Marketing Management
Creating Brand Identity in Art Museums:
A Case Study
Introduction
T
he combination of marketing and art has
been considered ill matched, almost
unthinkable. This position is based partly
on the assumption that marketing will automatic-
ally degrade the inner value and distinctiveness
of art and favour only the most popular and
superficial. Traditional cultural curators tend to
believe that a reverse association holds true
between the popularity and quality of art.
However, as shown by several studies and
books on arts organizations (e.g., Scheff Bern-
stein, 2007), skilful marketing can contribute
to cultural education and attract the interest of
new audiences in other words, upgrade the
audiences competence instead of downgrading
art. People are increasingly seeking not only
effortless and less committed forms of leisure
but also activities that require commitment and
learning (Uusitalo and Ahola, 2008; Uusitalo,
2008b). Thus consumers are interested in
learning about art but have difficulty evaluat-
ing the quality of museums and exhibitions.
Contemporary art in particular is sometimes
considered hard to understand. Therefore,
people prefer museums with a known brand.
In the current non-elitist culture, a renowned
museum brand is becoming a sign of quality.
A further challenge to art museums comes
from governments and sponsors as the com-
petition for financing intensifies. This has
resulted in marketing becoming necessary for
public museums and other non-profit organiz-
18
Sofia Pusa, Liisa Uusitalo
ations. Consequently, in order to differentiate
themselves from the competition and to attract
non-expert audiences, art museums have to
pay more attention to creating a strong brand.
Marketing and branding have become neces-
sary if art museums are to maintain their pos-
ition among other valued cultural institutions
in society.
Goals of the Study
O ur main purpose in this study was to con-
tribute to the discussion on branding by
applying the concept of brand identity in the art
museum context and analyzing how brand iden-
tity as a strategic tool can be furthered in art
museums through particular management and
marketing practices. Sofia Pusa is a doctoral
student in the School of Arts,
We will first discuss the construct of an art Design and Architecture,
museums brand identity and its dimensions. Aalto University. Previously
Brand identity also constituted the framework she worked at the art gallery
for the empirical part of the study, in which Kunsthalle Helsinki.
the directors of three modern art museums in
Liisa Uusitalo is professor
the Helsinki region were interviewed in order emerita and research project
to address three questions: How important or leader in the School of
controversial do museums view branding as a Business, Aalto University.
strategic tool? What dimensions and aspects of Her main research interests
brand identity are museums exploiting? What are social and environmental
marketing practices are being used to communi- aspects of consumer behav-
cate brand identity? iour and cultural consumption.
Her latest research project
addresses consumer behaviour
in the information society.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
Theoretical Background The Concept of Brand Identity

Earlier Studies In the marketing literature, brand identity usu-

The branding literature in the field of market-
ing has proposed many useful concepts, such as
brand equity, brand association, brand position-
ing and organizational branding (e.g., Aaker,
1996; Keller, 1993; Knox, 2004; McEnally and
de Chernatony, 1999; Wood, 2000; Karlsson,
Salehi-Sangari and Wahlstrm, 2008). How-
ever, very little research has been carried out
on brand management in the arts and more
specifically in art museums, although arts mar-
keting issues in general have received consider-
able attention (e.g., Kotler and Scheff, 1996;
McLean, 1996; Butler, 2000; Botti, 2000;
Colbert, 2003, 2009; Fillis, 2002, 2003, 2006;
Uusitalo, 2008a).
Among those few who have addressed brand-
ing in the arts are Scheff Bernstein (2007) and
Colbert, dAstous and Fournier (2007). The
former discusses branding and brand identity
of arts organizations using opera and theatre
companies as examples, while the latter dis-
cuss co-branding and brand extension in the
arts. The majority of empirical studies on art
museum branding have dealt foremost with
brand associations in other words, the kind
of values and images that consumers associate
with art museums (Caldwell, 2000; Caldwell
and Coshall, 2002; Scott, 2000, 2008;
Ahola, 2008) or have analyzed the brand-
ing orientation of management more generally
(Baumgarth, 2009). The concept and content
of a museums brand have not been addressed
systematically. Consequently, museum man-
agers have little awareness of the various means
available to create brand identity, although
they recognize the importance of branding in
general terms. This article examines how brand
identity can be interpreted and applied in a
museum context.
ally encompasses a core identity and an extended
identity. The former refers to the timeless essence
of the brand, whereas the latter includes char-
acteristics and associations that complete the
brand (Karlsson, Salehi-Sangari and Wallstrm,
2008; Scott, 2000). With a strong brand iden-
tity, art museums can improve their ability to
promote exhibitions and to perform other tasks
connected to their integral core elements and
long-term objectives.
Aaker (1996) separates the concept of brand
identity from that of brand image by emphasiz-
ing the strategic dimension of brand identity in
contrast to the more tactical nature of brand
image. Another way to put it is that brand
identity is how the organization defines itself
and what it strives for, whereas brand image
refers to consumers image of the organization
and its products. This means of describing the
difference between brand identity and brand
image is widely used in consumer research and
is also applied in this article.
Though often associated, brand identity and
brand image are not necessarily related. For
example, a museum can have a distinct iden-
tity as defined by its strategists but fail to pass
this identity on to consumers; consequently,
the museums brand image how consumers
perceive it as distinct from its competitors is
unclear or missing altogether. It is therefore
important that a museum actively manage
its brand identity instead of letting the brand
image that is, how the brand is perceived by
audiences dictate the brand.
Brand identity gives the brand meaning and
purpose; it helps to build brand equity and
reap financial benefits. Brand identity can be

ABSTRACT
This article discusses branding and ways to create brand identity in art museums. Brand identity can be
constructed using museums core products and services, persons, symbols or organizational properties. The
authors discuss in detail these main dimensions of the concept and give examples of each. They also analyze
interview data from three museums of modern and contemporary art to determine which aspects of brand
identity are applied by museums and the extent to which they are used in everyday practice. The article
concludes that the concept of brand identity thus far familiar only to marketing scholars can also be useful
in non-commercial fields by offering managerial ideas on how to improve a museums distinctiveness and
attractiveness.
KEYWORDS
Art museum, brand identity, symbol, consumer, marketing

VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1 FALL 2014 19

evaluated on the following dimensions: prod-
uct, person, symbolic and organization-related.
Each identity dimension leads to an emphasis
on different aspects of the museum. A descrip-
tive model of art museum brand identity is
presented in Figure 1. The four general brand
dimensions described by Aaker (1996) prod-
uct, person, symbol and organization will be
analyzed, focusing on what they refer to specif-
ically in the context of an art museum.
Not every aspect needs to be employed
equally in constructing brand identity, but
these four perspectives can be useful in defin-
ing strategic tools. Unlike global business
enterprises, art museums seldom have a world-
wide, well-known corporate brand. Therefore,
considering several aspects can be useful in
increasing brand awareness among audiences.
Also, in museums with a well-known existing
brand, paying attention to the various aspects
of brand identity can provide the brand with
new texture and depth.
Museum as product
W hen the museum is perceived as a product,
attention should be paid to both the core product
and the augmented product. Collections and
exhibitions form the core product of a museum,
whereas the augmented product comprises
museum services, such as the museum shop or
educational programs. From an art consumer
perspective, the museum product consists of a
holistic museum experience. Based on Aaker
(1996), we can identify different product-related
aspects that play an important role in brand
identity: the museums scope and focus, premises
and services, and perceived quality or value.
Sometimes the main target audiences, as well as
target markets such as a country or region, can
be seen as typical product features of a museum.
When Aakers classification is applied to
museums, it can be seen that the art context
differs from the traditional consumer goods
market in many ways. Concerning quality or
value, as Schroeder (2005) notes, the relation-
ship between artistic value and branding is
stronger in the art market than perhaps any
other. The perceived quality of an exhibition
greatly depends on the artists reputation in
other words, on the artist as a brand. In the
long run, however, a museum can also be per-
ceived as of high quality because of its specific
collections or because it often exhibits valued
artists or artistic styles or presents interesting
theme exhibitions.
Moreover, other core features, such as a focus
on or specialization in certain genres and art
movements, the premises or building, exhib-
ition architecture, directions, signs and supple-
mentary material, all have an impact on how
customers perceive the quality of exhibitions.
However, in the end it all boils down to sub-
jective preferences and holistic impressions that
the customer constructs in her mind (Gilmore,
2003; McLean, 1996). In the augmented prod-
uct, the holistic approach is especially relevant,
as all services and facilities should support the
museums main mission and present customers
with a coherent image of the museum.
Museum as person: Creating a personality for
the museum
Since differentiation of brands on the basis of
functional attributes is often not enough to
attract customers, producers have begun to asso-
ciate imaginary aspects with their brands, such
as by creating a brand personality through refer-
ences to specific persons or user groups.

RSUM
Cet article examine limage de marque et les manires de crer une identit de marque dans les muses dart. Il est possible
de construire lidentit de marque en recourant au noyau des produits et des services du muse, aux personnes, aux
symboles ou aux biens organisationnels. Les auteures dcrivent en dtail les principales dimensions du concept didentit
de marque et donnent des exemples de chacune delles. Elles analysent galement les donnes recueillies au cours dentre-
vues menes dans trois muses dart moderne et contemporain en vue de dterminer quels aspects de lidentit de
marque sont mis en uvre par les muses et dans quelle mesure ils sinscrivent dans les pratiques quotidiennes. Larticle
conclut que le concept didentit de marque que les spcialistes du marketing ne sont pas les seuls bien connatre
peut aussi savrer utile dans des domaines non commerciaux en offrant des ides de gestion sur la faon damliorer le
caractre distinctif du muse et son attractivit.
MOTS CLS
Muse dart, identit de marque, symbole, consommateur, marketing

20 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT

FIGURE 1

BRAND IDENTITY IN ART MUSEUMS

BRAND IDENTITY IN ART MUSEUMS

Brand as product Brand as person Brand as symbol Brand as organization

Collections, exhibitions Personality Visual imagery Organizational characteristics
Scope User imagery Metaphors Organizational associations
Perceived quality Artists Brand name
Services and premises Museum manager Brand inheritance
Professionals Building

BRANDS VALUE PROPOSITIONS: FUNCTIONAL, EMOTIONAL, SELF-EXPRESSIVE AND SOCIAL BENEFITS

MARKETING PRACTICES

ART MUSEUM IMAGE

User or audience imagery is one way to per-
sonalize museums. This refers to typical or
ideal visitors. Through user imagery, it is pos-
sible to emphasize a particular group for
example, artists, intellectuals, art enthusiasts,
designers, art students with whom consum-
ers may identify. In many art museums, certain
artworks, artists or genres have become cultural
icons that bring together art lovers with similar
tastes. This way, museums, through their own
brand, contribute to both the construction of
customers self-identity and their social integra-
tion (Aaker, 1996; Uusitalo, 1998).
However, it has been found that museums
differ very little as to the kind of consumers
who are perceived as typical visitors (Ahola and
Uusitalo, 2008). This tells us that museums do
not apply segmentation based on predefined
customer groups and therefore their user
imageries tend to be identical and vague.
In addition to typical visitors, successful art-
ists can be considered as brand creators act-
ively promoting both themselves and their art
as a brand. In some cases, the artists fame has
been gradually reinforced over time. Many

RESUMEN
En el presente artculo se aborda el tema del desarrollo de marca y las maneras de crear una identidad de marca en los museos
de arte. Dicha identidad puede forjarse mediante los principales productos y servicios, personas, smbolos o virtudes de la
organizacin. Las autoras exponen en detalle los principales aspectos de este concepto y ofrecen varios ejemplos relacionados.
Se analizan tambin datos recogidos durante entrevistas realizadas en tres museos de arte moderno y contemporneo para
determinar qu aspectos de la identidad de marca estos museos aplican y en qu medida los utilizan en la prctica diaria. Se
concluye que el concepto de identidad de marca con el cual estn mucho ms familiarizados los especialistas en mercadotecnia
- puede tambin ser til para el medio no comercial ya que contiene ideas de gestin que pueden contribuir a mejorar el carcter
distintivo y el poder de atraccin de los museos.
PA L A B R A S CLAVE
Museo de arte, identidad de marca, smbolo, consumidor, mercadotecnia

VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1 FALL 2014 21

artists, however, owe their brand identity to
the media and todays cult of celebrity. Art is
predominantly interpreted and mediated by
experts such as critics. These experts strongly
influence the artists reputation. For example,
the role of art criticism is essential for the
fame of contemporary artists. The museums
own public relations department can seldom
influence the critics. Still, having a powerful
museum brand can serve to reduce the impact
of negative art critiques.
Many contemporary artists create brand
image and star status through non-conformist
behaviour, which makes them almost myth-
ical personalities. This romanticized view of
the artist has a long history, with such legend-
ary examples as Salvador Dali and Vincent
VanGogh. In this way, artists become public
figures, which in turn advertises their art. One
benefit is that art becomes less elitist, lead-
ing to increased interest in art and artists and
consequently increases the number of museum
visitors. Furthermore, a renowned artist can
upgrade the quality of a museum in the mind
of the customer. The reverse is also true: if
an artist is shown by a well-known museum,
his or her position in the art world improves
(Gibbons, 2005; Bendixen, 2000; Botti, 2000;
Gibbons, 2005; Jyrm, 1999).
In smaller organizations in particular, the
museums manager, curator or, in some cases,
founder can project their own personal charac-
teristics and artistic taste onto the museum. A
charismatic director may end up personifying
the museum and acting as a figurehead for the
organization. The managers own art exper-
tise and broad network in Bourdieus (1984)
terms, cultural and social capital are often
decisive in gaining respect within the art field
(e.g., Jyrm, 1999). Strategic and other man-
agement skills alone although important as
such are not sufficient for a museum manager
to become a part of the museum brand.
Creating brand identity through symbolism
W hen the meanings associated with a brand
become widely accepted, the brand can be said
to represent something beyond itself: it becomes
an icon or symbol. Museums provide numerous
intangible, symbolic benefits for communities
(e.g., Scott, 2008). In addition to broadening
knowledge through education, they appeal to
the senses and foster creativity and innovation
22
in society. Furthermore, museums can contribute
to visitors well-being in many ways, such as by
offering perspective, encouraging reflection, and
developing awareness and insight. In addition
to direct use value, the non-use benefits are many,
especially the museums role in heritage transfer
to future generations, and in advancing the stock
of intellectual capital important for art and
design industries. Moreover, through their prac-
tices, museums can reinforce cultural and ethical
values in society. These long-term benefits are
used to promote museums among policy-makers
and funding agencies (Taalas, 1995; McEnally
and de Chernatony, 1999; Uusitalo, 2008a, 2010;
Scott, 2008).
In addition to highlighting the social values
and benefits common to the field, art museums
need more concrete individual symbols to gain
recognition. A symbol can be anything that
embodies the brand, such as visual imagery, a
logo, a slogan, a metaphor or a meaningful herit-
age story. Moreover, the museums brand name
plays a major role in attracting customers and
creating associations. A distinctive brand name
such as Louvre, Hermitage, Guggenheim or
Reina Sofia contributes more to brand iden-
tity than National Gallery or Staatsmuseum.
An easily recollected museum name increases
brand awareness and helps in advertising and
word-of-mouth communication, including on
social media. The power of name associations
is that they contain a great deal of information
and provide continuity (Aaker, 1996; Caldwell,
2000; McLean, 1996).
The museum building and its architecture can
also become a renowned symbol for the brand
and serve as a source of national or local pride.
For example, the Guggenheims New York
museum designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and
its Bilbao museum designed by Frank Gehry
have become a part of Guggenheims brand
identity. Likewise, the Neue Nationalgalerie in
Berlin designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
is closely associated with its architecture.
New modern or postmodern museum
buildings use architecture as a metaphor for the
contemporary art forms they exhibit. All over
the world one can find examples of recently
constructed art museum buildings with dis-
tinctive postmodern architecture that attracts
visitors. Some of the most striking are the new
additions to the Royal Ontario Museum in
Toronto and the Denver Art Museum, both
designed by Daniel Libeskind; the Rosenthal
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
Contemporary Arts Center in Cincinnati by
Zaha Hadid; the Osaka National Museum of
Art by Cesar Pelli and Associates; the Museum
of Middle East Modern Art in Dubai by
the Dutch UNStudio; and the Groeningen
Museum by Philippe Starck, Alessando Men-
dini and Coop Himmelb(l)au. There might be
some truth in the claim that modern museum
buildings have replaced the churches of past
centuries in terms of some of their symbolic
societal functions.
Old industrial buildings redesigned as art
venues, in turn, capitalize on the factory image
in order to lower the threshold of attending
art exhibitions. In European cities and regions
that have gone through an intense period of
de-industrialization can be found innovative
retailoring of old factory and harbour prem-
ises (e.g., the entire Ruhr region in Germany,
Gasometer Oberhausen in Germany, Antwerp
harbour in Belgium and the Finlayson factor-
ies in Tampere, Finland). Even new museum
buildings located on former industrial sites are
often designed to remind people of their his-
tory; for example, the MAS museum located
in the former harbour of Antwerp resembles a
heap of containers piled on top of each other.
Although the buildings architecture now
plays a key role in constructing a museums
identity, museums should allow for adequate
conservation of the collections, ensure secur-
ity for artworks borrowed from elsewhere,
and provide convenient facilities to meet the
various needs of visitors (Caldwell, 2000;
McLean, 1996). It is also challenging if all
financial resources are invested in spectacular
architecture and its maintenance, with none
left for the museums core product: mounting
interesting exhibitions or improving upon its
collections.
Museum as organizational brand
In marketing commercial products, product
attributes are often easily copied and therefore
organizational characteristics that are more com-
plex are frequently considered to be a more sus-
tainable basis for differentiation. The museum
field, however, is different in that the core prod-
uct, a museums area of specialization and the
quality of the art cannot easily be copied.
Nevertheless, certain organizational character-
istics can play a role in creating brand identity
in museums. After all, it is the whole organization,
VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1 FALL 2014
with its unique set of values, culture, norms,
people, behaviours, programs, assets and skills,
that delivers the museum experience for the
customers. In addition to expertise in art,
museums require leadership that is, the ability
to integrate a wide variety of professional com-
petencies that contribute to the quality of the
museum experience.
For the museums corporate brand, which
is synonymous with the organization, it is
important that all aspects of the organization
be in line with the identity and all stakehold-
ers perceive the museum in the same way.
The museum should be able to communicate
the same message and brand identity to all
stakeholders: customers, media, employees
and funders. This points to the importance
of organizational qualities such as coordina-
tion of the different aspects of the museum
organization (Aaker, 1996; Baumgarth, 2009;
McEnally and de Chernatony, 1999).
Communicating Brand Identity
After the museums brand identity has been
specified, parts of it can be selected for active
communication for example, brand position
statements. Bitner and Boomss (1981) exten-
sion of the marketing mix to include processes,
physical surroundings and people has become
widely accepted in the services marketing lit-
erature and is traditionally used in brand
positioning. From a customers point of view,
a strong brand may also considerably reduce
the perceived risk involved in using up time
for a museum visit. Therefore, decisions about
marketing mix should be considered strategic
(Ahmed and Rafiq, 1995; Karlsson, Salehi-
Sangari and Wallstrm, 2008; McLean, 1996;
Wood, 2000).
Filliss (2002) literature review of arts mar-
keting found that, as to marketing competen-
cies, many arts organizations have been stuck
in the rut of defining marketing too narrowly
as a synonym for advertising/promotion. Thus,
many other important aspects of arts mar-
keting are not planned but carried out on an
adhoc basis, if at all. These include long-term
exhibition programming, statement of focus,
market and competitor analyses, targeting of
segments for special exhibitions, and man-
agement of sponsor and funder relationships.
Although this situation has changed recently,
much remains to be done.
23
 Technology can be exploited in relationship
marketing and in interactions with customers,
such as by keeping them updated about com-
ing events. Furthermore, membership schemes
for museum Friends can be beneficial for
museums, as they usually generate loyal cus-
tomers and attract new people to the museum
(McLean, 1996). Marketing in art museums
should never be viewed as a sales-based activity
or as promotion, but should instead be treated
as a philosophy that builds long-term relation-
ships with the various publics, media and other
key actors in the arts field.
In communicating their brand identity,
museums should capitalize on their core prod-
uct, the unique collections and programs
that differentiate museums from other leisure
attractions. This means that museums should
be made as attractive as possible compared
with other leisure or cultural activities.
As to the place aspect of the marketing
mix, accessibility plays an important role in
art museums. In addition, a visitors orienta-
tion inside the museum should be made easy.
The bottom line is to keep visitors informed
through leaflets, posters and courteous signs.
The location and quality of services such as
the caf or the museum shop should be care-
fully considered (Colbert, 2003; Luksetich and
Partridge, 1997; McLean, 1996).
Promotion of museums, as part of market-
ing, is important in order not only to attract
audiences but also to build relationships with
employees, sponsors and other interest groups.
However, most museums cannot afford to
undertake large-scale advertising campaigns.
More and more, therefore, customers and
sponsors are being approached directly. Many
museums concentrate on promoting vari-
ous exhibitions. However, it is also crucial for
museums to use part of their resources to pro-
mote the museum brand (McLean, 1996).
Museum managers should seriously consider
museum branding. Their task is to encourage
both artistic and management creativity. It
is worth pointing out, however, that creativ-
ity alone is no guarantee of success; it must
be directed at serving the museums mission
and building a coherent brand identity (Fillis,
2002, 2003; Fillis and McAuley, 2000; Pitta,
Wood and Franzak, 2008).
24
Data and Methods
T he objective of our empirical study was to
explore the content of brand identity in
three museums and identify various means to
create brand identity in practice. The data were
gathered via in-depth semi-structured interviews
conducted at the Museum of Contemporary Art
Kiasma, the Espoo Museum of Modern Art
(EMMA) and the Didrichsen Art Museum.
These museums were selected for the study
because of their interesting profiles and their
different types of ownership and background.
Kiasma displays contemporary art and is part of
the state-owned Finnish National Gallery.
EMMA, a museum of modern and contemporary
art, is run by a foundation owned by the city of
Espoo. The Didrichsen Art Museum is a private
art collection and foundation. Although all three
museums operate in the Helsinki metropolitan
area, their physical surroundings are very dif-
ferent. The three museums are described in
Appendix 1.
The director and the marketing manager of
each museum were interviewed, except in the
case of Kiasma, where only the head of market-
ing and sponsorship was available. Hence, the
total number of interviews was five. The analy-
sis was supplemented with other material, such
as that found on the museums websites and in
newspaper articles.
The interviews were conducted in November
2008 at the interviewees workplace. They var-
ied in duration from 45 to 90 minutes. They
were recorded and later transcribed. The ques-
tions were based on themes emerging from the
literature review and e-mailed to the interview-
ees beforehand. Questions concerning the vari-
ous dimensions of brand identity could not be
posed directly but were identified during data
analysis and interpretation.
In the analysis, the methodological approach
of induction was found to enable unanticipated
issues to emerge from the material and to avoid
letting theory dictate the results. However, the
theoretical framework on brand dimensions
was later used to categorize the ways of cre-
ating brand identity that emerged during the
interviews.
Although the three museums were carefully
selected to represent typical present-day art
museums, and members of their top manage-
ment were interviewed to ensure reliability, the
small number of cases and limited number of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
interviews do not allow for any generalization
in a statistical sense. However, the qualitative
interview data helped us to determine whether
various aspects of brand identity are valid in
practice, and thus to evaluate the usefulness of
the brand identity concept as a strategic tool in
museum marketing.
Dimensions of Brand Identity in Practice
T he interviewees did not see any contradiction
between marketing and the arts as such.
They regarded marketing as essential in serving
customers and enabling the museum to carry
out its activities. However, the museums made
their decisions about the content of exhibitions
independently of audience or sponsor opinions,
on the basis of topicality, artistic quality, and
how well the exhibitions conformed to the
museums profile. In terms of their core product,
the museums seemed, on average, to be more
product-oriented and autonomous and less
demand-oriented than commercial service organ-
izations. However, marketing defined in a
narrow sense as promotion only was considered
useful in making the museum and its services
more accessible.
Brand as Product
Brand identity in the museums under study
was based above all on the scope and type of
collections. Permanent collections appear to be
somewhat less important in museums of con-
temporary art than in museums concentrat-
ing on more traditional art. In the early years,
permanent collections were important for
EMMA (modern Finnish art) and Didrichsen
(modern international art and ancient ethnic
art from, for example, Mayan culture). Kiasmas
collections, in contrast, are very limited and
have played a minor role from the beginning.
Later on, EMMA and Didrichsen also began
to profile themselves foremost through specific
and imported exhibitions covering modern and
contemporary painting, sculpture and video
installations, and the role of their permanent
collections has diminished.
The focus and scope of exhibitions are thus
being used to differentiate the museum from
other museums and from other leisure activ-
ities. Kiasma, in particular, had benefited from
the fact that contemporary art makes a greater
contribution to public discussion than modern
VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1 FALL 2014
art, because it evokes strong feelings, positive
or negative. Thus, as a mirror of society, con-
temporary art comes closer to its audience, yet
it is often perceived as strange and difficult to
understand.
Brand as Person
The reputations of renowned artists are also
used in creating a museums brand personal-
ity for example, by featuring established
foreign artists or presenting retrospectives of
well-known domestic artists. This is less true
for contemporary art exhibitions, because
museums concentrating on contemporary art
wish to introduce new and often unknown
artists and styles.
The name and renown of a museums dir-
ector or curator seem to be less important for
brand identity than those of the conductor
of an orchestra or the director of a theatre,
for example. In all the museums covered in
the interviews, however, the directors were
important cultural mediators since they raised
awareness of the museum through their own
networks. Therefore, a museum is, to some
extent, associated with the directors persona.
Not only is the directors personality in the
role of leader reflected in its activities, but the
director also represents the museum in public.
Sometimes the name of the founding family
can represent the museum brand through
brand inheritance, as in the case of Didrichsen.
Conscious diversification of exhibitions,
or creating brand identity though particular
user groups, was apparently rare in the exam-
ined museums. EMMA emphasized its unique
position as the only art museum in the city of
Espoo, whereas the other two museums tried
to encompass the whole metropolitan area.
Brand as Symbol
As we have pointed out, museums have a com-
mon interest in attracting people away from
other leisure activities and persuading them to
spend more of their time on cultural pursuits.
Several interviewees stated that their main task
was to have people consume more culture as a
whole, because consumption of culture tends
to feed on itself. Thus, many symbolic aspects,
such as psychological and physical accessibility,
location, the museums name and the building,
have become important in brand identity.
25
 The majority of the interviewees high-
lighted their museums accessibility and brand
positioning. Kiasma emphasized the meeting
place metaphor by exploiting its central loca-
tion and conveying an urban impression of the
brand name through its symbolic associations:
the name Kiasma is derived from the Greek
word chiasm, meaning intersection. Important
brand symbols are also the renowned architec-
ture of the building designed by Steven Holl
and the script-like logo, together with the slo-
gan commenting on contemporary art: I dont
quite get it.
EMMA, situated in a former printing plant,
communicates accessibility through the mes-
sage of a casual and convivial museum that
welcomes everyone. EMMAs symbolic asso-
ciations refer to simplicity and clarity and are
a mixture of the logo, the slogan (EMMA
takes art seriously but serves it casually) and
the brand name. In fact, the acronym EMMA
is also a female name, which encourages people
to identify with the museum and also expresses
its casual style. Didrichsen, situated in a former
private home, takes advantage of the intimacy
of a family house with courtyard.
The building and its architecture as well as
the location apparently form the major part
of brand identity. This might result from the
fact that a museum experience is to a large
extent a visual one, for which the building
and its architecture set the scene. For example,
in Kiasma the brand is so strongly identi-
fied with the building that the museum has
to work hard to rid the brand as being con-
sidered equivalent to the building. The public
FIGURE 2
KIASMA MUSEUM OF CONTEMPORARY ART, HELSINKI
26
controversy around Kiasmas architecture and
location may be another reason why the build-
ing plays a larger than average symbolic role.
Even before the opening, there was a public
debate over whether the building was put in
the wrong place and too close to the equestrian
statue of Marshal Mannerheim, commander of
the Finnish troops in the Second World War
(Uusitalo and Ahola, 2008).
In the case of the Didrichsen Art Museum,
the harmony of the building and the homey
experience of visiting the museum and the pri-
vate garden are the essence of the brand, whereas
at EMMA the robust architecture of the former
printing plant combines with the forest scen-
ery through the glass walls to give visitors an
opportunity to communicate with artworks in
anonymous surroundings close to nature.
Brand as Organization
While organizational characteristics, such as
values, people, professional expertise, global
versus local orientation, and network associa-
tions, are all important, they seem to be less
emphasized in brand identity. For example, the
organizations age and history can somewhat
influence its brand personality. In relatively
new museums such as Kiasma and EMMA,
the identity is more youthful than in estab-
lished museums such as Didrichsen.
All the museums express their community
orientation through a wide range of educa-
tional projects. However, community orien-
tation does not seem to play an essential role
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
in the museums brand identity; rather, it is FIGURE 3
built into their mission. Therefore, although
ESPOO MUSEUM OF MODERN ART (EMMA)
educational programs are surely appreciated
by the public and bring the brand closer to
its audience, they are unlikely to differentiate
museums one from another.

Marketing Tools in the Construction of Identity

As to the marketing practices available for brand

management, several traditional elements of the
marketing mix (product, place, physical sup-
port, promotion and price) are used, but they
do not usually bring much competitive advan-
tage. Instead, network associations abroad and
at home, experimental relationships with, and
direct marketing to, consumers, together with
new, creative promotion schemes such as show-
ing collections online, are considered better
ways to assert identity. For example, in terms of
accessibility, a distant location raises the psych-
ological threshold, especially if the museum
is in another city, as in the case of EMMA,
FIGURE 4
or almost in the country, as in the case of
Didrichsen even if in reality the museum is DIDRICHSEN ART MUSEUM, HELSINKI
only a 10-minute bus ride away. Taking this
into account, the museums give directions for
how to get there by public transport or car.

As in many other cultural organizations,

in these museums the marketing role consists
mainly of promotion, and promotion consists
largely of traditional exhibition-based adver-
tising. Outdoor advertising is often used
for example, on public vehicles such as buses,
trams and the metro, as this form of advertising
reaches a wide audience. Every museum has a
website, and the role of social media is expand-
ing due to their cost-effective and powerful
nature. The ways in which the three museums
employ media do not differ markedly. They
use a traditional media mix of brochures and
radio and newspaper advertising. However, the
museums ability to advertise depends on their This may partly be a result of Kiasmas long-
partnership arrangements. For example, the term collaboration with advertising agencies
leading Finnish national daily, Helsingin Sano- and cultural agents seeking sponsorship deals
mat, is a sponsor favoured by many cultural for the museum. The other museums found it
organizations and is a major asset in terms of useful to hire an advertising agency from time
visibility. Many museums cannot afford tele- to time, but this was considered too costly to be
vision advertising without sponsorship deals.
used on a regular basis. Also, in some respects
the views of advertising agencies were regarded
Of the three museums under study, brand
management seemed to be practised most con- as incompatible with a museums identity. It
sciously at Kiasma. In fact Kiasma was the only was believed that the museum brand should not
museum where brand management was recog- be created by outside experts alone but should
nized as a permanent activity of marketing. come mainly from within the organization.

VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1 FALL 2014 27

 In addition to the marketing mix, relation-
ships and network marketing are essential
tools for museum brand management. Each
museum had a voluntary Friends associa-
tion, which hardly consolidated the museums
financial support but did spread awareness of
the museum through word-of-mouth. Like-
wise, the marketing of events such as exhib-
ition openings played an important role in
network management. In addition, all the
museums had a customer database to keep
track of loyal customers.
Management of networks was perceived
as an important part of each museums brand
management. It covered building and main-
taining relationships with other art museums
and cultural organizations and with art critics,
sponsors, financial bodies, advertising agen-
cies, artists, schools and journalists. All three
museums cooperated with other art museums
and therefore customers were encouraged to
visit other museums as well. Networking with
various actors in the field is fundamental for
museums to be able to operate at all. A strong
museum brand essentially facilitated network-
ing both in Finland and abroad. Many well-
known museum brands abroad also served
as benchmarks. In networking, museum dir-
ectors played a major role through their own
personal contacts.
By using creative new approaches museums
can strengthen their brand identity and gain
visibility. Creative marketing can comprise
any type of innovative marketing. All three
museums had been making use of various
cross-over events such as lectures, concerts,
films, plays, DJ evenings, and even skateboard-
design competitions and the like. Also, collab-
oration with wine importers and restaurants
and the planning of theme exhibitions helped
to tailor museum services to different customer
groups. Creative marketing seems to be most
efficient when it is built on the unique features
of an ongoing exhibition and, at the same time,
supports the museums brand identity.
Conclusion
I n this article we have discussed branding and
the brand identity of art museums. Based on
the traditional branding literature, we have pre-
sented a descriptive model of various dimensions
of brand identity. A museum brand can be
28
developed using (1) core products, such as collec-
tions and exhibitions; (2) persons, such as typical
or ideal users, artists or the museums manager;
(3) symbols, such as visual imagery, metaphors,
the museums name, building and architecture,
or heritage; and (4) the organization its values,
professionalism, managerial style and network
associations.
Although many of these aspects were
applied in the marketing of the art museums
represented in the interviews, systematic and
conscious brand management was rare. The
main interest of the museums seemed to lie in
developing audience accessibility rather than
in differentiating the museums brand and
personality.
The brand identity of each museum was
based mainly on the scope and type of its col-
lections and exhibitions. This suggests that
museums as with many other cultural organ-
izations act fairly autonomously in planning
their core product, if one compares this field
with others involved in consumer services.
Exhibitions are meant to surprise visitors by
providing art experiences thus far unknown
to them. This proactive strategy is particu-
larly true for museums of contemporary and
modern art.
Artists reputation was also used in the
marketing of exhibitions, except for those
that concentrated on contemporary, experi-
mental art by artists as yet unknown. In this
case, new artists will benefit from a renowned
museum brand, whereas usually it is the other
way around and museums benefit from well-
known artists brands. All three museums also
relied on several symbolic elements, such as the
name, architecture, history, slogan, location
and style of premises, without, however, neces-
sarily recognizing these as means of creating
brand identity.
The implications are that museums could
broaden their perspectives and, in their market-
ing activities, progress from exhibition-based
promotion towards a more comprehensive
brand-identity marketing. Museums also seem
to benefit from the success of other museums,
because consumption of culture feeds on itself.
Hence, in addition to branding themselves,
museums should cooperate with other art
museums and should emphasize the import-
ance of the field as a whole. This would help
them to compete with other cultural and
leisure activities.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT
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APPENDIX 1

DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE MUSEUMS

The Kiasma Museum of Contemporary Art, opened in 1998, is part of the state-owned Finnish
National Gallery. It is located in the centre of Helsinki and of modern architecture designed by
Steven Holl. Kiasmas exhibitions, theatre and other activities enable visitors to experience
contemporary art in all its various forms. Its main focus is exhibitions of contemporary art, such
as large international contemporary art shows as well as smaller displays of Finnish and Nordic
contemporary art. Its own collections are thus far limited and are not displayed on a permanent
basis.
The Espoo Museum of Modern Art (EMMA), opened in 2006, is a combination of private and
public ownership: a private foundation and the city of Espoo. The museum is located in the
WeeGee cultural centre in the garden city of Tapiola and is run by the city of Espoo. The
building is a former printing plant, with robust interior walls made of concrete and exterior
walls made of glass with an unobstructed view of the surrounding forest. The city of Espoo
collection and the Saastamoinen Foundation collection form the cornerstone of EMMAs
operations. In addition, EMMA displays exhibitions of contemporary and modern art from
Finland and around the world.
The Didrichsen Art Museum is a private-home museum, founded by Marie-Louise and Gunnar
Didrichsen, located on an island in the western part of Helsinki. The founding family started
collecting art in the 1940s and moved to Villa Didrichsen in 1958. In 1965 the museum wing of
the Villa was opened to the public. The museums collections consist of approximately one
thousand artworks ranging from modern paintings and sculptures to artifacts from Pre-
Columbian and Asian cultures. In addition, three to four exhibitions are mounted annually, on
themes linked to the collections.

30 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTS MANAGEMENT

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