
king explained
explained thatthat eiders
elders who
who opposed
opposed their
their childen's
children's marriage
marriage
choiceson
choices onself-intereste
self-interested, irrationalgrounds
d, irrational gtoundswould
would6nd findnonoshelter theprag-
shelterininthe Prag-
matic Sanction,
matic Sanction, nornor would
would those
those who
who forced
Torcedchilden
childrenintointounions
unionswhen
when the the
parties felt
parties felt no
no affection
affectionforforeach
eachother.
other.The
The king's
king's decree,
decree,therefore,
therefore, did
did not
not soso
much alter
much alter the
the authority
authority that canon law 1aw had bestowed
bestowed on elderscldes to regulate
regu-late
marriage among
:narriage among minors
rriinorsofof age
age as
as increase
increase thethe secar
secular courts, supervision of
courts' supervision of
elderswho
elders whowished
wishedtoto exercise
exercisethatthataurhority.Ts
authority." Marriage was was dcfined
defined as as aa key
key
civilinstinrtion.on
civil institution.onwhichwhichthethegood
goodorder
arderofofthe
the state
state depended,
depended, and and the
the ect
edict
aimed to
aimed to bring
bring children
children more ful1y fully unde
under thc
the authority of of eldersand elders
eldcrs-and eldes
more 6rm1y
more firmlyuirder
uhder royal
royalauthority.
authority.
Only shordy
Only shortly after
alter the Pragmatic
Pragmatic Sanction
Sanction was issued, Lima's adts
issued, Lima,s adults began
began
to appeal
to appealtoto secularjudges
secular judgestotoprevent
preventtheir
theirchilciren,
children,grandchi_ldrcn
grandchildren, wards,
, wards,and and
evenyounger
even youngerbrothers
brothersand and sistes
sistersfrom
frommarrying
marryingpartners
partners they
they deemed
deemed un6t.unfit.
In several
In several instances,
instances, elders
eldersarg.ed
argued that
that aa marriage
marriage would
would be be "unequal"
"unequal" because
because
the youths
the youths werc
were ofof dift-erent
different castes;
castes; others
others objected
objected to to nrarriagcs
marriages because
because the the
bride and
bride and groom
groom were
were considered
considered too
too young,
young, because
because suitors
suitorswcre
wereunempioyed,
unemployed,
because fiances
because fianceswere
weresex-ua1iy
sexuallypromiscuous,
promiscuous,ororsimply
simplybecause
becausetheir
their children
children
weredefiant.76
were defiant."
In one case, aa father
father opposed
opposed his
his daughter's
daughter's marriage
marriage to
to aayoung
young
man he
man he claimed
claimed was
was "unequal
"unequal by by custom"
custom" because
becausethe
the youth
youth enjoyed
enjoyed dressing
dressing
156
156 Reformnd
Reform andEnlightenmen
Enlightenment
t
:
i
ininananeffeminate
efeminate style sqrleand andwas waspublicly
publicly accused
accusedof being aa.maricn
of being ruaricn (queer)
(queer) and and
committing
commirting sodomy." sodomy.77
Just like Lima's
-Tust like
Lima's elders,
elders, adults
adults throughout
throughout Spanish Spanish AmericaArnerica used used the theedict
edict in in
attempts
attempts to toprevent
pf event children
chldren from from marrying
m zrrying{or for aapatchrvork
patchwork of ofreasons."
reasons.Ts Their Thei
enthusiastic
enthusiastic use useof ofthethecrown's
crown's decree
decree has has led
led some
some historians
historians to to regard
regard the thelaw iarv
asasaaconservative
conservative social social measure that that supported
supported elite elite patriarchal
patriarchal control, par-
control, pa:-
ticularly
ticularly on the the matter
matterof ofrace."
race.TeYet Yetititwaswasnot notonly onlyparents
pafents who whoused used the e
pragmaticSanction
Pragmatic sanctiontotoimpose imposctheir theirwill
rvil1on
onchildren's
children'smarriage
marriagechoices.choices. Lima'sLi=a s
children
children sometimes
sometimes used the thc edict
edict to tosue
suetheirtheiparents
parentsover opposiio:. to
overopposition ---
marriage.
marriage. What Whatisismore, more,elderselderscould
couldnot notrely
relyon onthe theconsistent
consistentsympathy
symPathl-c::-- of the:
secular
secular courts,
courts, since
since the
the verdicts
verdicts in
in these
these suits
suits carne
came down
dorvn as
as frequently
frequeni-v inl: -"'::
favor
ofofchildren
children as as on
on thethe sideside of elders."
ofe1ders.8o
In
Inofficial
officia,l cirdes,
circles, the thePragmatic
PragmaticSanction Sanction was wasnot notheralded 'ce::ei::-_.-
heraidedasasbenefiting
elite,
elite, or
or even
even patriarchal,
patriarchal, control. control. Instead,
Instead,colonial
colonial officials
offcia-ls complained
complaincd that r: the ---:
sanction
sanction was was poorly
poorly fitted fitted to to the
the contours
contoursof ofaacaste-based
caste-based society.
sociefi'. The :eci::-
The reaction
totothe
theruling
ruling ininthe thecolonies
coloniesisisinstructive
instructivefor for understanding
understanding aacentral cen':ai dynamic
d":-::-..-::
atatwork
work ininthe thenew newpolitics
politicsof ofthe
thechild:
child:secular
secula magistrates
magistratesfollowedfollorved the e edict,ei::.
hearing a stream
heafing a stfeam of cases
ofcases of
of elder
elder dissent.
dissent. But
But even
even as
as the authority
authcriW ofof e
the co:::.
courts
grew,
grer, many
many inhabitants
inhabitants of of the
thc colonies
colonies began
began to to realize
reaiize that
that the eci was
theedict 1'"2: not:1::
designed
dcsigned to to bolster
bolster the thepower
powerofofelite e[teparents,
parents,only onlytotoincrease
increaseroyal rovicontrolc::'::
over all of
over'11 of the
the empire's
empire's subjects.
subjects.
Although
Althoughcolonial co1onia.lofficials
officialsand andelders
elders read
rcad racerace into
intothe
theking's
king's references
reiere:-c:: tc ::
inequality
inequ.ty and andpublished
published local local versions
versions of of the
thelaw lawthatthatdealt
dealtmore siects:, '
morespecifically
th the
with thetheme,
theme,the thekingkinghimself
himselfhad hadfailed
failedtotodefine defineboth equr'between
bothequality 5ei'"-:::'
partners
paftnefs and what might
andwhat mightconstitute
constitutea a"rational"
"rational"objection
objection totoaaminor's
minor's marriage
::-r':-:r:i=
choice."
choice.81In Infact,
fact,aaclase c10seconsideration
consideration of ofthe
thelanguage
langriage on onrace
race in in the Pr:.::r:.::
the Pragmatic
Sanction
Sanction reveals
feveaLs that thet the thecrown
crownwas wasmoremorcconcerned
concefned with rvithasserting
asserting its i:sowncit':.
patriarchal
patriarchal power powcr over over domestic
domestic matters
matters thanthan with
withdictating
dictating whichrvhich castes
castes couldco :
''
form
form unions
unions with withone oneanother.
another.InInthe the1778
q78 edict
ect extending the t.11e Pragmatic
Pragmaic Sanc- S::-:-
tion
tiontotoSpain's
Spain's American
American colonies, colonies, the theking
}<rngdid didspecifically
specifica-1ly exempt
exemPt or crmake ::::--<'
special
special provisions
provisions for minors of age of African or Indian
ofAfrican Indian descent."
descent.t2However,fl6rre"::,
these
these provisions,
provisions, far far from
from betraying
betraying aa racial
facial motivation
motivation for for thethe ruling,
mling, insteadi::s:e:
displayed
displayed aa notable
notable lack lack of sensitivity to the racial
ofsensitivity racial situation in in the
the colonies.
colonies. The Ti::
edict
edict equated
equated most mostcolonial
colonia-Isubjects
subjects of ofAfrican
African descentdescentwith withslaves
siaves and r:i.,'.
and crudely
characterized
charactcrized Indians Indiansas as migrating
migrating tribute
tributepayers
payerswho who would
would encounter
encounter greater geai.:
case in
ease in finding aa priest
frnding Priest than aaparent
than parenttotoobtain obt1nconsent.83
consent'83 The
The Pragmatic
Pragna:i
Sanction
sanction produced
pfoduced aagreat great deal
deal ofofconfusion
confusion when when applied
applied to to the
thecolonies,
colonies, in ir
part
partbecause
because of of these
theseracialraciai exceptions
exceptions and andin inpartpartbecause
becausc the theedict's
edict'svague vag"oe
Reform and Enlightenment

ReformandEo ::-
lightenrne:: 137
language and silence
language silente on
on several legal matters
several leg.a1 matters opened aa Pandora's box of
Pandora's box of ques-
ques-
tions in the
thecolonial
colonial setting.
sefting. Colonial
Colonial officials
officia1s would repeatedly
repeatedly petition for
clarification on
clarifrcation on the
the ruling
rulingininthe
the coming
comingdecades.sa
decades."
Charles IV issued
Charles issued another
another cdula
cdula on
on the marter
matter in 1803."
r8o3.8s In this royal order,
order,
the king lowered the age at
at which
which children
chldren were considered minors for the
considered minors the
purposes of
purposes of mar.riage
marriage but stated that all
all of
of these
these newly
newly defined
defined minors of age,
"of whatever category (clase) of the State [to
category Qlase) fto which] theythey pertain,"
pertain," were re-
were re-
quired to seek their elders'
quired consent to
elders' consent to marry.
marry. HeHe also ruled that fathers
also nrled fathers in
particular no longer
particular longer hadliad to explain themselvesbefore
explain themselves beforethe thecoufts.86
courts." Although
Although
colonial elites
colonial elites had been pressing
pressing for clarification
darification for years, Steinar Saether
Saether
argues that this modified ruling-was
argues rCingwas not not issued
issued inin response
response to to their
their concerns
concerns but but
instead was
instead was thethe product
product ofaof a"pan-European,
"pan-European, enlightened
enlightened and and patriarchal
patriarchal polit-
polit-
ical ideology"
ical ideology" and and paralleied
paralleled similar
similar rulings
rulings inin Ausuia
Austria and Fance.87 Indeed,
and France.87 Indeed,
even when the king removed
even removed all all racial exceptions to the ruling ruling inin 1803,
r8o3, hehe still
failed to address
fai-led addess specifically
speci,6cal1y the the subject
subject ofof interacial
interracial marriages.
marriages.
For this reason the
Fo the 1803
r8o3 edict clearlY dissatisfiedthe
clearly dissatised the archbishop
archbishop ofBuenos
of Buenos
Aires, who
Aires, who protested that it still did not suffice
that it stili did not suffice "in countries
countries wherewhere negros
negros and
and
mulatos of
mulatos of all
all classes
classesabound."88
abound."" The The Council of the Indies, which which seemed to be be
still
still reluctant to issue aa blanket
blanket ruling
ruling about mixed-race marriages, responded
mixed-race marriages,
that if a noble of "notoriously clean blood"
of "notoriously blood" wished
wished to marry someone of "an-
other caste," local secular courts
local secula courts should
should hear
bear the case. Inequality was still
case. Inequalirywas be
still to be
determined by local officialsofficialsaccording
accordingtotoregiona-l
regionalcustom
customrather ratherthan
than onon t-he
the
basis ofa
of a universal
universal set set ofcaste-based
of caste-based qualifications.
qualifi.cations. Finally,
Fina11y, in 18o5r8o5 thethe council
council
delivered aa ruling
deveed ruling that specifically defined as
specif.cally defined as unequal
unequal marriages
marriages berween
between nobles
nobles
and individuals of African descent.se
individuals ofAfrican descent.89 But But it had taken almost three thee decades
decades for
the ministers.to soothe
sootle elite
elite colonials'
colonials' concerns
concerns about race.race.
During those
those decades,
decades, Lima's
Limas periodicals registered skepticism
periodi.cals registered skepticism aboutabout Bour-
Bour-
bon marriage laveon
marriage 1a,,r onaamore
moreenlightened
enlightenedplane.plane.They
Theyran ranarticles
anides on on the
the new
new
state-centered philosophy of marriage
state-centered pilosophy marriage that struggled to ro reconcile
reconcile the policypo1iry
with contemporary
contemporary discourses
discourses concerning
concerning youth and romantic love.9 iove.eo In In Janu-
Janu-
ary and
aq, and February 1791 Diario de
the Diario
r79r the deLima
Lima published
published aa series
series on on youth,
youth, marriage,
marriage,
and parental dissent,
dissent, beginning with aa reprintingreprinting of of the
the 1776 Pragmatic Sanc-
ry76 Pragmztic Sanc-
tion
fion and subsequent
subsequent rulings on on marriage choice.el Rather
marriage choice.91 Rather than applaud applaud the the
ruling for
ruling for bringing
bringing greater order order to society through generational (or
society through (or even
even racial)
racial)
control, the periodical
periodical ran an an advice
advice column
column written
wrirten by "el Filsofo,"
by "el Filsofo," who
counseled young
counseied young women
women to to use reason and considerconsider their
thei future happiness
happiness
when making marital choices.
when choices.
58
58 Reform and
Enlightenment
..\
El
E1 Filsofo generally
generally advised
advised his
his female
female readers to do as their parents
as their parents wished
wished
by waiting until they
bywaiting were older
theywere older to
to marry
marry or
or by
by selecting
selecting aa suitor who was more
prudent than
thanpassionate.
passionate. But
But he
heappealed
appealedto toreaders
readersas asrational
rational individuals
individuals
rather than
than promoting
promoting their
their blind
blind adherence
adherence toto traditional
traditional authorities, inclui-
authorities, includ-
ing parents. The Diario even published
even pubshed a a poem that mocked
that mocked the
the official
officid dis-
irs-
course
coufse on marriage
mafriage choice:
More
Nlore [ridiculous]
[ridiculous] than
than that
that aa father,
father, whipped up
by passion,
passion, wishes
wishes to obligate
his children to marry
only because ofof the state
[is]
[is] that because God has
has ordered that
children be obedient
toward their parents
parents and
and relatives
relatives
they carry
carry out his order.
order.
Inverting the the conventional

conventional notionnotion that
that youths
youths werewereoverly
overly influenced
influenced by emo- enc-
tion and passion
and passion in marriage decisions,
marriage decisions, the poem suggested
suggested that fathers'
fathers' "pas-
"pas-
sions"
sions" instead
insteadwerewere irrational, while youths could could bebe persuaded
persuaded to to act
act rationally.
ationaLir'.
And
Ad thethe traditional
traditional authority
authoriryof offathers
fathers was
was not not the
theonly
only "ridiculous"
"ridiculous" aspect of
the new
new official policies on children's
officia1 policies marriage choices.
childreris marriage choices. The The use of the word rvord
"state" (estado) in the poem bears
"state" bears aa double meaning.
meaning. In Spanish,
Spanish, as as in English,
Englisi:,
"estado"
"estado" means both civil civil status, as in in "the
"thestate
state.of of matrimony"
matrimony" as as well
rl'el, as
as
`government."
"government." Thus, Thus, the
the poem did
poem did more more than mock the idea
idea that
that children
chiid:en
should marry according
according to parental desies. It also
parental desires. mocked the
a-1so mocked the idea that mar- rr-
riage should satisfy
satis$, the desires
deskes of the king.
ofthe Ing.
The Diario de de Lima's satirical
satiical response
response to the the issue
issue ofof children's
children's marriage
marriage
choice
choice reveals that elites'
evea-ls that elites' use
use ofof state-centered
state-centered paternal discoursesdiscourses when when imple-
menting theirthei ownown social
social policies was more instrumentalinstrumental than sincere. sincere. City Ciry
inhabitants
inhabitants incorporated
incorporated tenets
tenets of Bourbon thought when
ofBourbon when convenient,
convenient, but they
also incorporated other strains of
also incorporated of Enlightenment thought, thought, suchsuch as as an
an emphasis
emphasis
on reason, individualism,
individualism, and happiness, into their their version
version of of the newnerv politics
politics
of the
the child,
chiId, even
even when they they did
did not
notharmonize
harmonizewith withpolicies
policies coming
coming from from
Spain.
Spain. Still,
Sti1l, even
even if Bourbon
Boubon marriage
marriage policy
policy discomfited
discomted local iocai cies
cities by ne-
glecting concerns about race, and even even if ifitit appeared
appeared ridiculous
ridiculous to local locl com-
mentators
mentators because
because it reduced romanticromantic love love to royal interest, itit did not quite
royal interest, quite
bring Lima's elites
Lima's elites and the king to an impasse.
an impasse. The new
new Boubon approach to
Bourbon approach
abandoned children,
children, however,
however, did.
Reform andEnlightenment
Relorm and Enlightenment 559
rj9
RI}PING THE
RIPPING THDEMPIRE AUNDER: FOUNDLINGS
EMPIREASUNDER: FOUNDLlNGS
The journey
journey toward toward this thisimpasse
impasse began
beganin in1767, when the director
1767,whenthe director
of thetle Casa de Nios Expsitos sold a six-year-o1d
Casa de Nios Expsitos sold a six-year-old mulato
mulato foundling
foundling named
named
Cayetano
Cayetano Mara to to don
don Francisco
Francisco de de Ormaza
Ormaza yy Coronel
Coronel for for roo
roo pesos.
pesos. As aa
condition of of the
the sale,
sale, Cayetano
Cayetano Mara, Mara, like Iike all
all male
male children
chi-ldren of of African
Afican de-
scent abandoned at at the
the Casa,
Casa, would
would achieve
achieve free
free status
status when
when he he reached
reached age age
thi.rty.e2 Seven
thirty.92 Seven years
years later, Ormaza became embroiled embroiled in a drawn-out drawn-out battlebartle
over the custody custody of Cayetano Cayetano Mara with with aawoman
woman identified
identified as asaa"negra
"negra
called Chavela,"
Chave1a," perhaps Cayetano
Cayetr;no Mara's
Maras mother.
mother. Turning
Turning first to
to Pedro
Pedro
Antonio
Atonio EcheverzEcleverzy y Zubiza,
Zubiza, the the Audiencia
Audiencia minister
minister responsible
responsible for for overseeing
overseeing
the
'Jre foundling
foundng home, then then to to the
the viceroy, Ormaza attempted
viceroy, Ormaza attempted to settle the matter
once
once and for all. all.
When
Whenthe theruling
nrlingininthis thiscase
caseisisanalyzed
analyzedalongside
alongsidea aqg4royaL
1794 royal cdula that
granted
3;anted legitimacy
legitimacy status
starus to
to foundlings,
foundlings, it
it becomes
becomes evident
evident that
that the
thenew
new official
oficia-1
Bourbon
3oubon stance stance on children often undermined undemined colonial
colonial cites'
elites' efforts
efforts to sharpen
sharpen
social
.ocla-l distinctions
distinctions in the late late eighteenth
eighteenth century. While the
century. Whi-le the Bourbon
Bourbon king king
promoted
::c:loted greatergreatersocialsocial acceptance
acceptance for for abandoned
abandoned children
children because
because he he believed
believed
foundlings
rc::::iiings were an untapped untapped labor resource that could could be used for the the state,
state,
local
-c, cites,
etes,beset
besetby by aa sense
sense that
that they were losing control
theywere controL of their city,
oftheir ciry embarked
on a campaign of social exclusion.
Recall from Chapter
Recal-l from Chapter 33 that the destinies destinies of children abandoned at the Casa Casa
were
',r'ere plotted by caste caste and charted to channel
channel the
the children
chi-ldren into their
thei "proper"
"proper"
positions
;os:'jons in colonial
colonial societysociety when when they reached adulthood. According According to the
letter
-ere of of the law
law in its Constitution,
constitution, the the diector
director of the Casa de de Nios Expsitos
had
LaJ no :ro right
right to to sell children of
sellchildren African descent,
ofAfrican descent, only to place pLace them in appren-
ticeship
::eship posts posts or or servants'
sqrvants' positions
positions in in "virtuous
"virruous houses."
houses." Yet for male malc found-
j:gs of
lings African descent,
ofAlrican apprenticeships were
d,escent, apprcnticeships were tantamount
tantamount to enslavement dur-
ing
:ng the:he first
fust thre
thre decades
decadesof oftheir
theilives.
l-ives. Because
Because raising
raising expsitos
e>.psitos was was aa social
soci'1
and financial
-n Snanciai expense expense for private individuals,
individuals, the the city inhabitants who took
took
foundlings
i'.rnClings into their their bornes
homes made made their
their charitable
charitable acts
acts worthwhile
wofthwhile by by recoup-
ing
:ng their
their investment
investnent in in the
theform
formof ofthe
thechildren's
chi-idrensslave
slave labor.
labor.
Undoubtedly,
Undoubtedl the the changing
changing demographic
dcmographic situation
situation in in Lima
Lima alsoa-Iso contributed
to
ro the
the practice
practice of of enslaving
enslaving abandoned
abandoned childrenchi-ldren ofof African
African descent.
descent. As As we
we sawsaw
in
:n Chapter
Chapter 4, 4, the
the city underwent significant
significant population
population growth
$owth during the
eighteenth century,
century, and and more than one
one observer
observer noted the diminishing
diminishing propor-
tion of of white inhabitants in Lima. In In fact,
fact, the proportion
proportion of of inhabitants of of the
"pure"
"pure" castes
castes in the city dropped, while the population of mixed-race residents
ofmixed-race residents
So Reform
Erlightenment
1l
grewthroughout
grew throughout the the century. And the mixed-race
century. Ard population was
mixed-race population was increasi:1.,.
increasin' ly
likely
likely to
to be
be free
free rather
rather than
than enslaved.93
enslaved.e3 This means
means that
that the once-tidy
once-tidy corre-
co:r:-
lation berween
lation between African
African origins
origins and slavery had loosened,
slavery had loosened, and Lima's
Lima's elites
e=r:::
grew alarmed.
grew alarmed.
Elites looked
Elites looked inside
inside as
as well
well as
as outside
outside thei
their class
class and
and saw
sawtheir
their sociaL
social co:r-;:-
control
of the
of the city jeopardized. They
city jeopardized. They closed
closedranks
ranksinin response
responsetoto the growth c::-:
the grcwth of the
mixed-race population
mked-race population and the increased
inceased permeability of social circles cs:e:-
socia_L dc1es osten-
sibly reserved
sibly reservedonJ.y
onlyfor
forthose
thosewho
who could
could claim
claim1:,mpieza.
limpiezade
de sangre. They ::-
sangre.The., de-
manded more
manded more proof
proof of
of noble
noble status
status and aa greater
greater transparency of raciaL
racial c::i-:-:
origins
before they
before they would
would accept
accept as
as their
their peers
peers individuals
individualswho
who had
had shadou" pasts, ar:
shadowy pas:s. and
asfuin
as Ann Twinam
Twinam has has shown,
shown, they gave gave greater
greater currency
currency to to legitimacy
legitimacy as proof ::of
as prcc:
status."
stafus.e4 If anan individual's
individual's origins were not known,
origins were known, the tendency
tendencv amongamorg l::i local
elites atat the
eLites the end of the eighteenth
eighteenth century
cenrurywas was to assume "the worst." Tl:,
assume "the,"r,orst." This
presumption would
presumption would apply
apply especially
especiallytotoexpsitos,
expsitos,whom whomthe theelites colsr je:: j
cites considered
to be
to be the
the products
products ofreligiousiy
of religiously and and racially
raciallyimpure
impure unions;
unions; ifthev appeared ::to
if they appea:e:
be b1ack,
be black, theyrvere
they were considered
considered slaves.
slaves.
But Bourbon
But Bourbon officials
offi.cials had had other
other ideas,
ideas, asas the ruling in Cayetano
the ruling \I:::.:
Cayetano Maria's
case demonstrates.
case demonstrates.Audiencia
Audiencia ministerminister Echeverz
Echeverz reported
reported to to Viceror.
Viceroy l.I::_::_
Manuel
Guirior that when
Guirior when he first investigated Cayetano
fust investigated Cayetano Maas
Mara's case,
case,he he Leanej
leamed::::.:that
the boy
the boy was
wasone oneofofmany
manyfoundlings
foundlings ofofA-frican
Africandescent
descentabancioned
abandoned atat e the Ca.:.
Casa
who were
who were presumed
presumed to be slaves and sold as
slaves and as apprentices.
apprentices. The The Casa's ilecr::.
director,
don Diego
don Diego de Ladrn de de Guevara,
Guevara, regularly
regularly affixed notices on
affixed notices on cin-
city 11.,
walls an-
s ::_-
nouncing that
nouncing that the foundling
foundJing home would receive infants ,,withou:
reccive infants "without isii:c:c:.
distinction
and without
and without examination"-m
examination"meaning without regard
eaningwithout rcgard for race. Many
r race. Many cin,
city e1:e.-.
elites,
including the
including the editors
editors of of Mercuria
Mercurio Peruano, would would late
later regard the director's
di:ec:c:',.
color-blind receptiveness
color-blind receptivenessasasaamark markofofhis hisgreat
greatcharity.es
charity."In In hindsight,
hindsight, ho.,,..-
how-
ever, financialrather
eve financial ratherthan than charitable
charitable conccrns
concems may may have inspired Ladrn ie
have insped Ladtr de
Guevara to
Guevara to admit
admit all
all infants
infants to to the Casa,
casa, since nonwhite infants could
since nonwhite cou]d 'e be solc
sold
for cash
for cashandandgenerate
generateincome
incomefor forthe
the foundling
foundling home.
home. In In fact,
fact, rvhi-Le
while investiga:-
investigat-
ing Cayetano.
ing Cayetano.Mara'sMara'scase, case,Echeverz
Echeverz discovercd
discoveredthat that1oca1
local courts
courts had
had been
been
hearing "various
hearing "various complaints
complaints from from thethe wet
wet nurses
nurses ofof tlese
these sold
sold expsitos"
expsitos"dur- dur-
ing Ladrn
ing Ladrn de de Guevaa's
Guevara's tenure tenure as as director.
director.
Echeverz confronted
Echeverz confrontedthe the director
director of of the
the foundLing
foundling home,
home, and and Ladrn
Ladrn de de
Guevara atplained
Gucvaa explainedthat thatthe the institutioris
institution's constitution
constitution granted
granted him him the ability
ability toto
sellexposed
selI exposed chiLdren
children as aslong
long as as rheir
their bondage
bondage lasted only for for aa limited term. ye:
limited terco. Yet
when Echcve
when Echeverz read the
rz read the wording
wording ofofthe the constiturion,
constitution, he he realized
realizedthatthat itit did
did not
not
allow the
al1ow the dircctor
director to to enslave
enslave children
children ofAfrican
of African dcscent.
descent. "Neither
"Neither the law of
the raw of
Nations (Gente)
Nations (Gente) nornor the
the 1awlaw ofof Narure
Nature cancan permit
permit that aa house
house of asylum
asylum and and
Reformand Enlightenment 161
t:
refuge, erected
erected for for the conservation
conservation of of these
these innocents,
innocents, might become, to their *reir
harm, aa penalty
pena-lty so so harsh
harsh as asthat
thatofofslavery,"
sivery" he he concluded.
concluded. Echeverz
Echeverz recom-recom-
mended that that some
some of of the
the youths
youths continue
continue in in apprenticeships
apprenticeships as as aa "precaution"
"precaution"
against "laziness"
"laziness" until they complete their
their primera edad, edad, mezning until they
meaning
reached adolescence. But
reached adolescence. But he he compelled
compeled the Casa Casa to return all all of
of the money
money it
had collected
collected to to those
those who had had purchased
purchased the the foundLing
foundling boys.eboys."
When
When Ormaza
Ormazaappealed appealed the thecase,
case, Viceroy
Viceroy Guirior not only upheld Eche-
verz's ruling; he
verz's ruling; he [mited
limited to to twelve years
years the the length
length of time that male expsitos
oftime expsitos of of
African descent could remain in apprenticeships. He He also
also required
requled artisans
artisans who
accepted
accepted foundlings
foundlings as as apprentices
apprentices to to pay
pay the Casa a stipend and and thethe boys
boys aa
salary, and he
salary, and he ruled
ruled that work eontracts
contracts involving
invoing foundlings should contain contaio no
language
language or clause dause that could could be interpreted
interpreted as as aasale.
sa-le. As
As for
for Francisco
Francisco de de
Ormaza,
Ormaza, Viceroy
Viceroy Guirior severely rebuked him
severely rebuked participation in the
him for his participation
commercial trafficking of
commercial tramcking of expsitos
expsitos and and ordered
ordered him him to repay the Casa Casa more
more
than rooroo pesosmore
pesos-more than the amount that that Ormaza
Otmaza had had paid
paid forfor Cayetano
Cayetano
Mara
Mara seven
seven years
yeas earlier.
Ormaza
Ormaza did did notnot allow
a-llow the matter
rnatter to to rest
rest andand continued
continued to to appeal
appeal the rulingn:1ing
even alter
after it had
had been
been posted
posted on on walls
wa1ls around the the city.
city. In his protests, he he drew
drew
less on bishis position as as aa property
properq/ holder and and instead
instcad made made aa casecase based on his
standing
standing as as a member
member of of the
theracial
racialelite
eliteof of colonial
colonial society.97
society.eT He insisted
insisted that all aLl
abandoned
abandoned children
children were not the the same.
sama "1 "I am not not speaking
speaking of of Indians,"
Indians," he he
clarified, "because they are
daried, "because are asas free
free asas we are. I speak
we are. of the rest of
speak ofthe the castas,
ofthe castas,
either those who who ae are born subject
subject to bondage or those who are born free.
free. The
Casa was not established for them, and and only
only by the pure affection affection of humanity
humaniry
have they
they been accepted.
accepied. Their subjugation
subjugation until until the age of thirry thirty, not to aa
rigorous
rigorous enslavement,
enslavement, but to an almost filial subordination in
alrnostlilial in favor
favor of of the very
very
Casa that
that educated
educated them thern or orof the person
ofthe person to to whom
whom they theyhavehave been
been assigned
assigned forfor
aa stipend, is not ;designed]
[designed] to
to do
do them
them injury"
injury" (emphasis
(emphasis mine).
mine).
By stressing ihe the subordination
subodination of castas to the patriarchal
ofcastas patriarchal authority
authoriry of the
ofthe
adults
adults who raisedraised them,
thern, Ormaza
Ormaza revealed
revealed that thattraditional
traditional socialsocial reproductive
reproductive
lrocesses in the
processes the city,
city, which rewarded
rewaded colonialcolonial elites clites with children's
childrens labor in
return
rerurn for
for their
their rearing,
rearing, dashed
clashed withrviththe thenew, new,inclusive
inclusive Bourbon
Bourbon paternalism
paternalism
toward
towad foundlings. He Healso also voiced
voiced the thegrowing
growingelite eliteespousal
espousalof of social
social policies
pocies
that would
would promote
promote elite ete caste
caste insularity
insularity and and thethefortification
fortification of of rigid
rigid barriers
barriers
to prevent individuals
individua-ls from fom ascending
ascending the colonial colonial hierarchy.
hierachy. He insisted that it
should
should be impossible
impossible to raise the "condition" "condition" of of aa child
child tfuough
through abandonment.
abandonment.
To role
rule otherwise,
otherwise, he he warned,
warned, wouldwould be be to tounleash
unleash the the"danger"
"danger"of ofaa species
species
:62 Reform
:6z and Enlightcnment
i
"prejudicialto
'prejudicial,to the the Republic"
Repubc" and and toto allow
a11ow "the republic
republic to raise and educate educate a: at
its bosom
its bosom individuals
individuals who who wili
will rip
rip [it] asunder."
asunder."
If local
1oca1 elites presumed
presumed the worst worst failing
failing clear
clear evidence
evidence of an individual's
inCirid:i'-.
origins, the viceroy
origins, viceroy and and thethe Audiencia
Audiencia minister
minister were
were prepared
prepared to to presunLe
presume ::-: the
best. While
best. While in his original
original ruling Viceroy Grior
mling Viceroy Guirior did not abandon completely ccn:1e::,..'
the colonial precept
precept of distinct
distinct life paths for different castes castes of foundlings, ...
of fourdli:_-. he .-
was adamant
was adamant that abandoned children should never end end up up as chatteL H:
as chatte-. He did::
not revoke his decision,
decision, and andduring
duringthe theyears
yearsfollowing
foiiowingthe theruling,
rulirlg,the C.:.:
CQs17's
l--e
next director
nex diector exercised caution in
exercised caution in signing
signing children
children ofAfican
of African descentie:::.: ::-: into
apprenticeship posts. For example,
apprenticeship example, when a twelve-year-old mulato muia:o:.-:-:_--:
fonnelling
named Baltazar
named BaltazarAtocha
Atocha entered
entered an anapprenticeship
apprenticeshipwith mastertaic:
withaamaster tailor::.in----.
mil
his contract
contract clearly
clearly stated
stated that
that the foundling
foundling home director director was
rvas prc::'::::: by
prohibited .-..
decree from
decree from selling
se1I-ing expsitos as as slaves.98
slaves.e8
Two decades
Two decades later,
late; aa royal
roya-l edict
edict on on foundlings
foundlings even uri::r-::,=:
even further undermined
colonial eiites'
colonial elites' efforts
efforts at social insularity with respect to
social insularity to expsitos.
expsi:os, In :-:.
i:- 1794
Charles IV issued the striking ruling ruLing that
that all
all expo
exposedsed children would 're
children wo.:-d be cc:..::-
consid-
ered legitimate.
ered legitimate. The ruling,ruLing, while
whle certainly
certainly aa defining
defi.ning piece
piece of oi BBourhon
c,::':cr social
: : ::.
legislation, did
legisiation, did not
not spring
spring from
from thin air. LocalLocal judges
judges in the emle
in the empire h :::. j:
hadj made
decisions on
decisions on the
the education
education and care of foundlings foundling.s that,that, like the -.'::.:,:: in
rhe verdict -:.
Cayetano Mara's
Cayetano Mara's case,
case, increasingly
increasinglytreatedtreated abandoned
abandoned children
children as future :::-
as i*:r::: citi-
zens by minimizing
zefis minimizing the the legal
legal limits
limits they
they faced
faceddue dueto their rati
to their natal .::.:-=."
status."
Furthermore, old ideological
Furthcrmore, ideological currents of royal paternalism
ofroyal paternalism a-lso alsoran through :::
ran:::.:;:. the
edict. Its
edict. Its wording
wording echoed the sentiments sentiments of of Luis
Luis Brochero,
Brochero, the the sevillano
seitarc ',,,.-:who
wrote aa tract
wrote tract about expsitos almost tw'o
expsitos aLmost two centuries earlier:
earlier: "As
'As ther'1aci
they lack k:,.:'.r--
knowl-
edge [about]
edge [about] and the the care [of] their naturalnatural parents,"
parcnts," the the royal
royal order read, "::
orCe: reaj. "it
fans to my dignity
fal1s
daughters."
daughters."loo
Yet aa maked
Yet
dignity and and Royal
marked shift in the official

authority to consider
Royal authority
stance on
official stance
conside them as
on chldren
children hadhad taken
as myml' sons
scr:s and
taken place Lnie:

erj
under
E
the Bourbons. The
stage of life
thinkers."1
thinkers.l01 In
The 1794 cdula exhibited
q94 cdula
[fe and aa concern
concern with
various versions of
various versions
exhibited aa sensibility
with education
of the
the 1aw,
sensibility that infancy
education characteristic
law, the
the king
king 1aj.d
laid out
infancy was rvas aa idcL
chaacterisric of Enlightenment
ErJightenner:
out the details
details c
critical
of the
the
ffi
-
foundlings' rearing
foundlings' rearing and education, with special
and education, emphasis on
special emphasis on holv
how Long long e the
infants should
infants should nurse.
nurse. TheThe notable
notable accent on the innocenceinnocence of childenchildren in in the
the -
cdula isis another
cdu-la another indication
indication thatthat the king had been swayed swayed by bythethe Enlighten-
Enlighten-
notion that children
ment notion children were closer closer to nature and still untainted untainted by the
-
corrosive effects
corrosive effectsofadulthood
of adulthood and and even
even by by the
the sins
sins oftheir
of their parents.
parents.
The edict
edict also demonstrated aa concem
a-1so demonstrated concern for the demographic
demographic size of of the
the state
state - :
-
-._-
tI:
Refom andEnlightenment
Reformand Enlightenment 163
163
-
- :
typical
rypical of the physiocrats
of the physiocrats who had counseled counseled French Fench king king Louis XV, and many
provisions
provisions in the
the ruling directly paralleled
paralleied the
the arguments
arguments that Claude Piarron Piarron
de Chamousset had
de Chamousset had advanced advanced in his influentiall756
influentid-ry56 tract,
tract, Mmoire
Mmoire politique sur
les enfants.
les enfants. Louis XV had instituted several royal programs
XV had instituted severa-l royl programs dcsigned to designed to lower
lowe
his country's
country's rates of infant mortality, mortality, and Charles Chales IV drew from these pro-
grams as mode1s.r02 The Spanish
as models.12 Spanish king king discussed
discussed at at length
length thethe issue
issue ofof the "great
"great
distantes"
stances" that that the
theEuropean
European infants
infantstraveled
traveled from from the the city
city to the
the countryside,
countryside,
where
where they they were
wcre placed with rural rural wet
wet nursesanother
nurses-another matter matter of of physiocratic
physiocratic
anxiety.
anxiety. Indeed, preserving
preserving the
the lives
lives of this
ofthis "numerous
"numerous population
population ofofvassals"
vassals"
was one of the primary motives of
was one of the primary motives of the king's mling. the lag's ruling.
Still, by extending
extending legitimacy
legitimacy to to fo-undlings,
foundlings, Charles Charles IV treated abandoned
children far fa more inclusively
inclusively than than his absoiutist
absolutist counterparts
counterparts ever ever had.
had. What What
compelled
compelled him to to do
doso sowas
waswhatwhatJoan JoanSherwood
Sherwoodcalls cal1saa"new"neweconomic
economic
paternalism."
paternalism." To convert convert abandoned children chi-lden into into industrious
industrious adult adult subjects,
subjects,
the
the king
king rejected
rejected the tradition
tradition of of treating
treating them them as asstains
stains on on family
fami-ly honor and and
instead "envisaged
"envisaged the foundling as as a a component
cpmponent of the state and
ofthe and separate
separate from frorn
the
the familya
family-a unit unit to be utilized
utilized for the the public good."103 The
public good..103 The king
king lashed
lashed out out
against
against the the long-standing
iong-standing assumption
assumption that that foundlings
foundlings were were illegitimate
illegitimate and and
their subsequent
subsequcnt exclusion
exclusion from schools,schoois, official posts, and elite
officiai posts, eLite circles.
cicles. He Ile
perceived the "scorn" "scorn" and "humiliation"
"humiliation' to to which
which expsitos
expsitos werewere subjected
subjected as as
detrimental to the the economic

economic health of of, the
the empire,
empire, sincesince itit rendered
rendeed these these
rbildren
childen "lost"1ost toto the
the state."
state." Foundlings,
Foundlings, he he wrote,
wtote, "have "have been
been taken for for bas-
bas-
tards, spurious [children], and the
tards, spuri.ous fchildren], and thc products of products of incest
incest and
and adultery;
adultery; itit being
being so
so
the
e contrary, becauselegitimate
contrary, because legitimateparents
parentsoften oftentcnd tendtotoexpose
exposethem them. . .. in the the
majority
majority when they see se that in in any
any other
other manner
manner they they cannot
cannot preserve
preserve their
lives."
ves." TheThe .expsitos,
expsitos, he implied,
implied, were were not illegitimate
illegitimate but poor, and thus thus
carried no stain of Moral impurlty.
of-mora1 impurity. RatherRather than to marginali7e
marginalize the foundlings,
the king
king sought
sought to to bring
bringthemtheminto intothe theimperial
imperialfold, foid,where-
where "because
"because of their
innocence, lack f protection, and
innocence, lack fprotection, and my paternal my paternal vigilance"
vigilance" they
they could
could receive
eceive the
same
same opportunities
opporflinities to tobecome
become economically
economically productive productive citizens as any other
"gentleman"
"gentlemari' in the the empire.
empire. Their
Their "conservation
"conservation and sound sound education,"
education," the
king wrote, "can produce serious benefits for for the state.' 104
state."104
Just
-Iust as
as his
his father
father hadhad with
with thethe1776qT6 Pragmatic Sanction Sanction on Unequal Mar-
riages,
riages, the king failed failed to take into full fir1l account the effect that the edict edict on on
expsitos
expsitos would would have colonies. Ife
have on his colonies. He offered
ofi-ered no no acknowledgment
acknowledgment that
erasing
erasing thethe presumption of moral impurity impuriry would mean erasing the presump- presump-
tion ofof racial
racial impurity
impurity and and thus
thusdestabilize
destabilize the thegenealogical-racial
genea-logical-racial categories
categories
integral
integral to the thecaste
casteorder
order of ofcolonial
coloniai society.
society. He He simply
simply extended
extcnded to to these
these
64
64 Reform
Refom and Enlightenment
ad Enlightenment
.:
children
chjldrenthe thesocial
socialbenefit
benefitofofthe thedoubt.
doubtYet,. Yet,colonial
colonialelitese]-itesbelieved
beevedthat tla:inl:.
doing
doingsosothe thekingkingalso alsopermitted
permittedparents Parents to toimprove
impro vethe
the social
soclal'condition
condit l r:of::
their offspring
eir"offspring bybyabandoning
abarrd lnit'ginfants
infants to tohis
hisroyal
royal paternal
paternal care.
care' Some
Some opposed
ocpos t:
the
theking's
king'snew irlclusive,
newinclusive treatment
,.u*tt" ofoffoundlings
foundlingsby byarming
armingtheir insti:uj::-i
theirinstitutions
against
againstthese
thesenewly newlylegitimated
legitimatedchildren.children'
ToToprotect
protectthe theintegrity
integrityofoftrad traditional
itionacaste
l castehierarchies
hierarchiesininthe faceofc: -.'.'
thefase
king's
lo,,g'sedict,
edict,the thedirector
rectorofofLima's Lima'sSchoolSchooof l ofNavigation
Navigationrefused refusedtotoaccept
acce:: :-::
city's
clry;sfoundlings
foundlings ininhis institution'10sInIn
hisinstitution.105 r8orrSordon donJuan Jos
Juan Jos de
de Cavero,
Cave :' te
--::=
director
dir..,o,ofofthe the-CCasa "r,de de Nios
Nios Expsitos,
Exps itos, attempted
attcmP ted totouse
use hishisyoung
vcunq ir::::=
inmates' '
news
new status
tatus totoenr
enrollollthethemminth in theeexcexclusive
l,siveschool for nautical
schoolfornauticaisrces.l-. studies. The
director
directorofofthe theSchool
Schooof l ofNavigation
Navigatlonpointed Pointedout outthat
thatthe 1794
the 1794ruling cc:-:L:'::
nrlinecontained
ananexemption
exemptionfor foranyanyinstitution
institutionthat thatrequired
requtedentrants entrantstoto prove
Prove ei'rr
they were e-the --::=
progeny
progenyofof"true
'tirl*r
"truemarriages."
marriages'" He Heargued
arguedthat, that,according
accordingtotothe co:!sti:lj::'of: j
theconstitution
oot,
his school, itsitspupils pupilswere weretotobebenot notonlyonlylegitimate
legitimatebut but alsoalso"indispensably
"inCispe::s'':--'
white."
white."The Thefoundlings
foundlingsofofthe theCasa,
Casa, hehesuggested,
suggested'may mayhavehavebeen "lej-i::::=
been"legitimate"
according
accordingtotothe the1794
1794 ruling,
ruling, but butthey
theyspentspenttheirtheirtimetime"rubbing
"rubbingshoulders
shoulCe:swith t':':-
servants,"
servants/living liung ininan a.,institution
institutionthat tlatfailed
failedtotosegregate
segregatethem themfrom fror:ordinary
o::i:-::-
plebeians,
plebeians,and and;b "beating
eatingthe thestreets
streetsasking
askingfor foralms."
aLms'"Thus Thusthey the'vremained
reneiieCthe --:::
social
so.ialequals not notof white
ofwhi te children
childenbut butofofcommoners."6
commoners'106
"qu^1s
Officials
Ofici"1.who, who,like 1i.kethe thedirector
diectorofofthe theSchool
Schooof l ofNavigation,
Navigation'were lvererespon-
:es:'::--
sible
sibleforforeducating
educatingespaol espaolpupils pupilsmightmighthave havemost mostvehemently
vehementlvrejected reiec:ecthe
=:
ruling,
ruling,but buttheytheyw were
erenot ,-,otdone. The The director
directoof r ofthetheColegio
Colegio deldelPrncipe
Prrci:ealso is:
'lone'
triedlo
tried to keepkeepthe theassociation
associationbetween berweenfoundlings,
foundlings'illegitimacy,
illegitimacv'and CerS':e:
anddenigrated
caste
castestatus
statusalivealiveafter
afterthe theroyal
royalgrant
grantofoflegitimacy
legitimacyasashehewaged wageda adecades-long
decaCes--c:-;
bate against
battle agains the director
t the directoof Lima's
r of Limas foundling
foundling homehome overovcitsitsstudents' 'r::bc ::
studcnts'symbolic
placement
placemfntininthe theplaza
plazamayor mayorduring
duringpublicpublicevents.
eventsThe ' The colegio's
colegio'sdirector
di:ectowasr u-is
ii.,rry"a that
dismayed thathis his"noble"
"noble"Indian Indianpupilspuprlsstood stoodbelow belowthe the foundlings
found linp the
onon -ie
rafters
aftersconstructed
constr,ctedfor forviewing
viewingautos-da-fe,
autos-da-fe,bullfights,buJifights'and and public
publicprocessions.
processio:'Ls'
The physical
Theph ysicalplacement
placemcnto offhissr
his students,
udents,who whowere. were.illustr
"illustrious vassals,"
iousvassals,,,iici-
indi-
idiminished ,
cated
cateia a"diminished [social]
fsocia!position"
position relative
relativetotoabandoned
abandonedchildren, children,whom rvhorrhehe
equated
equatedwith withthe the"lowliest
"lowliestplebeians."17
piebelans'"107
Strikingleven
Strikingly, evenwhile
whilethe thedirector
directorofofthe theCasaCasade deNios
NiosExpsitos
Expsitossought soughto t to
enroll
enrollthe foundlings in exclusive schools
thefoundlingsinexclusiveschoolsandjockeyedtoelev and jockeyed to elevate his students'
atehisstudents.
status
stafirsover
overIndian
Indianyouthsyouthsatatpublic publicevents,
eventshe , healso alsorejected
rejecteda acentral tenetofoftie
centraltenet the
q94royal
1794 r,rlitg. In
royruling. Inthe theearly
earlynineteenth
nineteenthcentury, centurydon donJuan JuanJosJosdedeCavero
Cavero
b"guta campaign
began campaigntotorequire requireparents
parentstotopay paythe thefoundling
foundlinghome homewhen whenthey thev
"
abandoned
abindonedtheir theirchildren.
chjldren.He Hedecided
decidedtoto publish
publishsome someofof hishiscorrespondence
correspondence
withth
with theearch
archbishopbishoponthon thecmaft matter, in which
er,inw hichhheecont contradicted
radictedthe the king's asser-
king'sasser-
Reform
Reformand Enlightenment165165
and Enlightenment
tion that infant abandonment was
tion result of
vas the result ofpoverty
poverry rather than promiscuity.
promiscuiry.
During his tenure asas director
diector of the Casa de Nii'os
Casa de Nios Expsitos, began just
which began
Expsitos, which just
after the 1794
after ruling,the
1794 ruling, thenumber
number ofofinfants
infants abandoned
abandoned at
at the
the institution's
institution's door
door
had soared. Cavero
had Cavero believed
believedthat
that most
most of
of these childen
children were progeny of
were the progeny
immoral unions
immoral unions whose parents
parents possessed sufficient means
possessed suficient means to
to support
support them.'B
them.1o8
Although Cavero
Although retreated into
Cavero retreated into the notion that foundlinp were degraded
that foundlings
by their
by their parents'
parents' sins
sins rathe
rather than race, his protests reveal that even
revea-l that even those colo-
colo-
nial etes
elites closest
closest to
to foundlings detected in
foundlings detected in the
the 1794 edict aa troubling
q94 edict troubling ten-
ten-
dency to
dency to stress the equal 1ot
stress the lot of children
chiidren by means of their shared innocence,
innocence,
as well
as well as
as aa reckless
recklessroyal
royaldisregard
disregardfor
forproof
proofofoforigins.
origins.For
Forthem,
them, the
the equal-
equal-
izing tendencies
izing tendencies of
of the
the edict
edict held the potential to raze
raze the
the very socioeconomic
socioeconomic
pillars
pill ars of colonial hierarchies.In
colonial hierachies. In some
some places
placesthey
theyhad
had proof
proof that
that the edict
could undo
co,-ld undo that most
most basic
basic of colonial institutions: forced
colonial institutions: forced Indian 1abor.
labor. Ac-
Ac-
cording to Cynthia
cording Cynthia Milton, Indian
Indian children
children in
in Ecuador
Ecuador were
were increasingly la-
increasingly la-
'eied
beled as foundlings
foundlings and thus ascribed the status
statLrs of
of legitimate
legitimate after
atterthe q94
the1794
ascibed the
ruling. On this basis they were
ruli.ng. were exempted
exempted fom
from mandatory
mandatory labor duty over
over the
the
loud
'oud protests
of local elites.loe
oflocal elites.109 lnstead
Instead of innocence by virtue
ofi.nnocence virtue ofyouth,
of youth, colonial
colonial
elites repeatedly
eLites repeatedly underscored
underscoredthe the danger inherent in children of unknown
danger inherent unknown
origin. Rather than equality,
origin. colonial elires
equaliry colonial cites sought to reinforce the inequity
reinforce rhe inequiry
luil into the
built the colonial
colonial social strncture and to preserve
social strucnre traditional means of
preserve traditional
identifying childen's
:dentifi,ing children's status.
status.
As they
As they had
had with
with other
other reforms,
reforms, coloniai
colonial e[tes
elites demanded
demanded that that the
the Bourbon
Bourbon
state clarif,,
s:ate clarify the
the raciai
racial implications
implications ofofthe thepoJicy
policyon onfoundlings.
foundlings.But Butrather
rather than
than
rettr
refer the
the matter to locallocal. courts as they had hd with
with the
the Pragmatic
Pragmatic SSanction
anction on on
Unequal Marriages,
Unequal Marriages, embers
inembers of of the
the Cmaa
Cmara in MadridMadrid refused
refused to to actively
actively
enforce the royal fat
enfoce at on foundlings
found[ngs as asearly
early as
as1797, only four
\7g7, only four years
years after
after its
its
promulgation." In
oromulgation.rlo ln 18o5, when a case
r8o5, when case concerning a foundling's admission to
foundlings admission to
Mexico's Colegig
\lexico's Colegigde Abogados eached
de Abogados reached thethe justices,
justices, they
they decided
decided thatthat consid-
consid-
foundlings to be
ering all foundlings be legitimate
legitimate was ultimately incompatible with
ultimately incompatible with the
the
promotion of
promotion of caste
caste order
order i.n
in the colonies.'1' The ministers
the co1onies.I11 ministers referred
referred to expsitos
expsitos
as potentially
as potentially the offspring "of punishable
offspring "of punishable and damnable sexual or of
relations or
sexual relations of
dark quality
dark quality andand infected
infected origin."
origin." In In shorr,
short, the Cmara was forced forced toto recognize
recognize
that rather than
than producing
producing"serious
"seriousbenefits
benefits for
for the
thestate,"
state," the
the1794
1794 ruling was aa
rulingwas
"grave prejudice"toto colonial
"grave prejudice" colonialeljtes.
cites.
In the
the end,
end, the
the history
history ofof the
theking's
kings edict
edict on onfoundlings
foundlings took took aa familiar
familia
course. Time
couse. Time and again,again, Bourbon
Bourbon socialsocial policies
pocies sidestepped
sidestepped the issue of race race
in favor
fvor making
making sure sure that no youngyoung imperial
imperial subject was lost
subjecr was lost to the
the royal
royal
exchequer.Time
exchequer. Time andand again,
again, 1ocal
localelites
cites protested
protested that reform policies concern-
policies concern-
66 Reform and
Enlightenment
::
1 1
ing
ingchildren
childrenwere
weretoo
tooinclusive
inclusiveororfailed
failedtotodifferentiate
differentite among
amongcolonial
colonialcastes.
castes.
AA"r"*..o
new economic
.o*ic paternalism,
paternalis they
m, they continually
continua llyreminded
reminded the
theking,
king' could
cod not be
not':e
applied
applieduniversally
universally to
toall
all children
children ofofthe
theempire
empirewithout
withoutcareful
carefilconsideration
consider ::io:-
ofith.
the precarious
pr".rrioussocial
ro.i*l situation
situationofofcolonial
colonial elites.
elites'ItItwas
was within
withinthis dia:ec::;of::
thisdialectic
absolutist
absolutistreform
eformandandlocal
10calelite
elitereaction
feactionthatatLima's
Limascreole
creoleintellectuals :.:-'
intellectua-lsbegan
totoreflect
reflectdeeply
deeply ononwhat
whatemerging
emergingEnlightenment
Enlightenment ideas ideasregarding ch:-i;::
regardingrhildren
and
andauthority
authoriryconveyed
conveyedaboutabouttheir
theiown
ownpolitical
politicaland
andracial
acia1kinship
kinshipto:oSpain_
S: .::-
TFlECREOLE
THE FAMILYCRISIS
CREOLFAMILY CRIIS
Since
Since thethechild
childwas wasoften
oftena ametaphorical
metaphoricalstand-in stand-infor iortheeroyal::-"-
subject
subject in inEnlightenment
Enlightenmentwritings, writings,new newpedagogies
pedagogiesserved servedasasmore morethan ::-''i::
:haradvice
books
book,for fothowhowtotoraise
raisechildren.
chi'ldren.They Theywere werealso
also antimonarchical phioso:1:
ntimonarchicai philosophical
tracts.
tracts.Lynn
LynnHunt,Hunt, forfor
one,one,hashas described
descibed thethe
collapse
collapseofFrance's andenar:cle:
of France's re-1.--_-_e
r-::-:
asasaaFreudian
Freudian "family
"family romance,"
romance, " in
in which
which regicide
regicide was
was tatamou:li :a::::::
tantamount to
:o patricide
and
andrevolutions
revolutions created
ffeatednations nationscomprised
comprised of ofcitizen-brothers
citizen-brothers rather raerthan :i--
child-subjects.
chiJ.d-subjects.l12 112 The
Thefamily
famil'yromance
romancenarrative
narrativeofofrevolution
revolution had hadbeen s:: :::
bee:'scripted
ininwritings
writinislike [keViscardo's
ViscardotLetter Lettertotothe theSpanish rnericansand,
S?anish Americans and'most :a:::--'"
nos:famously,
Rousseau,sThe
ininRousseau's TheSocial contract,where
socialContract, where the theidea that, ,atata acertain
ideathat cenainstage, s:aqe.chil-
::-:--
dren
drenmust "be released
must,,be released from from the theobediente
obedience that thatthey
theyowedowedto tothethefather"
tather'held ;:e-:
clear
clear political
political connotations.
connotatio ns-113113
ItItim
was one o.r.thing
thingfor forSpanish
SpanishAmericans
Americanswho whowere wereloyalloyaltotocolonial
colonie*role:-:to::
refute
refutethese
thesechallenges
challengestotoroyal royalpaternalism
paternalism whilewhilethe thekingkingactually
actuallvgoverned
goi'e;:'::
the
theempire.
empire.But Butthe
theFrench
FrenchinvasioninvasionofofSpainSpaininin1808
r8o8mademade the thepolitical ics-::
politica- kinship
b.t*.* creole
between creole elites
elites and
and the theFather
FatherKing Kingmuchmuchmore moredistant. Inteilec:i'in:-
distant'Intellectuals
Lima
Limastrained
sftainedtotosustain
sustainthe thepatriarchal
patriuchalmodel modelofofmonarchy
monarchyininthe theyoung
youngking'ski::: s
absence,
absence, and andthey
they began
began to to torture
torturethe themetaphor
metaphorof king as father. Reportinggon
ofking as father' Reportin o:'
the
theestablishment
estabiishmentofofa aconstitutional
constitutionalcortes cortesininSpain
Spaininin1809,r8o9'one onearticle
articie in ir:the
:;:e
royalist
roystpaperpapetMinerva
MneroaPeruanaPeruanasummarized
summarizedthe thenews
newsthus:thus:"a"aking,
king'who u'hofreely
lree-r'
abdicates the nrown,, and
the.crown andlaterlater will
willreturn
returntotoreclaim
reclaimit,it,and andaachild
childwhouoholdsholdsit::
"bdicat.s 114 InInaaletter
amidst
amidstan anupheaval
upheaval in inthethepueblo,
pueblo,and andwho whowill
willlater
laterreturn
returnit."it.'11'+ letter to :o
thetheeditor,
etor,another
anot-hercontributor
contributorrecountedrecountedhow howhe hehadhadbeen
beenheartened
heartenedtotohear heaa:'
group
groupofofslavesiavechildren
childen singingsinging songssongspraisng
praisirg the theSpanish
Spanishking kingwhile
rvhilethey e1'
gathered
!"ti.r.a kindling
kindlingininthe thewoods.
woods. "Without
"Withoutdiese thesesongs,"
songs,"the theauthor
authorreflected,
reflected'
Ithes.babes
"diese babeswould
would not notknowknow the thenarre,
name,even evenofofthe theexistence,
existence, of oftheir
their mon-
mon-
arch."
arch."But
Butsoonsoonenough,
enough,he hehoped,
hoped,they theywould
would"know
"knowhim himand andlove lovehim,"
him"'since
since
ititcould
couldnot notbe bemuch
muchlonger longerbeforebeforethe theking
kingreturned
retwnedtotothe the"breast
"breastof ofhishis
children,
children, who whopassPass the
the time
time of
oftheir
thei toils
toilsby
by intoning
intoning his
his name."1"
name'"115
Reform
Reform and
and Enlightenment
Enlightenment167
:6-
As if thethe new
new political
pol-itical connotations
connotations of of childhood
childhood and and Napoleon's
Napoleon's occupa- occuPa-
tion of Spain
Spain were not not enough to heighten local elites' sense tht
elites' sense that the
the taditional
traditional
family model of colonial colonial authoriry
authority was becoming increasingly
was becoming complicated, and
increasingly complicated,
perhaps even even untenable, elite eiite creoles also had
creoles also had to face another challenge.
face another challenge. Dur- Dur-
ing the eighteenth
eighteenth century,
century European
European Enlightenment philosophers philosophers and and scien-
scien-
tists leveled racial and
levelcd a rucial and politicai
political critique
critique of of the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of the New New World
Worid
that
that connected
connected childhood,
childhood, racialracial degradation,
degradation, and and revolutionary
revolutionary politics.
Europeans
Europeans had long long imagined
imagined the the native
native inhabitants
inhabitants of of the
theAmericas
Americas as as
feminine
feminine and infantile,infantile, but in the eighteenth century
the eighteenth century this this image
image of
of Indians
Indians
shone
shone with aa new, new, scientific patina. Guillaume-Thomas Raynal's Raynal's Histoire
Histoire phi- phi-
losophique
losophique de de .. . . duex Indes, aa collaborative
duex Indes, collaboative effort by twelve Enlightenment Enlightenment
philosophers published
published ininthe the177os
r77os and
and 178os, drew from
r78os, drew from the scientif.c
scientific theoies
theories
of George-Louis
George-Louis Leclerc Leclerc Comte de de Buffon
Buffon and and Corneille
Corneille de de Pauw,
Pauw, who ar-
gued that that the
theland
landmassmassknown
known as asthetheNew
NewWorld Worldwas wasrelatively
relatively "young"
"young" in
geological
geological time and its its inhabitants
inhabitants were werebiologically
biologically and and culturally
culturally under-under-
developed."6 In
deve1oped.116 In Raynal'sRaynal's Histoire, the infantilization
infantilization and feminization
feminization of In-
dians
d:ans had had clear
ciear political connotations: "The men
potical connotations: men therethereare areless
iessstrong,
strong, less less
courageous,
courageous, withoutwithout bcad
beard or or hair,
hair,degenerate
degenerateininai1 allsigns
signsofofmanhood.
manhood.... . . . The
indifference
i::di-fference of the the males toward that other
males toward othe sex which Narure
sex to which Nature has entrusted
the
e place
place of of reproduction suggests
suggests an an organic
organic imperfection, aa sort sort ofof infancy
infancy of of
the
:he people
oeople of
of America similar to that of the
of,the individuals
individuals on our continent who
who
have
:ave not not reached
reached the the age ofpuberty.""7 This characterization
age ofpuberqr."ttz characterization of Indians bore
oflndians bore aa
s:ikirg resemblance
striking resemblance to contemporary
contemporary European European commentary
commentary on on Lima's
Lima! cre- cre-
oles
o-es published
pubshed elsewhere.
elsewhere. For example, an an anonymous
anonymous visitor visitor to Lima charac-
terized
:erized creoles
creoles as as "natural
"natura-l cowards and effeminate,
effeminate, and and as as aa consequence
consequence weak weak
and
a,rci incapable ofwithstanding
of withstanding work work withwith constancy."118
constancy."'"
The
The portrayal
portrayal of 9f creoles
creoles as as effete,
effete, weak, and infantile infantile could be traced, traced, in
part,
::1. toto wet
wet nursing l
nursi.ng practices
practices in the colones.
colonies. Many
Many enlightened
enlightened Europeans
Europeans
'erleved
believed the clirhate
cliate of of the
the NewWorld
New World and the milk milk of of Indian nursesnurses trans-
mitted
=ineci racial
racial characteristics. In fact,
fact, the bonds that that colonial
colonial child
child rearing
rearing prac-
tices
:ices created
creatcd were
wee considered
considered to be be asas strong as as those
those of blood.19 Even
ofblood.Ile Even JuanJuan
Pablo
Pabio Viscardn
Vi.scardo argued
argued that wet nursing
nursing created
created aa kind of of colonial consanguin-
i:r when he
ity he wrote that that creoles
creoles hadhad become
become "almost
"almost the the same
same people
people (popolo)"
(popolo)"
as
as Indians because
because theythey were
were "sucided
"suckled by their women." women."120 12 Arguments such such as as
these
ese could
could easily
easily trebe taken to mean mean that thatSpanish
Spanish AmericaAmerica was was incapable
incapable of of
governing itself because its inhabitants, including including creoles,
creoles, were
were likel-ike children,
children,
stiil
siJl unprepared
unprepared for the break break from the Father Father King King thatthat philosophes
philosophes such such as as
Rousseau prescribed.m
Rousseau prescribed. 121
:68 Reform
Refom and Enlightenment
and Enlightenment
a
As aa result, the use use ofnonwhite
of nonwhite rvet wet nurses
nurses atracted
attracted biting
biting satirical
satirical attention
as well as
as well as sober
sober concern
concern in in colonial
colonial Lima.
Lima. Irr In fact,
fact, the elite
elite practice
practice of ofrelying
relying on
nonwhite women to raise raise children
childen became
became aa lightning
Jightning rod rod for
for political
political com-
com-
mentary
roentary about
about colonial
colonial society.
society. TheThe intimacy
intimacy forged
forged be tween colonial
between colonia-l servants
serval!s
and
and espaol
espaol children
children was cast cast asas a
a danger,
danger, aa degenerative
degenerative force, cormptin-e
corrupting and ar:J
stunting
snrnting the the colonies.
colonies. TheThe idea,
idea, inin essence,
essence, was that the the mak
milk passed fic::
passei from
nonwhite subordinates
subordinates to to creole
crcole infants
infb.nts debased the colonists
colonists and maie :le::.
made them,
in effect,
effect, biologically "go native."native."
If Michel
Michel Foucault
Foucault saw the eighteenth century in
eighteenth century in Europe
Europe as an e:. of
ar- era ::
increased
incrcased adultadult scrutiny
scrutiny ofof children's
children's sexuality,
sexualiry An Ann Laura StolerStoler has x:i:-:. :
has expar.ce
the
the observation
observation for nineteenth-century
nineteenth-century colonial settings, asserting
coloniai settings, asserting:i.a: that --::.
ci
monitoring of of children
children had
had everything
eveq'thing to to do
do with
with the
the highly
highly imperial c:::::.'
imperia- concern
ofmiscegenation,
ofmiscegenation, acculturation,
acculturation, and anddegeneration.
degeneration. Colonial
Colonial policymakers
pocvrriers pos- : : .-
sessed
sesscd an "overwhelming
"overwhelming concern concern with the dispositions
dispositions of very small cl.i::,
ven'srnai childrer
and
ad the
the malleabilities
malleabilities of of their
their minds.
minds. A1l All attended
attended to to the importance
importante of oi:re:
breed- j-
ing self-disciplined
self-disciptned children children and and to the dangers
dangers of of servants
servants in the i-lo-'.122
the home." t-- :
Anxiety
Anxiery overover sexual
sexualrelations
relationswas wasone oneofofthethereasons
reasons that
that thethe promitybetween
proximi:r":e:.',':::.
servants
seryants and elite childrenchilden in the colonial
coionii household
household moved moved to:heto the center
ce::er of ::
colonial concerns,
concerns, but it was only aa part of a more generalized preoccupation
of a more generalized preoccup:.:ic:.
with what
whatJohnJohn Locke
Locke hadhad described
described in the late late seventeenth
seventeenth century
centur v- asas domes-
do:::s-
tic "contagion."123
"contagion."rz:
Newspapers in Lima at at the
the end
end ofof the
the century
century provided
provided aa venue for fo examin-
e:<a:::i:-
ing such
such notions
notions aboutabout colonial
colonial servants
servants and their thei young
young charges. En!-:::-
charges. Enlight-
enment thinkers
thinkers in Europe,
Europe, and and even
even monarchs
monarchs such as the king king of of Spam .,
S:a:::,
disparaged
disparaged wet nursing as harmful
as hamfrrl in terms of
of education and
and hygiene,
hvgiene, and
ani self-
sei:-
proclaimed ilustrados and intellectuals in Peru generated their
procb-imed ilustrados thei own artici:-
own articula-
tions of thethe criticism.124
criticism.l2a Ideas aboutabout the the degenerative
degenerative influence
influence of of nursemaids
nursenais
were not, of course,course, completely
completeiy novelnovel at at the end of the eighteenth
eighteenth century.
centrrr.,'. As
..
noted in in Chapter
Chapter a,z,earlyeatTymodern
modernSpanishSpanish writers
writersencouraged
encouraged mothers moers to to
breastfeed
breasdeed their own own children.
chllden. ButBut thetheconcern
concernover overwet
wetnurses
nursesin inlate colorii
latecolonial.
Lima
Lima was more than aa mere mere revival
reviv'1 of these earlier
ealier admonitions. It was \4'as pro-
duced by shifting family models models of political
poJitical legitimacy during the late eigh-
legitimacy during eigh-
teenth
teenth century
ccntury and andaacoalescing
coalescing imageimage of ofcreoles
creoies asasracially
racially degraded
degraded and anci
politically
politicallv stunted.
Within
Within this thiscontext
context Lima's
Lima's creole
ceole readers
readers turned the the pages
pages of the Semanario
Crtico in qy and
irt 1791 and found
found an an lnvective
invective against
against their
their child rearing practices
practices laidlaici
out, quite literally,
litera11y, inin black
black and and white.
white.JuanJuan Antonio
Antonio de de Olavarieta,
Olavarrieta, the the penin-
sular
sular Franciscan who published published the thc paper,
paper, observed
observed how Lima's Limas elite mothers
Reform
Reform and
and Enlightenrnent
Enlightenment r9
169
passed
passed children
children to to wet
wetnurses"foreign
nurses-"foreign mothers," in his words. words' This was was no no
less
less than
than aa "sinful,
"sinf,rl, vile commerce"
commece" in in which
which the wet nurse transmittedtransmifted "seeds
"seeds of of
vile
vile corruption"
cornrption" to children children through
through her mi1k.125 In
her milk.125 Inaddition
additiontotobiological
biological
contamination,
contamination, OlavarrietaOlavarrieta pointed
pointed out out that
that Lima's
Lima s inhabitants
inhabitants had had aa tendency
tendency
to
to leave
leave thethechildren
children in inthe
thecatecaeofoflower-caste
lowe-caste women women as asthey
theygrew
gtewolder,
oider,
exposing
exposing them them to to pernicious
pernicious cultural
cultural influences.
influences. He repeated basic Enlighten-
basic Enlighten-
ment
ment truisms:
truisms: these
these women
women filledfilled children
chlldren with with fears
feas of the boogeyman
ofthe boogeyrn a.(e/ (el coco)
coco)
and
and offairies,
offairies, elves,
elves, devils,
devils, witches, and and spells. Furthermore, the children
spells. Furthermore, children of of the
the
city
city began
began speaking
speaking with with aa"ridiculous"
"ridiculous" language language because
because their
their vocabulary
vocabulary and and
pronunciation
pronunciation were were ruined
ruined by by "the
"the tendency
tendency to to feign
feign and
and diminish
diminish vowels
vowels that
isis the
the philosopher's
philosopher's stone stone of of allwet
allwet nurses."126
nurses."126
Lima's
Lima's ilustrados,
ilustrados, particularly those those associated with the Sociedad Sociedad de Aman-
tes
tes del
del Pas,
Pas, bristled
bfistled at at Olavarrieta's
Olavarrieta's ideas. ideas. ItItwas
was not not that
thatthe
theSSociedadwas
ociedad was filledfilLed
with
with staunch
staunchdefenders
defendersof of black
black and and Indian
Indian wet wetnurses;
nurses; itit was
was that
that its
its members
members
suspected
suspected that that behind
behind the theSpanish
Spanishpriest's priestkinvective
invectivelzy lay aa more
more general,
general, and and
damning,
damning, European
European condemnation
condemnation of American-born Spaniards.
ofAmeican-born SPaniards. Dubbing the e
priest
priest el e/ Frayle
Fraltle de de las
las Antas
Amas de deCriar, or the Wet
Criar, or the Wet Nurses' Nurses' Priest,
Priest, writers
writers atat
Mercurio
Jv{ercurio accused
accused Olavarrieta
Olavarieta of attempting
attempting to tore-ignite
fe-ignitefactionalism
factionalism between
betu'een
creoles
ceoles andand peninsulares.
peninsulares. This animosity, animosity, they they said,
said, had
hadlong
long since
since been
been"ex-"ex-
tinguished,
tinguished, to to the
thepoint
pointthatthatEuropeans
Europeansand andAmericans
Americanssee seeourselves
outselves as assons
sons ofof
the
:he same
same father."
father."
Creole
Ceole elites
elites inin Lima
Lima glorified
glorifred the new new Bourbon paternalism
Paternalism whenwhen itit equal-
equal-
ized
ized their
their position
position with with peninsular
peninsular subjects.
subjects. But But thethe phrasing
pfuasing herehere also
also pre-
pre-
figured Mercurio's commentary
fi.gured Mercurio's commenrary on on the thecreation
crearion of ofthe
theroyal
royal Colegio
Colegio de de Nobles
Nobies
Americanos,
Americanos, and and particularly
particularly its its proclamation
proclamarion that rhat permitting
permitting native
native noble
noble
boys
bo]s to toenroll
enrl] in inthe
theschool
schoolwouldwouldextinguish
extinguishthe the"odious
"odiousrivalry"
riva]ry"between
between
Indians
Indians and andcreoles,
creoies, who who were
were the the "sons"
"sons" of of the
thesame
same Spanish
Spanish Father
Father King.
King'
Extinguishing
Extinguishing dfferencesdifferences amongamong all all of of the
theking's
king's subjects
subjects meant
meant muchmuch moremole
than simply
than simply assrting
assrting creoles'
creoles' equality
equalitywith with peninsulares.
Peninsulares. Creoles
Creoles onlyonly had to
had to
look
look to to their
thei ownown experience
experience with Bourbon policy policy to to undelstand
understand that itit might
might
as
as easily
easily imply a demeaning creole equality
a demeaning equalitywith with the king's
kings nonwhite subjects.
subjects'
The
TheSociedad
Sociedad de deAmantes
Amantesdel delPas Pasclaimed
claimedthat thatOlavarrieta's
Oiavarieta's criticism
criticism of of
the
the practice
practice of of using
using nonwhite
nonwhite amas amas de de leche
leche demonstrated
demonstrated his his ignorance
ignorance of of
local
loca-l customs
customs and of of enlightened
enlightened science science itself.
itself. The priest
priest had
had rnisunderstood
misunderstood
Mercurio's publication of
Mercurio'spublication of Father
Father Pedro
Pedro NolascoNolasco Crespo's
Crespo's observations
observations on on body
body
fluids,
fluids, an an article
arcle that,
that, in inpart,
part,had hadinspired
inspiredOlavarrieta's
Olavarrieta's comments
comments on on thethe
transmission
transmission of of customs
customs through
through the thebreast
breast milk
milk of of wet
wet nurses.
nuses. "Dear priest, itit
"Dear priest,
r7o Reform
Reform and
and Enlightenment
1
would
would have have been betterififyou
been better youhad hadstayed
stayedquiet quietininyour your Monastery
Monastery . . .. than
than
to
to have
have come
come from fom so so far
far away,
away,.andand gotten
gotten yourself
yourself involved
involved in aa critique
critique of of aa
noble
noble andand wisewise Country,
Country beforebefore familiarizing
familiaizing yourselfyourself with with the streets and the
customs."127
customs."127
Olavarrieta
Olavarieta responded
esponded in print, print, admitting
admitting that that Mercurio
Mercurio Peruano
Peruano did, d,'nin fact,
iac:.
inspire
inspire his
his treatise on child rearing. earing. But he he had
had written
wrirten in in reaction
reaction notnot to to Pedro
Ped:o
Nolasco
Nolasco Crespo's
Crespot articles
articles but to two different diffeent letters
lefters to the Mercurio's editor.
the Mercurio's eor-
Olavarrieta
Olavaieta blamed blamed articles
articles authored
authored by by anan individual
individual assuming the pen narre ra::e
"Eustaquio
"Eustaquio Filmates"
Filmates" for for disparaging
disparaging the the "honorable
"honorble houses houses of of the ci.i" r::
thecity."1--
The
Thearticles
articlesto which the
towhich thepriest referred were
priestrefered were satires
satiresof of creole
ceole domestic life -*::.
lije that,
when
when closely
closely analyzed,
analyzed,revealreved thatthat child
child rearing
rearing was was aawell-understood
well-understood allegory aLerc:-.'
for
for broader political
political concerns
conceins aboutabout patriarchal
patriarchal governance
governance and and Spanish
Spanis: rule :;1e in ::-
an
an age
age of Enl-ightenment.
Enlightenment.
Filmates's
Filmates's lettersleltes were based on one of the most critical critical European li:::='-
Eulopean literary
works
worls about Lima published during the period. period. The poem poem Lima por tirx:t: y
por dentro -,
fuera (Lima,
fuera (Lima,insideinside andand out),
out), written
wri.tten by by Spanish
Spanish poet poet Esteban
Esteban Terralla
TraLia yv La Lani:.
nd2,
described
described the the city
city as
as aa nightmare of ofsocial reversals.l2e Lima
social reversals.129 Limawas was in in chao
chaoss on o: the--::e
outside
outside because
because inside its homes
homes the
the colonial
colonial family
familywas was in
n aa state
state oc:i--::-
of critical
gender
gender and and generational
generational disorder.
disode. Women ruled ruled men,men, slaves
slaves ruled their thei; mas-
:ras-
ters,
ters, and
and children
chjldren ruled ruied adults.
adults. Just
Just as as had other
other European
European authorsauthos of the age,
of:he as:.
Terralla y Landa believed
TetaJlayLanda believed American-born boys boys to to be
be effeminate
effeminate and a-nd degraded
degladeJ
byby colonial
colonial child rearing practices. pracces.
City
City inhabitants
inhabitants reactedreacted fiercely
fiercely against
against the the poem
poem and andeven
even publicly
publicly burned
copies
copies ofof itit in
in aa bonfire
bonfue in in1790. 130 But
r79o.130 But the
the idea
idea thatthatcreole
creole households
households were were in i
crisis
crisis did not float away
float away with the smoke. A
smoke. A year year later, the
the Mercurio ran
ran the
the first
frrst
of
of the
the two
two letters
lefters to towhich
whichOlavarrieta
Olavarieta would would later later turn
turn when
when accusing
accusing the e
Sociedad
Sociedad de Amantes del dei Pas
Pas of of "disparaging
"disparaging the the honorable
honorable houseshouses of the the
city."
city." Filmates's "Educacin: Carta
padres,"
padres," which took the
from Teralla. yy Laada's
from Terralla,
the form
fom of
Landa's verse
Carta sobre
sobreel
of aa letter
verse "De
letter to
e1abuso
to the
abuso de
the editor,
"De la mala costumbre
de los
los hijos
editor, directly
hijos que
que tuteen
direcdy borrowed
costumbre que usan los
tuteen aa sus
borowed its
sus
its title
1os hijos
hijos en en
r-=
tutear
tutear aa los padres yy dems
los padres duedos."131Given
dems duedos."'3' Giventhe thescandal
scandalsurrounding
surrounding the the
.-
G-
-
Spaniard's
Spaniard's poem, it is safe to assume
would
would have
have recognized the
Filmates
Filmates not not only
only borrowed
assume that the
the reference.
refeence.
borrowed his his tide
title from
the readership
readership of
from Terralla
TerayLanda;
of Mercurio Peruano
y Landa; he rewrote
Peruano
rewrote the
r-
poet's
poet's dystopic
dystopic vision of elite e[te domestic life, adding local local color and elements of of
irony
irony that
that were
were meant
meant to toentertain
entertainand andprovoke
provoke readers eaders familiar
fama with with thethe city.
city.
Like
Like Terralla
Terralla yy Landa's
Landa's poem,poem, where
whete sassysassy broods
broods rulednrled parents,
parents, wiveswives ruled
ruled -

Refom and Enlightenment 171
rT
9
husbands,
husbands and uppiry
, and uppity siaves
slavesruled
ruledtheir
their masters,
masters, the
the correspon
correspondent similarly
dent similarly
describedhis
described hisown
ownelite
elitehousehol
household asaapiace
d as placewhere
wheresocial
socialorder
orderhad
hadbeen
beenrned
turned
onits
on itshead.
head.
Inthe
In the first
firstlette
letter,Filmates
Filmatespointed
pointedtotothe
thevery
verygramma
grammarhousehol
household depen-
d depen-
dentsused
dents usedinin addressin
addressing their elders
g their elders as
asindicative
indicative ofa
of apolitical
politicalinversion
inversionofpa-
of pa-
triarchalorder,
triarchal ordenThe
Thenarrator
narratorramented
lamentedthatthat his
his daughter
daughter, Clarisa,had
, clarisa, hadadopted
adopted
the "pernicio
the us habit"
"pernicious habit"ofofrefe*ing
referringtotoher
her elders
eldersbybyusing
usingthe familiart.The
thefamiliar t. The
9
originofofthis
origin thisinsubordi
insubordinate behaviorwas
nate behavior washis
hismother-in
mother-in-law, Democracia,
-1aw, Democra who
cia, who
11> had taught
had taught her
her granddau
granddaughter to use
ghter to use the
the linguistic
linguistic form
form "common
"common among
among all
all
19 classesofofcitizens."
classes citizens."upon
Uponhearing
hearinghis
hisyoung
youngdaughter
daughterfreely
freelydemandin
demanding adults
g adults
to "give
to "giveme
me cand
candy,give
giveme
metlris,
ttils,gimmel (dme caranelos
gimme!(dtme caramelos, dmeesto,
, drne esto,dme),,,
dme),"
Filmates
Fi-lmate finallychastised
s 6na11y chastisedthe
thelittre
little girr.
girl. Democra
Democracia intervened,
cia intervene charging,
d, charging,
"YourlVfercy
"Your Mercydoes
doesnot
notlove
loveyour
yourchildren;
children;you
youare
aremore
moretrrant
tyranttotothem
themthan
than
ier."
father."she
Shewent
wenton,
on, "Your
"YourMercywh
Mercy who wantstototeach
o wats teach others
others buena
buena crianza,
crianza,
shouldknorv
shouli know6rst
firstthat
thatitit isisaudacious
audacioustotowant
wanttotocorrect
correctgeneral
generalsu56m.,,1
custom."132
32
d::ough
Although Filmates
Filmates based based his
hislette
letter onon Terra-l1a
TerrallayyLanda,s
Landa'spoem,
poem,hehedid didnot
not
merely parrot
..erel','o rot European
Europeancharacter characterizations
izations ofofLima. Lima.Instead,
Instead,he hesuggested
suggestedthat that
::iti'as
wasaeu'
newEnlighten
Enlightenment philosophies
ment philosoph ies of ofchildhoo
childhood d andandeighteen
eighteenth-century
th-century
::-s:brm ations in
transformations in poJitical
politicalideologie
ideologies that had
s that had created
created aa patriarch
patriarchal crisis for
al cisis for
the :i,'s
--::e city's creoleel-ite.
creole elite. Inthe
In theFilmates
Filmates clan,clan, children,
children, slaves,
slaves,andandwomen_
womenoral1or all
membersofpoLitic
::::n5e:s of political societyhad
al society-h beguntotothink
ad begun thinkofthemse
ofthemselveslves asas equals
equalsofofthethe
father.Tle
=-.er. The origin
origin of of disoder
disorder was
was the.moth
the .mother-in-law, Democracia,
er-in-1aw, Democra cia, whowhoac_ ac-
cused'.l:e
:::s:d therather
father (king)
(king) ofoftyranny
tyrannysimply
simplyfor fortrying
tryingtotoestablish
establishorder.
order.
l:e
The ..a-'res
names chosen
chosen for for the family members are revealing
revealing:: Filmate
Filmates s isis aa
family members
-:::-e ia:
that translates
translates ito iito "chi1d
"child killer";
killer";Democra
Democracia cia isisan
anobvious
obviouschoice
choiceforforthe
the
::'.:-eci. morher-in -1aw;
.;~ed mother-in-law; and Teopiste, the
and Teopiste, the mother, personifie
personifiesreligion.
s religion.ButButititisis
--::: :':::ie
nameclaisa
Clarisathat thathad hadthethemost
mostillustrious
illustriousEnlighten
Enlightenment pedigree.ItIt was
ment pedigree. was
_sl:gnedtotothe
:.-'s:red theheoine
heroineininthe the widely
widelyreadreadnovel
novelbybyEngJishm
Englishman SamuelRrch-
an sauel Rich-
son, Clarissi
:-:json. Clarissae: oror thethe Historyofofaayoung
History YoungLady Lady (r7al)-in
(r748)inwhich whichthetheyoung
young
110 T..eroineis isdel-ivered
-::oine deliveredfrom fromdependen
dependencece on onher
herpatriarcha
patriarchal familyas
l family_r well,,asi.l
, *"11 in a
Frenchwoman's
f:erirvom an's ry671767hteratyliteraryresponse
responsetotothe thenovel,
novel,Jeanne_M
Jeanne-Marie arie Leprince
Leprince de
de
Beaumont's
3ea'r:ron t's LaLa nouaelle
nouvelle Clarise, histoire aritable
crarise, histoire .r:: 1r.
vritable.133 The first
first of Filmates's
Filmates,s
ietters,rhen,
-e::ers, wasin
then, was in direct
direct dialogue
dialoguewith withaabroader
broaderEnlighten
Enlightenment literatura
ment literatue
that cused
-at focusedon onthe
the replacem
replacement of patriarchal
ent ofpatria-r monarchies
chal monachi with societies
es with societies offree
of free
and equal
aro equalindividua
individuals. ls.
Butin
But in Lima,
Lima, las las luces
luceswere
were always
alwaysrefracted
refractedthrough
through aa distinctly
distinctly colonial
colonial
prismofofracial
:rism racialdimensio
dimensions. ns. InInhis
hissecond
secondlette!
letter,Filmates
Filmatesturned turnedtotoanother,
another,
:articula rly colonial
particularly colonialdanger dangerlurking
lurkingininLimat
Lima'shousehor
households. Titlingthis
ds. Titling this epistle
epistie
Reformand
Reform andEnlighten
Enlightenment
ment
I
1
"Amas
"Amas de leche," leche," Filmates described described how, how, upon returning home from fro= a
twenfy-two-month junket to Cuzco,
twenty-two-month Cuzco, he he discovered
discovered that Mara, the the once-
occe-
humble
humble slave wet nurse he had purchased to care
slave wet cae for Clarisa,
Clarisa, had been trans-
formed
formed into into the
the dedefacto
Fcto head
head of of the
thehousehold
household during during his hisabsence.
absence. In ln fact,
iac:.
Clarisa
Clarisa had had become
become so intimate with Mara Mara that thatsheshe slept,
slept, ate,
ate, andand played
plaved withu'i::
the
the slave
slave and and even
even called
cal.led herher"my "rny mama,"
mama," displacing
displacing the the affection
affection due due herLe:
mother,
mother, Teopiste.
Teopiste. The The correspondent
correspondent appreciated
appreciatedthe the"services
"services of of aa negra
negra who 'xio
raises
raises children
chi-ldren with care cae and tenderness."
tenderness." But he he decried
decried how how the the "openness
"openr:ess
and
and familiarity"
tamiliarity" between
between creolecreole families
fami-lies and nonwhite wet nurses nurses permitted
permittec
the
the slaves
slaves to feel feel as though they they could
could "lord"1ord overover (seorear)
(senorear) everyone
everyone in the ti.e
family,"
family," and he classifieddassified wet wet nurses' rearingrearing as "always detriment to the
"a1wa1s aa detriment e
buena
buena crianza
crianza of innocent little [tt1e children."
chi-ldren."
Perhaps
Perhaps these these articles
articles were aa doubledouble satire,
sztire, and and Mercurio
Mercurio cleverly
cleverlv presented
presente
the
the dethroned
dethroned creole creole paterfamilias
paterfamilias to its its readers
readers to to satirize
satirize not notonly
oc.ivLima's
Li:::a',.
domestic
domestic disorder
disorder but but also
alsoelite
el-itefears
fearsof ofracial
racialdisorder.
disorde. Yet Yet while
wh.i-leequalizing
equz,ng
Enlightenment
Enlightenment pedagogies pedagogies could could threaten
threaten traditional
traditional patriarchal
patriarchal households
househoiis
everywhere,
everywhere, they would have have particularly dramatic dramatic consequences
consequences in aa society socie'
where
where generational
generational proximity
proximity betweenbetween races races engendered
engenderedcolonial colonial hierarchies.
hierachies.
There
There isis aaniggling
niggling sense
sense of of sincerity
sincerity in in Filmates's
Filmates's attempt aftempt to identi! social
toidentify social
problems
problems and and to to offer
offer enlightened
enlightenedsolutions,solutions, and andititisisininChis
this sincerity
sincerity that the
creole
creole family predicament becomes most obvious.
family predicament obvious.
Mercurio editor editor Jos
Jos Rossi
Rossi y Rubi added aa comment
comment to to Filmates's
Filmates's second seconci
letter,
lener, published
published on 21 er January
January 1791,
r79r, praising
praising the
the educative
educative value of the
ofthe articles
and
and wondering,
wondering, ifif this this was
was the
the condition
condition f of Filmates's
Filmates's familyfarnily after
after his
his absence,
absence.
"what disorders
"what disorders there
there might
might be bein in those
thosefamilies
families where
where the the father
father hardly
hardly payspays aa
bit
bit ofof attention,
attention, and and the
the mother
mother cares cares not
not at atall.
all. ..... .We
We do do notnot speak
speak only
only of of
Lima:
Lima: all a-11 of Peru and and allali of
of America
America are ae included
included in in the
the declamations
declamations of of our
our
correspondent
correspondent and and ourourcomments."134
comments."134 What What isismore, more, the thestory
storythe theauthor
author
recounted
recounted may may not have have been completely fictional. Jean-Pierre
completely fictional. Jean-Pierre Ciment Clment iden-
tifies
ti-es Filmates
Filmates as DemetrioDemetrio Guasque,Guasque, an anarchivist
achivist of of the
theviceregal
viceregal Cmara
Cmara
who,
who, likelike the
the fictional
fictional Filmates, had been absent absent from Lima for for twenty-two
twenty-tlvo
months
months beforebefoe returning
retuning inin1790.135
r79o.135
As
As Julle
Julie Greer Johnson
Johnson has pointed out out in in her
her study
study of of Spanish
Spanish American
American
satire,
satire, the
the literary
)iterary device
device i.sis meant
meant not to to bebe didactic
didactic as as much
much as as to inspire
inspire the
reader
reader to think ctitically
critic';lly about the "interpretative distance" distance" between the hyper- hlper-
bolic
bolic image it presents and reality.'36 reality.136 PutPut another
anotherway, way,satire
satire sis only
only effective
effective if it it
contains
contains an an element
element of of recognized
recognized truth. truth.Filmates's
Filmates's lettersletters may may havehave been
been
fiction,
fiction, but
but they
they offered
offered aa social critique
critique thatthat could
could be achieved only by poray-
be achieved portray-
Reform and Enlightenment 173
q3
N
ingaccep
ing accepted realities
ted realitie aboutthe
s about thecoloni
colonial orderwrit
al ordcr writlarge.
large.other
O therardcle
articles
s ononchild
child
rearingininLima
rearin g Limaindica
indicatedthat
ted thatthe
theidea
ideaofcolo
of colonialdegen
nial degenerationand
eratio n anddisord
disorder
er
wasnot
was notmerel
merely
y a ausefu
useful pretext
l pretex forccole
t for creolerumin
ruminations
ations ononpatria
patriarchy andnew
rchy and new
political
politic philosophies.
al philos ophies. ItItwas
wasa aproble
problem
m totobebesolved
solved.
.
er
InInNoveNovembermber 1791 tTgt MercuMercurio published
rio publis hed a astingi
stingingng satire , aa.,Lert
satire, "Letter about
about
queers(maric
queers ones)," which
(maricones)," whichtreate
treated perhaps
d perha ps the themost
mostinflam inflammatory
matory Europ European
ean
criticism
critici sm ofofthe theAmer
American-born
ican-born inhab inhabitants
itants ofofthe theNeww
New World:orrd: the thecharge
chargethat that
creole men were effeminate.137 The letter stirred a response from
fiom friar
fiar Toms
e ceole men were effemi
dedeMnd
Mndez ez yyLachic
Lachica.
nate.1
Writing
a. Writin
37 The letter stirred a respon
undere
g under thepen
penname
name "Teagnes,"he
se
,,Teagnes,,,
heexpres
Tom
expresseda a
sed
s
fearthat
fea thatthe thesardo
sardonic articlewould
nic article wouldnot notbe be effectiveinineradic eradicating
ating the the,,vice,,
"vice"ofof
"ffe.tiv.
sodomy
sodom among
y amon g thethe"lowe
"lowestst class,
class,ag4ins
against whomthe
t whom thesatire,
satire,with-a
withlJ.allofofitsitsacri-
acri-
mony,has
:non haslesslessforce
forcethay than thecautio cautious
us carecareofofjudge
judges employed
s emplo yed ininrootinrootingg itit
out."The Thepriest
priestregard
regarded
fe issue of gender
theissue "degeneration"
neration,, as asaascient
scientific fact
out'" ed the ofgender "dege ific fact
andset
aid setoutouttotodeterm
determineinc whethwhether er thethefemin izatiJ, ofof*..,
feminization menand andthe themasc
masculini-
ulini-
9
1
zationofwom
za-':on ofwomen en in in Peru
Peruwas wasan an"aom
"anomalyary ofofnature
nature," ," aa"defec
"defectt ofofthethecrimat
climate,"
e.,,
ora a"rice
u: "viceengenengendered
dered throu through
gh educaeducation."
ti.on.,,
Mndez
-\{nd ez y yLachiLachica decided
ca decide d thatthatthetheculpri
culpa wasnurnrr
t was nurture rather
e rathe thannature
r than nature, ,
::ci
andhe heconce
concentrated
ntrated his hisdiscus
discussion
sion on onthe
thefemin ization ofofperut
feminization Peru'sma_re malech,- chil-
'isn
dren.us138
The"defec
The "defect," according
t," accor ding totoMMndez y Lachica,
nd.ezyLac htca, occur occurred
red becaubecausese peru-
Peru-
vian
"-:ar
boys
bo1's were
r'r'ere "abandoned
"aban doned ininthe the hands
hands of ofa a
wetwet nurse."139
nurse. ',13e Echoing
Echo ing Locke,
Locke , thethe
11) priestunote
wrotethat that"exces
"excessivemater
sive maternal
nal rove"love"during
duringcarry earlyeduca
education..rsu
tion ensuredthat
.d that
-::iest
thechild
:-:e child"has "hasno nootherr
otheresson
lessons s thanthanthe. n-ni, ofofthe
the manners the[femi
[feminine]
nine] sex; sex;and and
sinceininher
si:ce herhe he encou
encountersnters all all of
of the
the flatte
fiatteries
i.s of of miru .rd.*a"i'r"love,
misunderstood r", i.the
reciprocal
:ecip:o tenderness
ca-l tender ness brings bringstotohishistende
tender soulcustom
r sour customs whichdodonot
s which notconfo
conformrm
to biscondi
:o.hrs condition."
tion." IndpirInpired
ed by byaarepute
reputed Indonesian
d Indon esia practipractice recorded
ce record cd ininRay_Ray-
nal'sHisto
nal's Histoire, ndezyLach
ire,rvrMndez ica recom
y Lachica recommended
mended that thatpenrv ian boys
Peruvian boysb"be,.*orremoved .d
i:o:
fromw-ome women'scarc
n's careuntil
untilthe theageageofofsixsixororsevcn
sevensosothat thatma-le
malecoion
colonial subjects
ial subjec ts
e wouldnonolonge
*'cuid longq r,bebe"weak
"weak," ,,, .,corru
ptcd,,,
"corrupted," and.,effem
and
inate.,,ra0
"effeminate."14
e At Atthetheheart
heariofofthe thenewpnew politics
olitics ofofthe thechiJd,
child,then,then,was wasananEnligh tenment
Enlightenment
e quandary
c':anc iary for forlocal
localelites
citesininLirna.
Lima.To Toprovc
provethems
themselves
elves cnrigh enlightened,
tened, ey theyhadhadtoto
concede
conce de thatthatthei
theirchildchildrearin
rearing practices
g practi ces led ledtoto creore
creoles' t,ization and
infantilization
s' infan and
e racialdegra
:acial degradation.
d4tion. Teagn Teagnes's lettersrevea-
est lefters revealed
red his hisconc
conviction thatcrcore
tion t-hat creoles, these
s, these
e nativesons
rative sonsofofPeruPeruvian soil,had.
an soi1, hadininfact factbecom
become degenerate,
e degcn effeminate,
erate, cfii:m inate, and and
perpetual
perpe children
tual childr en ofofthe theFathe
Father King.He
r King. Healso
alsosough
sought solutions
t solutio ns ininthe thewritin
writings
gs
ofofthe
thesamesameEurop European
ean EnlighEnlightened
tened philo roph.., tiat
philosophers thathrd hadcast
castthetheprobl .m Las
problem
degeneration
degen eration ininthe thefustfirstplace.
place.
o I[If,ininthethe midst
midst of of this
this Enlig htenment crisis
Enlightenment crisis,, ceo]e
creoleintelle
intellectuals
ctuals ininLima Lima
continually
contin reinscribed
ually reinsc ribed the therelatio
relationship
nship betwebetweenen peru Peruand andspain
Spainasaspatern al, itit
paternal,
Reformand
174 Reform andEnJ.ig
Enlightenment
htenment
0
'l
wasbecause
was becausethey
theyhad
hadreason
reasontotofear
fearthat
thatthe
the altcnative
alternative to
to accepting
acceptingtheir
their role
role
aschildren
as children of
of the
the king
king was
was to
to be
be wrinen
written out of the Spanish
spanish American, family
American family
romance altogethcr.
romance altogether.AAlate
late colonial
colonialpainting
painting from
from Lima
Lima depicts
depicts America
America as
as aa
woman suckling
woman suckling parasic
parasitic spanish
Spanish noble
noble boys
boyswhile
whiletwo
twonoble
nobleAndean
Andean couples
couples
sit below.At
sit beiow. Attheir
their feet,
feet, America's
America'sIndian
Indian sons
sonslie groaninginin hunger
liegroaning hunger despite
despite
the paradiseof
the paradise of o1d
Old and New New wodd
World bounty
bounty thar
that surrounds them.141 The
surrounds them.1a1 The
captionatatthe
caption thebottom
bottom reads,
reads, "where
"Where in the world has itit been
world has been seen
seen what
what wcwe ae
are
looking here.. -. . // Her
lookingatathere }{erown
ownsons
sonsgroaning
groaning and
and the
theStrangers
strangers suckling"
suckiing"
(Donde
(Donde se seha
havisto
vistoenenc1elMundo
Mundo 1o lo que
que aqu
aquesramos mirando. .. .. .// Los
estamosmiando Los hijos
hijos
propiosgimicndo
propios gimiendoyylos losEstaos
Escaosmamando).
mamando).
The paintings
Thc painting's anonymous
anonymous artistartist prescnted
presented spanish
Spanish colonialism
colonialismnot notas
asthe
the
corruption ofEuropean
corruption of Europeans at the
s at the breast
breast ofa
of awet
wetnurse
nursebut,
but,instead,
instead,asasthe
theAndean
Andean
motherland's
mothcrland abandonment
's abandonme nt ofof the
the coionial
colonial subject,
subject,who
whoisisrepresented
representedby byIn-
In-
dianchildren.
dian children.This
Thiswas
wasaasharp
sharpdeparturc
departurefrom
fromartistic
artistictradition.
tradition.AtAtthe timeof
thetime of
contact,the
contact, the New
New wold
World was
was frequently
frequentlyrepresented
representedininartart and
and li.terarure
literature as
as aa
virginwoman
virgin womantotobe bepenetrated
penetrated and
and possessed
possessedbyvirile
by virileEuropean
Europeanconquerors.
conquerors. 142
la2
After the
Afte the establishme
establishment of colonial
nt of colonial rule in pcru,
rule in Peru, quite predictably,
predictably i.tit became
became
conventional
convention al to
to portray
portray Indians
Indias as
as children
children and Spaniards
and Spaniards as
as adults.1
adults.1a3 yet in
43yet in
the above
the aboyepainting,
painting,therc
therewere
werenono adult
adult spaniards,
Spaniards, and
and America
America had
had become
become aa
mother ather
mother rather than
than a virgin. Thc Spanish
virgin. The spanish Father
Fatler King
King was
wasconspicuously
conspicuously
missingfrom
missing from this
this artistic
artistic portrayal
portrayal of
of colonialism
colonialism,, and
and nowhcre
nowhere wee
were creoles
creoles
explicitlytotobe
explicidy found.IfIf the
befound. the tnre
trae political children pcru's family
children, in Peru's family romance
romance
wcre Indians, and i{
were Indians, if, ultimately,
ultimatel their political maturiqy
maturity would erase creoles
crcoles
from the
from the picture
picture completely,
completely, this
this was
was enough
enough to lceep many of
keep many of Lima's
Lima's local
local
elites loyal to the paternal political model of monarc.hywell
elites loyal to the paternal politica-l model of monarchyw ell into
into the
the nineteenth
ninetecnth
century.
ccntury.
CONCLUS ION
CONCLUSION
ItIt may
maybe
betempting
tempting to
to view
view the
the new
new politics
politics of
of the
the child
child as
as aasimple
simple
matter of
matter ofenlightcned
enlightenedrcform
reform and
and reaction,
reaction, ininwhich
which the
the state
state actcd
acted according
according
to
to aa ncw
new ideology
ideology andand the
the colonia.l
colonial elite reacted."4 It is trae
elitereacted,r* true that
that broader
broade
European absolutist
Europcan absolutisttrends
trends and
and Enlightcnm
Enlightenment philosophies
ent philosophie of child
s of child rearing
rearing
inspiredmany
inspired manyBourbon
Bourbonsocialsocialpolicies,
policies,and
andthat
that the
the king
king frequently
frequently pushed
pushed
socialeforms
social reformstoo fazfor
too far for colonial elitesin
colonial elitcs in spanish
Spanish America.
America. However,
However, toto
recognizethat
recog'nize thatboth
both the
the king'and
king and local
local el-ites
elites formulated
formulated thei
their own versionsof
own versions of
newphilosophie
new philosophies andpolicics
s and policiesofof childhood -that the
childhoodthat the interaction
interactionwaswas com-
com-
prisednot
prised not ofa
of aunilateral
unilateralimposition
imposition ofEuropea
of European ideas on
n ideas on the
the city
city but
but ofa
of anew
new
Reformand
Rcform andEnlightcnm
Enlightenment
ent r75
175
::
l
politics of
pol-itics of ideas
ideas on
on childhood-mean
childhoodmeans that wc
s that we must
must efrain
refrain &om
from reducir:;
reducing :::
the
period to
period to aa simple
simple thesis-antithesis
thesis-antithesis dynamic,
dynamic, and &om
from portraying
portraying the king :-s :a
i<irg as
liberalizing reformer
liberalizing reformer and colonial elites as conservative
elites as conservative reactionaries.
reactionaries.
The Spanish
Spanish Bourbons
Bourbons expressed
expressed an enthusiasm to
an enrhusiasm to engage, though :.::
engage, thougi: not
alwaysadopt
aiways adopt without
without alteration,
alteration, emergent
emergent philosophies
philosophies based
based on reason ::-j
on eason and
equality over
equality overideologies
ideologiesfounded
foundedon ontradition
tradition and
and caste distinctions. Ce-.,:.
caste distinctions. Certain
tenets
tenets of
of these
these philosophies
philosophies were evident in
were evident in thethe creation
creation of the
of the Colegio
Coleg:o ie
de
Nobles Americanos
Nobles Americanosand and the
the reforms instituted in the Colegio
reforms instiruted Colegio del
de1 Prncipe,
Pnnci:e_
where erudition,
where erudition, rather
rather than cultural
cultural mimesis, became the goal for young
became the yo,r;:g
Indian nobles.
Indian nobles. AA heightened
heightened sense
sense of vulnerability and
of the vulnerability and impressionab;
impressionability c: of
children became
children became evident in m any otler
many other schools
schools as
as well
well and
and was
was even
evenarticulatec
articulated
by students
by students themselves
themselveswhen
when they
they wished
wished to
to improve
improvetheir
their treatment
treatment by
by aduit
adult
superiors. New pedagogical
superiors. pedagogical ideas were pervasive, extending beyond formal
pervasive, o<tending formal
schooling and
schooling and reaching
reaching the domestic
domestic sphere
sphere via
via the
the newspapers
newspapers that
that demon-
demon-
strated a marked interesr
strated interest in enlightening
enlightening Lima's mothers about new
mothers about nerv child
chiiC
rearing practices.
rearing practices.
At the same
same time, the correspondence between what
correspondence betwecn what histoians
historians term
term "the
"the
Enlightenment" and
EnJightenment" and the
the Bourbon
Bourbon Reforms
Reforms waswas not
not perfect.
perfect. Various aspects of
Vaious aspects of
the Bourbon social
the reforms grew
social reforms grew rectly
directly from
from enlightcned
enlightened absolutism;
absolutism; others
others -
were new
were new growth
growth blossoming
blossomingfom from the
the long-dormant
long-dormant branches
branches ofof Hapsburg
Hapsburg
philosophies of
phlosophies ofsocial
socialorganization
organizationandandrule.
role.The
TheSpanish
SpanishEnlightenment
Enlightenment itself
was the
was the product
product ofof alchemy
alchemy between
between taditional
tradicional Catholic
Catholic humanistic
humanistic theologi..
theology
;:
and new,
and new, rational,
racional,scientific
political problems.las
political
royal
scientificmodels,
problems.145 In
royal paternalism
paternalismwere
werenot
models,aamixture
not radical
mixturethen
In their broadest sense,
then applied
sense, Bourbon
radicalororintended
intended to
applied to
Bourbon pol_icies
to upset
upset the
to economic
economic and
policies rhat
and
that intensified
intensified
the caste-based hier-
caste-based hier-
E
--
: =
archies inin the
achies the colonial
colonialregions
regionsofthe
of the Spanish
Spanishempire.
empire. But
But the
the innovations
innovations these
these
:
policiesdid
policies
utility,
didcontain*the
utility, and
containtheemphasis
andeven
eventhe
emphasison
theimportance
oneducation,
education,the
thedominance
dominante of
importante of childhood itselftransformed
thought about child reuing
thought rearing and
and royal
royal authority.
authority.
notions of
of notions of
how limeos
itself-transformed how limeos E=
In
In late colonial
colonial Lima, state
state officials
oficials mediated generational disputes over
marriage choice
marriage choice while
while local
local elites
elitesscoured
scouredthe
the streets
streetsfor
forpoorwomen,
poor women, children,
children, -_=
and youths
and youths and
and carted
carted them off to work in buildings
offto where priests
buildings where priests had
had once
once
educated lndian
educated Indian nobie
noble boys.
boys. Notices
Notices announcing
announcing that
that itit was
wasillegal
ilegal to
to purchase
purchase -
black foundlings
black foundlings as slaveswere
as slaves were affxed
affixedon
onthe
theouter
outer wa11s
wallsofofbuildings
buildings lining
lining citT
city
streets, in
in plain
plain sight
sight of
of the
the poor
poor widows
widows who
who marched
marched to
to the doors of schools
schools
e-
streets,
to clamor
to clamor for
for thei
their children's
children's education.
education. The
The Spanish king
king never before
before must
must -
have seemed
have seemed more
morepowerr1r
powerful,prsnt,
present, and
and paternal
paternal to
to the
the city's
city's young
young inhabi-
inhabi-
-T:
tants and
tants and the
the adults
adults who
who reared
reared them.
them.
a:
-
Reformand
Refom andEnlightenment
Enlightenment rn
177
a:
a-
-
InInrurn,
turn, Lima's
Lima'selites
elitesand
andofficials
officialsdid
didnot
notsimpry
simplyawait
awaitananimplera
implemented state
ented state
reformbefore
reform beforeformin
formingg aarespons
responsee to
to emergi
emerging ideasabout
ng ideas about childho
childhood and
od and
paternalism.
paterna Theydemons
lism. They demonstrated an acute
trated an acute awarene
awareness ofnew
ss of newphiloso
philosophies about
phies about
charity,child
chariry childrearing
rearing,and
andeducati
education and,ininmanyin
on and, many instantes, had already con-
stancer, hrd
^lr."dy.o.,_
sideredand
sidered and experimented with
experimented with sociar
socialpolicic
policies aimedatat youths
s aimed youths years
years beforc
before
officialroyal
oficial royaledicts
edictswere
werewrirten
written. Suchwas
. such wasthc
thecase
casewith
withplans
planstotocreate
createuscfirl
useful
youthsbybycreating
youths creatingaapoorhou
poorhouse, andititwas
se, and wastru.e,
true,too,
too,ofnew
of newpolicies
policiesconcern
concerning
ing
raceand
race andfoundli
foundlings.
ngs.
Therewere,
There were,howeve
however, distinctdifferen
r, distinct differences
ces ininthe
theway
waythe
theEnlight
Enlightenment was
enment was
experienced
experie nced ininMadrid
Madridand
andLima.
Lima.In
In spain,
Spain,pracdc
practicing the ncw
ing the newpolitics
politicsofofthc
the
childmeant
child meantthat
that the
the king
king and
and his
hs advisers
advisersincorpo
incorporated someofofthe
rated some ideasofof
theideas
philosophes
philoso andphysioc
phes and physiocrats intosocia-l
rats into socialporicie
policies andrejectc
s and rejected others.But
d others. Butinin
Lima,creole
Lima, creoleelites
cites accepte
accepted andrejected
d and rejectednot
notonly
onlynew
newEurope
European philosophies
an phioso phies
butalso
but alsospanish
Spanishreform
reformmeasur
measures, ever watchful
es, everwa of howtheymi
tchfi:r ofhow they might undermine
ght urrd"r'm i.,c
thecolonia
the colonial order.InInthe
-l order. the end,
end, many
many ofof the most
most innovative social reforms
innovative sociar reforms
instituted
institut duringthc
ed during theyears
yearsr77o-9o
izo-90 yvould be reverse
rvourd bc reversed inthe
d in the face
faceof
of their
their
resistance."6
resistan Inthe
ce.la In the years
yearsfollowin
following rebellion
g rebelio n ininspanish
SpanishAmeric
America andrevolu-
a and revolu-
tionsininFrance,
tions France,North
NorthAmeric
America, andHaiti
a, and Haiti and,
and, most
most importa
importantly, becauseofof
ntl1,, because
reactions
reaction s ininthe
thecolonie
colonies, thecmara
s, the Cmaraand
andCounci
Council ofthe
l of theIndies
Indies recoiled
recoiledfiom
from
someofofthe
some thekingt
king'smore
morepathbre
pathbreaking, and potenti
aking, and potentially disruptive,
ally disrupt socialpoli_
ive, social poli-
ciesononchildre
cies children.
n.
InInlate
latecoloni
coloniall Lima,
Lima,elites
elitescontend
contended withthe
ed with the hegemo
hegemony ofmonarc
ny of monarchical
hical
measures
measur thatdeprive
es that deprived nativesons
d native sonsofofporitica
political and econom
r and economic controlwhilc
ic control while
seizingon
seizing onthose
thosepolicies
policiesthat
thatgranted
grantedgreatcr
greaterauthor
authority to erites
ity to elites and
and eldcrs.
eldcrs.
Theyrumina
They ruminated over thepotenti
ted over-the potentially empowering
ally empow andintrinsi
ering and intrinsically antimonar-
cary antimo nar-
chicalethos
chical ethosofofnew
newpolitica
political philosophies
l philoso phies asasthey
theyeducate
educated theirchildre
d their children
n asas
rational
rationa- beings.And
l beings' Andthey
they intellec
intellectually restrcd ininprint,
tuallywwrestled print,ininsalons,
salons,and
andinincafes
cafs
withthe
with theimplica
implications ofEuropc
tions of European strainsofofrationa
an strains rational, scientific
l, scientifi thought,
c though some
t, some
ofwhich
of -like l"as
whichlike Ideasaboutw
about wet nursingwere
et nursing essentially
-wcrc essenri anyhoshostile
tire totothe
theNewNew
World.The
worid. The rise
rise of
of the new politics
poritics of thethe child
child was
rvas neither
neither philosophir211y
philoso phically
norcausally
nor causallystraigh tforward' Instead
straightforward. Instead,
, itit was
was an
an uneven
uneven,, compric
complicated process
ated pro..r,
throughwhich
through which social
socialreprodu
reproduction wasvestcd
ction was vestedwith
withdeep
deeppotica1
political-.u.,irrg
meaning. . A,
As
wewill
willsee
seeininthe
thefinal
finaltwo
twochapter
chapters, thefresh
s, the freshpolitica
political child,"Lng
valenceofofchild
l valcnce rearing
've
wasnot
rvas notlost
loston
onthe
theordinar
ordinary inhabitants
y inhabit of theciry.
ants ofthc city.
r7S
ITS Reformand
Enlightenment

While: Civil But Ruling

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While: Civil But Ruling

Încărcat de

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Lima's civil

Reform and Enlightenment

Inverting the the conventional

marked shift in the official

taken place Lnie:

detrimental to the the economic

Reform and Enlightenment

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