Wastewater Management Ghangrekar

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Course : Wastewater Management
Prof. M.M. Ghangrekar
Module 1 : Introduction
Lecture 1 : Introduction
NPTEL IIT Kharagpur Web Courses

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1.1 BACKGROUND
Urbanization has encouraged the migration of people from villages to the urban areas. This
has given rise to a number of environmental problems such as, water supply with desirable
quality and quantity, wastewater generation and its collection, treatment and disposal. In urban
areas for domestic and industrial uses the source of water is generally reservoir, river, lake, and
wells. Out of this total water supplied, generally 60 to 80% contributes as a wastewater. In
most of the cities, wastewater is let out partially treated or untreated and it either percolates
into the ground and in turn contaminates the ground water or it is discharged into the natural
drainage system causing pollution in downstream water bodies.
The importance of water quality as a factor constraining water use has often gone
unacknowledged in the analyses of water scarcity. Water scarcity is a function not only of
volumetric supply, but also of quality sufficient to meet the demand. The drinking water
demand is perhaps the largest demand for high quality water apart from many industrial uses
which also require high quality water. Agriculture, by far the largest consumer of water, also
suffers when water supplies become saline. In India, water pollution comes from the main
sources such as domestic sewage, industrial effluents, leachets from landfills, and run-off from
solid waste dumps and agriculture land. Domestic sewage (black water) and sullage (grey
water) is the main source of water pollution in India, especially in and around large urban
centers. The regular monitoring of the water quality in the rivers and wells in the country
revealed that the total coliform counts far exceeds the desired level in water to be fit for human
consumption [CPCB, 1997].
In the past disposal of waste from water closets was carried out manually and wastewater
generated from kitchen and bathrooms was allowed to flow along the open drains. This
primitive method was modified and replace by a water carriage system, in which these wastes
are mixed with sufficient quantity of water. This waste is carried through closed conduits
under the conditions of gravity flow. This mixture of water and waste products is known as
sewage.

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The advantages offered by the water carriage system are:

The carriage of wastes on head or carts is not required.
Bad smell, which was unavoidable during open transport of sewage, is not occurring
due to transport of this polluted water in closed conduits.
The old system was posing the health hazards to sweepers and to the nearby residents,
because of the possibilities of flies and insects transmitting disease germs from the
accessible carts to the residents food eatables. This is avoided in water carriage system
because of transport of night soil in close conduits.
The human excreta is washed away as soon as it is produced in water carriage system,
thus storing is not required as required in the old system of manual disposal. Thus, no
bad smells are produced in closed conduit transport.
In the old system, the wastewater generated from the kitchen and bathrooms was
required to be carried through open roadside drains for disposal. This is avoided in
sewerage system as the open drains could generate bad odours when used for disposal
of organic wastes.
The water carriage system does not occupy floor area, as the sewers are laid
underground.
In addition, the construction of toilets one above the other is possible in water carriage
system and combining latrine and bathrooms together as water closets is possible. This
is one of the important advantages of water carriage system.
However, this water carriage system also has certain drawbacks such as:
A large network of pipes is required for collection of the sewage; hence, the capital cost
for water carriage system is very high.
In addition, the operation and maintenance of sewerage system is very expensive.
Large wastewater volume is required to be treated before disposal.
Assured water supply is essential for efficient operation of the water carriage system.
1.2 DEFINITIONS
Industrial wastewater: It is the wastewater generated from the industrial and commercial
areas. This wastewater contains objectionable organic and inorganic compounds that may not
be amenable to conventional treatment processes.

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Night Soil: It is a term used to indicate the human and animal excreta.
Sanitary sewage: Sewage originated from the residential buildings comes under this category.
This is very foul in nature. It is the wastewater generated from the lavatory basins, urinals and
water closets of residential buildings, office building, theatre and other institutions. It is also
referred as domestic wastewater.
Sewage: It indicates the liquid waste originating from the domestic uses of water. It includes
sullage, discharge from toilets, urinals, wastewater generated from commercial establishments,
institutions, industrial establishments and also the groundwater and stormwater that may enter
into the sewers. Its decomposition produces large quantities of malodorous gases, and it
contains numerous pathogenic or disease producing bacteria, along with high concentration of
organic matter and suspended solids.
Sewage Treatment Plant is a facility designed to receive the waste from domestic,
commercial and industrial sources and to remove materials that damage water quality and
compromise public health and safety when discharged into water receiving systems or land. It
is combination of unit operations and unit processes developed to treat the sewage to desirable
standards to suit effluent norms defined by regulating authority.
Sewer: It is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a point of

discharge or disposal. There are three types of sewer systems that are commonly used for
sewage collection. Separate sewers are those which carry the house hold and industrial wastes
only. Storm water drains are those which carry rain water from the roofs and street surfaces.
Combine sewers are those which carry both sewage and storm water together in the same
conduit. House sewer (or drain) is used to discharge the sewage from a building to a street
sewer. Lateral sewer is a sewer which collects sewage directly from the household buildings.
Branch sewer or submain sewer is a sewer which receives sewage from a relatively small area.
Main sewer or trunk sewer is a sewer that receives sewage from many tributary branches and
sewers, serving as an outlet for a large territory. Depressed sewer is a section of sewer
constructed lower than adjacent sections to pass beneath an obstacle or obstruction. It runs full
under the force of gravity and at greater than atmospheric pressure. The sewage enters and
leaves the depressed sewer at atmospheric pressure. Intercepting sewer is a sewer laid
transversely to main sewer system to intercept the dry weather flow of sewage and additional
surface and storm water as may be desirable. An intercepting sewer is usually a large sewer,

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flowing parallel to a natural drainage channel, into which a number of main or outfall sewers
discharge. Outfall sewer receives entire sewage from the collection system and finally it is
discharged to a common point. Relief sewer or overflow sewer is used to carry the flow in
excess of the capacity of an existing sewer.
Sewerage: The term sewerage refers the infrastructure which includes device, equipment and
appurtenances for the collection, transportation and pumping of sewage, but excluding works
for the treatment of sewage. Basically it is a water carriage system designed and constructed
for collecting and carrying of sewage through sewers.
Stormwater: It indicates the rain water of the locality.
Subsoil water: Groundwater that enters into the sewers through leakages is called subsoil
water.
Sullage: This refers to the wastewater generated from bathrooms, kitchens, washing place and
wash basins, etc. Composition of this waste does not involve higher concentration of organic
matter and it is less polluted water as compared to sewage.
Wastewater: The term wastewater includes both organic and inorganic constituents, in soluble
or suspended form, and mineral content of liquid waste carried through liquid media. Generally
the organic portion of the wastewater undergoes biological decompositions and the mineral
matter may combine with water to form dissolved solids.
1.3 SOURCES OF SEWAGE
The wastewater generated from the household activities contributes to the major part of the
sewage. The wastewater generated from recreational activities, public utilities, commercial
complexes, and institutions is also discharged in to sewers. The wastewater discharged from
small and medium scale industries situated within the municipal limits and discharging
partially treated or untreated wastewater in to the sewers also contributes for municipal
wastewater.

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1.4 SEWAGE DISCHARGE

The quality of sewage and its characteristics show a marked range of hourly variation and
hence peak, average and minimum discharge are important considerations. The process
loadings in the sewage treatment are based on the daily average characteristics as determined
from a 24 hours weighted composite samples. In the absence of any data an average quantity
of 150 LPCD may be adopted for design. The hydraulic design load varies from component to
component of the treatment plant with all appurtenances, conduits, channels etc., being
designed for the maximum discharge, which may vary from 2.0 to 3.5 times the average
discharge. Sedimentation tanks are designed on the basis of average discharge, while
consideration of both maximum and minimum discharge is important in the design of screens
and grit chambers. Secondary treatment is generally designed for average discharge, with
sufficient safety margin to accommodate the peak discharge.
1.5 EFFECT OF UNTREATED WASTEWATER DISPOSAL

The daily activities of human beings produce both liquid and solid wastes. The liquid portion
of the wastewater is necessarily the water supplied by the authority or through private water
sources, after it has fouled by variety of uses. The sources of wastewater generation can be
defined as a combination of the liquid or water-carried wastes removed from residences,
institutions, and commercial and industrial establishments, together with groundwater, surface
water, and storm water as may be present.
If the untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate, it will lead to highly unhygienic

conditions. The organic matter present in the wastewater will undergo decomposition with
production of large quantities of malodorous gases. If the wastewater is discharged without
treatment in the water body, this will result in the depletion of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) from
the water bodies. Due to depletion of DO, the survival of aquatic life will become difficult,
finally leading to anaerobic conditions in the receiving waters. The nutrients present in the
wastewater can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, leading to problems like eutrophication.
In addition, the untreated domestic wastewater usually contains numerous pathogenic or
disease causing microorganisms, that dwell in the human intestinal tract or it may be present in
certain industrial wastewaters. Apart from this, the wastewater contains inorganic gritty
materials. The continuous deposition of this inorganic material may reduce the capacity of
water body considerably over a period.

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Generally domestic sewage does not contain any inorganic matter or organic compounds in
highly toxic concentration. However, depending upon the type of industries discharging into
the public sewers and the dilution that is offered by sewage; the municipal wastewater may
have these inorganic substances or toxic organic compounds with the concentration more than
the discharge limits stipulated by the authorities. Certain compounds, such as sulphates, metals
such as chromium, etc., if presents in higher concentration, may disturb the secondary
treatment of the sewage.
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL
The objective of sewage collection and disposal is to ensure that sewage discharged from
communities is properly collected, transported, treated to the required degree so as not to cause
danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment and finally
disposed off without causing any health or environmental problems. Thus, efficient sewerage
scheme can achieve the following:
To provide a good sanitary environmental condition of city protecting public health.
To dispose the human excreta to a safe place by a safe and protective means.
To dispose of all liquid waste generated from community to a proper place to prevent a
favorable condition for mosquito breeding, fly developing or bacteria growing.
To treat the sewage, as per needs, so as not to endanger the body of water or
groundwater or land to get polluted where it is finally disposed off. Thus, it protects the
receiving environment from degradation or contamination.
1.7 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

The treatment and safe disposal of wastewater is necessary. This will facilitate protection of
environment and environmental conservation, because the wastewater collected from cities and
towns must ultimately be returned to receiving water body or to the land or reused to fulfill
certain needs. The sewage treatment plants constructed near the end of nineteenth century
were designed to remove suspended matter alone by the principal of simple gravity settling. It
soon became apparent that primary treatment alone was insufficient to protect the water quality
of the receiving water body. This was mainly due to the presence of organic material, in
colloidal and dissolved form, in the sewage after settling. Thus, in the beginning of twentieth
century several treatment systems, called secondary treatment, were developed with the
objective of organic matter removal. For this secondary treatment, biological methods are

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generally used. The aerobic biological treatment processes were popularly used as a secondary
treatment, and these processes are still at the first choice.
In the second half of twentieth century, it became clear that the discharge of effluents from
even the most efficient secondary treatment plant could lead to the deterioration of the quality
of receiving water body. This could be attributed partly to the discharge of ammonia in the
effluent. In the receiving water body this discharge exerts an oxygen demand for the biological
oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, a process called nitrification. However, even when
nitrification is carried out at the treatment plant itself, the discharge of effluent can still be
detrimental to the water quality due to introduction of nitrogen in the form of nitrate and
phosphorus as phosphate. The tolerance limits of nitrates for the water when used as raw water
for public water supplies and bathing ghats is 50 mg/L as NO3. The availability of nitrogen and
phosphorous tends to cause an excessive growth of aquatic life notably, autotrophic organisms
such as algae, that can use carbon dioxide rather than organic material as a sources for cell
synthesis. Thus, explosive development of biomass may occur when nitrogen and phosphorus
are abundantly available. Although, this biomass may produce photosynthetic oxygen in the
water during daytime, after sunset it will consume oxygen, so that the dissolved oxygen
concentration will decrease and may reach to the levels that are too low to sustain the life of
other (macro) organisms. This phenomenon of eutrophication has led to the development of
tertiary treatment systems. In these, nitrogen and/or phosphorus are removed, along with
solids and organic materials.
Once the minimum effluent quality has been specified, for maximum allowable concentrations
of solids (both suspended and dissolved), organic matter, nutrients, and pathogens, the
objective of the treatment is to attain reliably the set standards. The role of design engineer is
to develop a treatment scheme that will guarantee the technical feasibility of the scheme,
taking into consideration other factors such as construction and maintenance costs, the
availability of construction materials and equipment, as well as specialized skilled personals
for operation and maintenance of the treatment plant.
Primary treatment consists of screens (for removal of floating matter), grit chamber (for
removal of inorganic suspended solids) and primary sedimentation tank (for removal residual
settleable solids which are mostly organic). Skimming tanks may be used for removal of oils;
however, in conventional treatment plant no separate skimming tank is used and oil removal is

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achieved by collecting the scum in primary sedimentation tank. This primary treatment alone
will not produce an effluent with an acceptable residual organic material concentration. Almost
invariably biological methods are used in the treatment systems to effect secondary treatment
for removal of organic material. In biological treatment systems, the organic material is
metabolized by bacteria. Depending upon the requirement for the final effluent quality, tertiary
treatment methods and/or pathogen removal may be included.
Today majority of wastewater treatment plants uses aerobic metabolism for the removal of
organic matter. The popularly used aerobic processes are the activated sludge process,
oxidation ditch, trickling filter, and aerated lagoons. Stabilization ponds use both the aerobic
and anaerobic mechanisms. In the recent years, due to increase in power cost and subsequent
increase in operation cost of aerobic processes, more attention is being paid for the use of
anaerobic treatment systems for the treatment of wastewater including sewage. Recently the
high anaerobic process such as Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor is used for
sewage treatment at many places.
Depending on the mode of disposal the tertiary treatment may be given for killing pathogens,
nutrient removal, suspended solids removal, etc. Generally secondary treatment followed by
disinfection will meet the effluent standards for disposal into water bodies. When the treated
sewage is disposed off on land for irrigation, the level of disinfection needs will depend on the
type of secondary treatment and type of crops with restricted or unrestricted public access.

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Questions
1. Describe advantages and disadvantages offered by the water carriage system.

2. What are the possible adverse effects when untreated or partially treated sewage is
discharged to the environment?
3. Why it is necessary to treat wastewater before disposal? What is the objective of the
sewerage works?
4. Define sewage, sullage, sewer, and sewerage.

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Module 2 : System of Sanitation
Lecture 2 : System of Sanitation

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2.1 BACKGROUND
For safe disposal of the sewage generated from a locality efficient collection, conveyance,
adequate treatment and proper disposal of treated sewage is necessary. To achieve this,
following conditions should be satisfied:
1. Sewage should not pollute the drinking water source, either surface or groundwater, or
water bodies that are used for bathing or recreational purposes.
2. The untreated sewage during conveyance should not be exposed so as to have access to
human being or animals and should not give unsightly appearances or odour nuisance,
and should not become a place for breeding flies.
3. It should not cause harm to public health and adversely affect the receiving environment.
The collection system is meant for collection of the sewage generated from individual houses
and transporting it to a common point where it can be treated as per the needs before disposal.
In olden days, waste generated from water closets was collected by conservancy methods and
other liquid waste was transported through open drain to finally join natural drains. Since, the
excreta was carried through carts, it was not hygienic method for transportation to the disposal
point. Now, collection and conveyance of sewage is done in water carriage system, where it is
transported in closed conduit using water as a medium.
2.2 TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM
The sewerage system can be of following three types:
Combined system: In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-off resulting from
storms is carried through the same conduit of sewerage system. In countries like India where
actual rainy days are very few, this system will face the problem of maintaining self cleansing
velocity in the sewers during dry season, as the sewage discharge may be far lower as
compared to the design discharge after including storm water.
Separate System: In separate system, separate conduits are used; one carrying sewage and
other carrying storm water run-off. The storm water collected can be directly discharged into
the water body since the run-off is not as foul as sewage and no treatment is generally
provided. Whereas, the sewage collected from the city is treated adequately before it is
discharged into the water body or used for irrigation to meet desired standards. Separate
system is advantageous and economical for big towns.

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Partially separate system: In this system part of the storm water especially collected from
roofs and paved courtyards of the buildings is admitted in the same drain along with sewage
from residences and institutions, etc. The storm water from the other places is collected
separately using separate storm water conduits.
2.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of combined system
Advantages
In an area where rainfall is spread throughout a year, there is no need of flushing of

sewers, as self cleansing velocity will be developed due to more quantity because of
addition of storm water.
Only one set of pipe will be required for house plumbing.
In congested areas it is easy to lay only one pipe rather than two pipes as required in
other systems.
Disadvantages
Not suitable for the area with small period of rainfall in a year, because dry weather
flow will be small due to which self cleansing velocity may not develop in sewers,
resulting in silting.
Large flow is required to be treated at sewage treatment plant before disposal, hence
resulting in higher capital and operating cost of the treatment plant.
When pumping is required this system is uneconomical.
During rains overflowing of sewers will spoil public hygiene.
2.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of separate system
Advantages
As sewage flows in separate pipe, hence the quantity to be treated at sewage treatment
plant is small, resulting in economy of treatment.
This system may be less costly as only sanitary sewage is transported in closed conduit
and storm water can be collected and conveyed through open drains.
When pumping is required during disposal, this system is economical due to less flow.
Disadvantages
Self cleansing velocity may not developed at certain locations in sewers and hence
flushing of sewers may be required.

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This system requires laying two sets of pipe, which may be difficult in congested area.
This system will require maintenance of two sets of pipelines and hence maintenance
cost is more.
2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of partially separate system
Advantages
Economical and reasonable size sewers are required.
Work of house plumbing is reduced as rain water from roofs, sullage from bathrooms
and kitchen, etc. are combined with discharge from water closets.
Flushing of sewers may not be required as small portion of storm water is allowed to
enter in sanitary sewage.
Disadvantages
Increased cost of pumping as compared to separate system at treatment plants and
intermediate pumping station wherever required.
In dry weather self-cleansing velocity may not develop in the sewers.
2.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE TYPE OF SYSTEM
Following points are considered before finalizing the type of collection system.
The separate system requires laying of two sets of conduits whereas in combined system
only one bigger size conduit is required.
Laying of two separate conduits may be difficult in the congested streets.
In combined system sewers are liable for silting during non-monsoon season, hence they
are required to be laid at steeper gradients. Steeper gradients for the sewers may require
more number of pumping stations, particularly for flat terrain, which may make the system
costly.
Large quantity of wastewater is required to be treated before discharge in case of combined
system. Hence, large capacity treatment plant is required.
In separate system, only sewage is treated before it is discharged into natural water body or
used for irrigation. No treatment is generally given to the rainwater collected before it is
discharge in to natural water body.
In case of separate system pumping is only required for sewage. Pumping can be avoided
for storm water lines, as they are not very deep and normally laid along the natural slopes.

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In combined system large capacity pumping station is required to safely handle the flow
that is likely to be generated during highest design storm considered.
Based on site conditions the economy of the system needs to be evaluated and selection is
made accordingly.
2.4 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
The network of sewers consists of house sewers discharging the sewage to laterals. The lateral
discharges the sewage into branch sewers or sub-mains and sub-mains discharge it into main
sewer or trunk sewer. The trunk sewer carries sewage to the common point where adequate
treatment is given to the sewage and then it is discharged. The patterns of collection system
depend upon:
1. The topographical and hydrological features of the area.

2. The location and methods of treatment and disposal works.
3. The type of sewerage system employed, and
4. Extent of area to be served.
Following patterns can be adopted for collection systems as per the suitability (Birdie, 1990).
a. Perpendicular pattern
The shortest possible path is maintained for the rains carrying storm water and sewage
(Figure 2.1).
It is suitable for separate system and partially separate system for storm water drains.
This pattern is not suitable for combined system, because treatment plant is required to be
installed at many places; otherwise it will pollute the water body where the sewage is
discharged.
Figure 2.1 Perpendicular pattern of collection system

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b. Interceptor pattern
Sewers are intercepted with large size sewers (Figure 2.2).

Interceptor carries sewage to a common point, where it can be disposed off with or without
treatment.
Overflows should be provided to handle very large flow.
Figure 2.2 Interceptor pattern of collection system
c. Radial Pattern
It is suitable for land disposal.

In this pattern sewers are laid radialy outwards from the centre, hence this pattern is called
as radial pattern (Figure 2.3).
The drawback in this pattern is more number of disposal works are required.
Figure 2.3 Radial pattern of collection system

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d. Fan Pattern
This pattern is suitable for a city situated at one side of the natural water body, such as
river.
The entire sewage flows to a common point where one treatment plant is located (Figure
2.4).
In this number of converging main sewers and sub-mains are used forming a fan shape.
Single treatment plant is required in this pattern.
The drawback in this pattern is that larger diameter sewer is required near to the treatment
plant as entire sewage is collected at a common point.
In addition, with new development of the city the load on existing treatment plant
increases.
Figure 2.4 Fan pattern of collection system

e. Zone Pattern
More numbers of interceptors are provided in this pattern (Figure 2.5).

This pattern is suitable for sloping area than flat areas.
Figure 2.5 Zone pattern of collection system

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Questions
1. Describe in brief various types of water carriage systems.
2. Describe merits and drawback of separate system, partially separate system and
combined system.
3. What are the considerations while finalizing the type of sewerage system?
4. Write about various patterns of collection system.

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Module 3 : Sewer Material
Lecture 3 : Sewer Material

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3.1 Important Factors Considered for Selecting Material for Sewer
Following factors should be considered before selecting material for manufacturing sewer pipes:
a. Resistance to corrosion
Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S. This gas in contact with moisture can
be converted into sulfuric acid. The formation of acids can lead to the corrosion of sewer pipe.
Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is must for long life of pipe.
b. Resistance to abrasion
Sewage contain considerable amount of suspended solids, part of which are inorganic solids such
as sand or grit. These particles moving at high velocity can cause wear and tear of sewer pipe
internally. This abrasion can reduce thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of the
sewer by making the interior surface rough.
c. Strength and durability

The sewer pipe should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces that are likely to come
on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of backfill material and traffic load,
if any. They are not subjected to internal pressure of water. To withstand external load safely
without failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is essential. In addition, the
material selected should be durable and should have sufficient resistance against natural
weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.
d. Weight of the material

The material selected for sewer should have less specific weight, which will make pipe light in
weight. The lightweight pipes are easy for handling and transport.
e. Imperviousness
To eliminate chances of sewage seepage from sewer to surrounding, the material selected for
pipe should be impervious.
f. Economy and cost

Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.

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g. Hydraulically efficient
The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional coefficient.
3.2 Materials for Sewers

3.2.1 Asbestos Cement Sewers
These are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibers, silica and cement. Asbestos
fibers are thoroughly mixed with cement to act as reinforcement.
These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0 m.
These pipes can be easily assembled without skilled labour with the help of special
coupling, called Ring Tie Coupling or Simplex joint.
The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion and the joints are flexible to permit 12o
deflection for curved laying.
These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of rainwater
from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and for transport
of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
Advantages
These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
Interior is smooth (Mannings n = 0.011) hence, can make excellent hydraulically
efficient sewer.
Disadvantages
These pipes are structurally not very strong.
These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produce H2S, in
presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed leading to corrosion of pipe material.
3.2.2 Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete

Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement
cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes.
Precast pipes are better in quality than the cast in situ pipes. The reinforcement in these pipes can
be different such as single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than 0.8 m;
double cage reinforced pipes used for both internal and external pressure greater than 0.8 m;

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elliptical cage reinforced pipes used for larger diameter sewers subjected to external pressure;
and Hume pipes with steel shells coated with concrete from inside and outside. Nominal
longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25% is provided in these pipes.
Advantages of concrete pipes

Strong in tension as well as compression.
Resistant to erosion and abrasion.
They can be made of any desired strength.
Easily molded, and can be in situ or precast pipes.
Economical for medium and large sizes.
These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and
backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.
Disadvantages
These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.
The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.
The concrete sewers can be protected internally by vitrified clay linings. With protection lining
they are used for almost all the branch and main sewers. Only high alumina cement concrete
should be used when pipes are exposed to corrosive liquid like sewage.
3.2.3 Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers

These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers. The size of the pipe
available is 5 cm to 30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2 m. These pipes are rarely
manufactured for diameter greater than 90 cm. These are joined by bell and spigot flexible
compression joints.
Advantages
Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such as sewage.
Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
The pipes are highly impervious.
Strong in compression.

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These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters.

The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5% of their own weight, when
immersed in water for 24 h.
Disadvantages
Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport.
These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in tension.
These require large number of joints as the individual pipe length is small.
3.2.4 Brick Sewers

This material is used for construction of large size combined sewer or particularly for storm
water drains. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree roots and groundwater
through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or ceramic block to make them
smooth and hydraulically efficient. Lining also makes the pipe resistant to corrosion.
3.2.5 Cast Iron Sewers

These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as well as
bending stresses. However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used for outfall sewers, rising
mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under pressure. These
are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below railways and
highways. They are used for carried over piers in case of low lying areas. They form 100% leak
proof sewer line to avoid groundwater contamination. They are less resistant to corrosion; hence,
generally lined from inside with cement concrete, coal tar paint, epoxy, etc. These are joined
together by bell and spigot joint. IS:1536-1989 and IS:1537-1976 provides the specifications for
spun and vertically cast pipes, respectively.
3.2.6 Steel Pipes

These are used under the situations such as pressure main sewers, under water crossing, bridge
crossing, necessary connections for pumping stations, laying pipes over self supporting spans,
railway crossings, etc. They can withstand internal pressure, impact load and vibrations much
better than CI pipes. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better.
These pipes cannot withstand high external load and these pipes may collapse when negative

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pressure is developed in pipes. They are susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for
partially flowing sewers. They are protected internally and externally against the action of
corrosion.
3.2.7 Ductile Iron Pipes

Ductile iron pipes can also be used for conveying the sewers. They demonstrate higher capacity
to withstand water hammer. The specifications for DI pipes is provided in IS:12288-1987. The
predominant wall material is ductile iron, a spheroidized graphite cast iron. Internally these pipes
are coated with cement mortar lining or any other polyethylene or poly wrap or plastic bagging/
sleeve lining to inhibit corrosion from the wastewater being conveyed, and various types of
external coating are used to inhibit corrosion from the environment. Ductile iron has proven to be
a better pipe material than cast iron but they are costly. Ductile iron is still believed to be
stronger and more fracture resistant material. However, like most ferrous materials it is
susceptible to corrosion. A typical life expectancy of thicker walled pipe could be up to 75 years,
however with the current thinner walled ductile pipe the life could be about 20 years in highly
corrosive soils without a corrosion control program like cathodic protection.
3.2.8 Plastic sewers (PVC pipes)

Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works in
house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works.
They offer smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to
corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough
and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transport of these pipes.
3.2.9 High Density Polythylene (HDPE) Pipes

Use of these pipes for sewers is recent development. They are not brittle like AC pipes and other
pipes and hence hard fall during loading, unloading and handling do not cause any damage to the
pipes. They can be joined by welding or can be jointed with detachable joints up to 630 mm
diameter (IS:4984-1987). These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial wastewater.
They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes. PVC pipes offer very little flexibility and
normally considered rigid; whereas, HDPE pipes are flexible hence best suited for laying in hilly

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and uneven terrain. Flexibility allows simple handling and installation of HDPE pipes. Because
of low density, these pipes are very light in weight. Due to light in weight, they are easy for
handling, this reduces transportation and installation cost. HDPE pipes are non corrosive and
offer very smooth inside surface due to which pressure losses are minimal and also this material
resist scale formation.
3.2.10 Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pipes

This martial is widely used where corrosion resistant pipes are required. Glass fiber reinforced
plastic (GRP) can be used as a lining material for conventional pipes to protect from internal or
external corrosion. It is made from the composite matrix of glass fiber, polyester resin and
fillers. These pipes have better strength, durability, high tensile strength, low density and high
corrosion resistance. These are manufactured up to 2.4 m diameter and up to 18 m length
(IS:12709-1989). Glass reinforced plastic pipes represent the ideal solution for transport of any
kind of water, chemicals, effluent and sewage, because they combine the advantages of corrosion
resistance with a mechanical strength which can be compared with the steel pipes. Typical
properties that result in advantages in GRP pipes application can be summarized as follows:
Light weight of pipes that allows for the use of light laying and transport means.
Possibility of nesting of different diameters of pipe thus allowing additional saving in
transport cost.
Length of pipe is larger than other pipe materials.
Easy installation procedures due to the kind of mechanical bell and spigot joint.
Corrosion resistance material, hence no protections such as coating, painting or
cathodic are then necessary.
Smoothness of the internal wall that minimizes the head loss and avoids the formation
of deposits.
High mechanical resistance due to the glass reinforcement.
Absolute impermeability of pipes and joints both from external to internal and vice-
versa.
Very long life of the material.

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3.2.11 Lead Sewers

They are smooth, soft and can take odd shapes.
This pipe has an ability to resist sulphide corrosion.
However, these pipes are very costly.
These are used in house connection.
3.3 Shapes of Sewer Pipes
Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, slopping continuously towards the
outfall. These are designed to flow under gravity. Shapes other than circular are also used.
Other shapes used for sewers are (Figure 3.1 a through i):
a. Standard Egg-shaped sewer
b. New egg-shaped sewer
c. Horse shoe shaped sewer
d. Parabolic shaped sewer
e. Semi-elliptical section
f. Rectangular shape section
g. U-shaped section
h. Semi-circular shaped sewer
i. Basket handled shape sewer
Standard egg-shaped sewers, also called as ovoid shaped sewer, and new or modified egg-shaped
sewers are used in combined sewers. These sewers can generate self cleansing velocity during
dry weather flow. Horse shoe shaped sewers and semi-circular sections are used for large sewers
with heavy discharge such as trunk and outfall sewers. Rectangular or trapezoidal section is used
for conveying storm water. U-shaped section is used for larger sewers and especially in open
cuts. Other sections of the sewers have become absolute due to difficulty in construction on site
and non availability of these shapes readily in market.

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(a) Standard Egg Shaped Sewer (b) New/ Modified Egg shaped Sewer
(c) Horse shoe sewer section (d) Parabolic section
(e) Semi-elliptical section (f) Rectangular Sewer

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(g) U-shaped section (h) Semi-circular Section
(i) Basket-Handle Section
Figure 3.1: Different shapes used for construction of sewer other than circular

11 | P a g e
Questions
1. What should be properties of the material to be used for sewer construction?
2. Write a note on different materials used for sewer construction.
3. With schematic describe various shapes used for sewer section.
4. What are the advantages and drawback of the circular section sewers?

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Module 4 : Quantity Estimation of Sewage
Lecture 4 : Quantity Estimation of Sewage

2|Page
4.1 Introduction
The sewage collected from the municipal area consists of wastewater generated from the
residences, commercial centers, recreational activities, institutions and industrial wastewaters
discharge into sewer network from the permissible industries located within the city limits.
Before designing the sewer, it is necessary to know the discharge i.e., quantity of sewage,
which will flow in it after completion of the project.
Accurate estimation of sewage discharge is necessary for hydraulic design of the sewers. Far
lower estimation than reality will soon lead to inadequate sewer size after commissioning of
the scheme or the sewers may not remain adequate for the entire design period. Similarly, very
high discharge estimated will lead to larger sewer size affecting economy of the sewerage
scheme, and the lower discharge actually flowing in the sewer may not meet the criteria of the
self cleansing velocity and hence leading to deposition in the sewers. Actual measurement of
the discharge is not possible if the sewers do not exist; and where the capacity of the existing
sewers is inadequate and need to be increased, still actual present discharge measurement may
not be accurate due to unaccounted overflow and leakages that might be occurring in the
existing system. Since sewers are design to serve for some more future years, engineering
skills have to be used to accurately estimate the sewage discharge.
4.2 Sources of Sanitary Sewage
1. Water supplied by water authority for domestic usage, after desired use it is discharged in
to sewers as sewage.
2. Water supplied to the various industries for various industrial processes by local authority.
Some quantity of this water after use in different industrial applications is discharged as
wastewater.
3. The water supplied to the various public places such as, schools, cinema theaters, hotels,
hospitals, and commercial complexes. Part of this water after desired use joins the sewers
as wastewater.
4. Water drawn from wells by individuals to fulfill domestic demand. After uses this water is
discharged in to sewers.
5. The water drawn for various purposes by industries, from individual water sources such as,
wells, tube wells, lake, river, etc. Fraction of this water is converted into wastewater in
different industrial processes or used for public utilities within the industry generating
wastewater. This is discharged in to sewers.

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6. Infiltration of groundwater into sewers through leaky joints.

7. Entrance of rainwater in sewers during rainy season through faulty joints or cracks in
sewers.
4.3 Dry Weather Flow
Dry weather flow is the flow that occurs in sewers in separate sewerage system or the flow that
occurs during dry seasons in combined system. This flow indicates the flow of sanitary
sewage. This depends upon the rate of water supply, type of area served, economic conditions
of the people, weather conditions and infiltration of groundwater in the sewers, if sewers are
laid below groundwater table.
4.4 Evaluation of Sewage Discharge
Correct estimation of sewage discharge is necessary; otherwise sewers may prove inadequate
resulting in overflow or may prove too large in diameter, which may make the system
uneconomical and hydraulically inefficient. Hence, before designing the sewerage system it is
important to know the discharge / quantity of the sewage, which will flow in it after
completion of the project and at the end of design period.
Apart from accounted water supplied by water authority that will be converted to wastewater,
following quantities are considered while estimating the sewage quantity:
a. Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies

People using water supply from private wells, tube wells, etc. contribute to the wastewater
generation more than the water supplied by municipal authority. Similarly, certain industries
utilize their own source of water. Part of this water, after desired uses, is converted into
wastewater and ultimately discharged into sewers. This quantity can be estimated by actual
field observations.
b. Addition due to infiltration

This is additional quantity due to groundwater seepage in to sewers through faulty joints or
cracks formed in the pipes. The quantity of the water depends upon the height of the water
table above the sewer invert level. If water table is well below the sewer invert level, the
infiltration can occur only after rain when water is moving down through soil. Quantity of the
water entering in sewers depends upon the permeability of the ground soil and it is very

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difficult to estimate. While estimating the design discharge, following suggested discharge can
be considered (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Suggested estimates for groundwater infiltration for sewers laid below groundwater
table (CPHEEO Manual, 1993)
Unit Minimum Maximum
L/ha.d 5000 50000
L/km.d 500 5000
L per day per manhole 250 500
Storm water drainage may also infiltrate into sewers. This inflow is difficult to calculate.
Generally, no extra provision is made for this quantity. This extra quantity can be taken care
of by extra empty space left at the top in the sewers, which are designed for running full at
maximum design discharge.
c. Subtraction due to water losses

The water loss, through leakage in water distribution system and house connections, does not
reach consumers and hence, not appear as sewage.
d. Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage system

Certain amount of water is used for such purposes, which may not generate sewage, e.g. boiler
feed water, water sprinkled over the roads, streets, lawns, and gardens, water consumed in
industrial product, water used in air coolers, etc.
Net quantity of sewage: The net quantity of sewage production can be estimated by
considering the addition and subtraction as discussed above over the accounted quantity of
water supplied by water authority as below:
Accounted Subtraction
Net Addition due to Subtraction
quantity of due to water
quantity unaccounted Addition due _ due to
= water supplied + + _ not entering
of private water to infiltration water
from the water the sewerage
sewage supplies losses
works system
Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered as quantity of sewage

produced.

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4.5 Variation in Sewage Flow
Variation occurs in the flow of sewage over annual average daily flow. Fluctuation in flow
occurs from hour to hour and from season to season. The typical hourly variation in the sewage
flow is shown in the Figure 4.1. If the flow is gauged near its origin, the peak flow will be
quite pronounced. The peak will defer if the sewage has to travel long distance. This is because
of the time required in collecting sufficient quantity of sewage required to fill the sewers and
time required in travelling. As sewage flow in sewer lines, more and more sewage is mixed in
it due to continuous increase in the area being served by the sewer line. This leads to reduction
in the fluctuations in the sewage flow and the lag period goes on increasing. The magnitude of
variation in the sewage quantity varies from place to place and it is very difficult to predict.
For smaller township this variation will be more pronounced due to lower length and travel
time before sewage reach to the main sewer and for large cities this variation will be less.
Figure 4.1 Typical hourly variations in sewage flow
For estimating design discharge following relation can be considered:
Maximum daily flow = Two times the annual average daily flow (representing
seasonal variations)
Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow (accounting hourly
variations)
= Three times the annual average daily flow
As the tributary area increases, peak hourly flow will decrease. For smaller population served
(less than 50000) the peak factor can be 2.5, and as the population served increases its value
reduces. For large cities it can be considered about 1.5 to 2.0. Therefore, for outfall sewer the

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peak flow can be considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow. Even for design of the
treatment facility, the peak factor is considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow.
The minimum flow passing through sewers is also important to develop self cleansing velocity
to avoid silting in sewers. This flow will generate in the sewers during late night hours. The
effect of this flow is more pronounced on lateral sewers than the main sewers. Sewers must be
checked for minimum velocity as follows:
Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow
Minimum hourly flow = minimum daily flow
= 1/3 Annual average daily flow
The overall variation between the maximum and minimum flow is more in the laterals and less
in the main or trunk sewers. This ratio may be more than 6 for laterals and about 2 to 3 in case
of main sewers.
4.6 Design Period
The future period for which the provision is made in designing the capacities of the various
components of the sewerage scheme is known as the design period. The design period depends
upon the following:
Ease and difficulty in expansion,
Amount and availability of investment,
Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in communities, industries and
commercial investments,
Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
Life of the material and equipment.
Following design period can be considered for different components of sewerage scheme.
1. Laterals less than 15 cm diameter : Full development
2. Trunk or main sewers : 40 to 50 years
3. Treatment Units : 15 to 20 years
4. Pumping plant : 5 to 10 years

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4.7 Design Discharge of Sanitary Sewage
The total quantity of sewage generated per day is estimated as product of forecasted population
at the end of design period considering per capita sewage generation and appropriate peak
factor. The per capita sewage generation can be considered as 75 to 80% of the per capita
water supplied per day. The increase in population also result in increase in per capita water
demand and hence, per capita production of sewage. This increase in water demand occurs due
to increase in living standards, betterment in economical condition, changes in habit of people,
and enhanced demand for public utilities.
1
Problem 4.1
A city has a projected population of 60,000 spread over area of 50 hectare. Find the design
discharge for the separate sewer line by assuming rate of water supply of 250 LPCD and out of
this total supply only 75 % reaches in sewer as wastewater. Make necessary assumption
whenever necessary.
Solution:
Given data
Q = 250 lit/capita/day
Sewage flow = 75% of water supply
= 0.75* 250
= 187.5 LPCD
Total sewage generated = 187.5*60000/(24*3600)
= 130.21 lit/sec
= 0.13 m3/s
Assume peak factor = 2
Total design discharge = 0.26 m3/s.

8|Page
Questions
1. Write about evaluation of design discharge for sanitary sewage.
2. What is dry weather flow?
3. Describe variation in sewage flow. How design of different component of sewerage
scheme will be affected due to this variation?
4. What is design period? It depends on what parameters? Provide design period for
different components of the sewerage scheme.

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Module 5 : Population Forecasting
Lecture 5 : Population Forecasting

2|Page
5. POPULATION FORECASTING
Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected population of a
particular city, estimated for the design period. Any underestimated value will make system
inadequate for the purpose intended; similarly overestimated value will make it costly.
Changes in the population of the city over the years occur, and the system should be designed
taking into account of the population at the end of the design period.
Factors affecting changes in population are:

increase due to births
decrease due to deaths
increase/ decrease due to migration
increase due to annexation.
The present and past population record for the city can be obtained from the census
population records. After collecting these population figures, the population at the end of
design period is predicted using various methods as suitable for that city considering the
growth pattern followed by the city.
5.1 ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD
This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development. If it is used for
small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give lower population estimate than actual
value. In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from the
past census reports. This increase is added to the present population to find out the population
of the next decade. Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant rate.
Hence, dP/dt = C i.e., rate of change of population with respect to time is constant.
Therefore, Population after nth decade will be Pn= P + n.C (1)

Where, Pn is the population after n decades and P is present population.

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Example: 1
Predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041 from the following population data.
Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 8,58,545 10,15,672 12,01,553 16,91,538 20,77,820 25,85,862
Solution
Year Population Increment

1961 858545 -
1971 1015672 157127
1981 1201553 185881
1991 1691538 489985
2001 2077820 386282
2011 2585862 508042
Average increment = 345463
Population forecast for year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 + 345463 x 1 = 2931325
Similarly, P2031 = 2585862 + 345463 x 2 = 3276788
P2041 = 2585862 + 345463 x 3 = 3622251
5.2 GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

(OR GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION METHOD)
In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to
remain constant. Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in
population. Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades. The population at the
end of nth decade Pn can be estimated as:
Pn = P (1+ IG/100) n (2)
Where, IG = geometric mean (%)
P = Present population
N = no. of decades.
Example: 2

4|Page
Considering data given in example 1 predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041
using geometrical progression method.
Solution
Year Population Increment Geometrical increase
Rate of growth
1961 858545 -
1971 1015672 157127 (157127/858545)
= 0.18
1981 1201553 185881 (185881/1015672)
= 0.18
1991 1691538 489985 (489985/1201553)
= 0.40
2001 2077820 386282 (386282/1691538)
= 0.23
2011 2585862 508042 (508042/2077820)
= 0.24
Geometric mean IG = (0.18 x 0.18 x 0.40 x 0.23 x 0.24)1/5

= 0.235 i.e., 23.5%
Population in year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)1 = 3193540
Similarly for year 2031 and 2041 can be calculated by,
P2031 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)2 = 3944021
P2041 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)3 = 4870866
5.3 INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for an average
size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be in increasing order.
While adopting this method the increase in increment is considered for calculating future
population. The incremental increase is determined for each decade from the past population
and the average value is added to the present population along with the average rate of
increase.
Hence, population after nth decade is Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y (3)
th
Where, Pn = Population after n decade
X = Average increase
Y = Incremental increase

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Example: 3
Considering data given in example 1 predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041
using incremental increase method.
Solution
Year Population Increase (X) Incremental increase (Y)
1961 858545 - -
1971 1015672 157127 -
1981 1201553 185881 +28754
1991 1691538 489985 +304104
2001 2077820 386282 -103703
2011 2585862 508042 +121760
Total 1727317 350915
Average 345463 87729
Population in year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 + (345463 x 1) + {(1 (1+1))/2} x 87729
= 3019054
For year 2031 P2031 = 2585862 + (345463 x 2) + {(2 (2+1)/2)} x 87729
= 3539975
P2041 = 2585862 + (345463 x 3) + {(3 (3+1)/2)} x 87729
= 4148625
5.4 GRAPHICAL METHOD
In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on
graph (Figure 5.1). The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future population.
This extension should be done carefully and it requires proper experience and judgment. The
best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with population curve
of some other similar cities having the similar growth condition.

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Figure 5.1 Graphical method of population forecasting
5.5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHICAL METHOD
In this method the census populations of cities already developed under similar conditions are
plotted. The curve of past population of the city under consideration is plotted on the same
graph. The curve is extended carefully by comparing with the population curve of some
similar cities having the similar condition of growth. The advantage of this method is that the
future population can be predicted from the present population even in the absence of some
of the past census report. The use of this method is explained by a suitable example given
below.
Example: 4
The populations of a new city X given for decades 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 were 32,000;
38,000; 43,000 and 50,000, respectively. The cities A, B, C and D were developed in similar
conditions as that of city X. It is required to estimate the population of the city X in the years
2010 and 2020. The population of cities A, B, C and D of different decades were given
below:
(i) City A: 50,000; 62,000; 72,000 and 87,000 in 1960, 1972, 1980 and 1990,
respectively.
(ii) City B: 50,000; 58,000; 69,000 and 76,000 in 1962, 1970, 1981 and 1988,
respectively.
(iii) City C: 50,000; 56,500; 64,000 and 70,000 in 1964, 1970, 1980 and 1988,
respectively.

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(iv) City D: 50,000; 54,000; 58,000 and 62,000 in 1961, 1973, 1982 and 1989,
respectively.
Population curves for the cities A, B, C, D and X are plotted (Figure 5.2). Then an average
mean curve is also plotted by dotted line as shown in the figure. The population curve X is
extended beyond 50,000 matching with the dotted mean curve. From the curve, the
populations obtained for city X are 58,000 and 68,000 in year 2010 and 2020.
100
A
Population in thousand
80 B
C
60 D
X
40
20
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Population curve
Figure 5.2 Comparative graph method
5.6 MASTER PLAN METHOD
The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard manner, but are
planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan. The master plan is prepared
for next 25 to 30 years for the city. According to the master plan the city is divided into
various zones such as residence, commerce and industry. The population densities are fixed
for various zones in the master plan. From this population density total water demand and
wastewater generation for that zone can be worked out. By this method it is very easy to
access precisely the design population.
5.7 LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD
This method is used when the growth rate of population due to births, deaths and migrations
takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any extraordinary changes like
epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural disaster, etc., and the population follows the growth

8|Page
curve characteristics of living things within limited space and economic opportunity. If the
population of a city is plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained under normal
condition looks like S-shaped curve and is known as logistic curve (Figure 5.3).
SaturationPopulation,Ps
M
Pointof L
inflexion
K
Curveof
J growthrate
Figure 5.3 Logistic curve for population growth
In Figure 5.3, the curve shows an early growth JK at an increasing rate i.e. geometric growth
or log growth, P, the transitional middle curve KM follows arithmetic increase i.e. =

constant. For later growth MN the rate of change of population is proportional to difference
between saturation population and existing population, i.e. (Ps - P). A mathematical
solution for this logistic curve JN, which can be represented by an autocatalytic first order
equation, is given by
loge ( ) - log ( e ) = -K.P .t

s (4)
where, P = Population at any time t from the origin J
Ps= Saturation population

P0 = Population of the city at the start point J
K = Constant
t = Time in years

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From the above equation we get
loge = - K.Ps.t (5)
After solving we get,

(6)
. .
Substituting = m (a constant) (7)
and - K.Ps = n (another constant) (8)
we get, P= (9)
.
This is the required equation of the logistic curve, which will be used for predicting
population. If only three pairs of characteristic values P0, P1, P2 at times t = t0 = 0, t1 and t2 =
2t1 extending over the past record are chosen, the saturation population Ps and constant m and
n can be estimated by the following equation, as follows:

Ps = (10)

m=
2.3
n = log10 (11)
1
Example: 5
The population of a city in three consecutive years i.e. 1991, 2001 and 2011 is 80,000;
250,000 and 480,000, respectively. Determine (a) The saturation population, (b) The equation
of logistic curve, (c) The expected population in 2021.
Solution
It is given that
P0 = 80,000 t0 = 0

10 | P a g e
P1 = 250,000 t1 = 10 years
P2 = 480,000 t2 = 20 years
The saturation population can be calculated by using equation

Ps =

, , , , , , , , , , , ,
=
, , , , , , ,
= 655,602
, ,
We have, m= = = 7.195
,
2.3
n = log10
1
2.3 , , , ,
= log10
10 , , ,
= -0.1488
Population in 2021
P=
.
6,55,602
=
7.195 x loge 1 0.1488 x 30
6,55,602
= = 605,436
7.195 x .

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Questions
1. Explain different methods of population forecasting.

2. The population data for a town is given below. Find out the population in the year
2021, 2031 and 2041 by (a) arithmetical (b) geometric (c) incremental increase
methods.
Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 84,000 1, 15,000 1, 60,000 2, 05,000 2, 50,000
3. In three consecutive decades the population of a town is 40,000; 100,000 and

130,000. Determine: (a) Saturation population; (b) Equation for logistic curve; (c)
Expected population in next decade.
Answers:
Q.2. Population in the year 2021, 2031 and 2041
(a) Arithmetical increase method: 291,500; 333,000; 374,500
(b) Geometrical progression method: 327,500; 429,025; 562,023
(c) Incremental increase methods: 296,170; 347,010; 402,520
Q.3. (a) Saturation population: 137,500

(b) Equation for logistic curve: m = 2.437; n = -0.187;
P=
. .
(c) Expected population in next decade: 136,283

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Module 6 : Quantity Estimation of Storm Water
Lecture 6 : Quantity Estimation of Storm Water

2|Page
6.1 Factors Affecting the Quantity of Stormwater

The surface run-off resulting after precipitation contributes to the stormwater. The quantity of
stormwater reaching to the sewers or drains is very large as compared with sanitary sewage.
The factors affecting the quantity of stormwater flow are as below:
i. Area of the catchment

ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
viii. Number and size of ditches present in the area
6.2 Measurement of Rainfall

The rainfall intensity could be measured by using rain gauges and recording the amount of rain
falling in unit time. The rainfall intensity is usually expressed as mm/hour or cm/hour. The
rain gauges used can be manual recording type or automatic recording rain gauges.
6.3 Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm Water
1. Rational Method 3
2. Empirical formulae method
In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is considered as function of intensity of
rainfall, coefficient of runoff and area of catchment.
Time of Concentration: The period after which the entire catchment area will start
contributing to the runoff is called as the time of concentration.
The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration will not produce
maximum discharge.
The runoff may not be maximum even when the duration of the rain is more than the
time of concentration. This is because in such cases the intensity of rain reduces with
the increase in its duration.
The runoff will be maximum when the duration of rainfall is equal to the time of
concentration and is called as critical rainfall duration. The time of concentration is
equal to sum of inlet time and time of travel.

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Time of concentration = Inlet time + time of travel
Figure 6.1 Runoff from a given catchment
Inlet Time: The time required for the rain in falling on the most remote point of the tributary
area to flow across the ground surface along the natural drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer is
called inlet time (Figure 6.1). The inlet time Ti can be estimated using relationships similar
to following. These coefficients will have different values for different catchments.
Ti = [0.885 L3/H]0.385 (1)

Where,
Ti = Time of inlet, minute
L = Length of overland flow in Kilometer from critical point to mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to mouth of drain, meter
Time of Travel: The time required by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to
the point under consideration or the point of concentration is called as time of travel.
Time of Travel (Tt) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain (2)
Runoff Coefficient: The total precipitation falling on any area is dispersed as percolation,
evaporation, storage in ponds or reservoir and surface runoff. The runoff coefficient can be
defined as a fraction, which is multiplied with the quantity of total rainfall to determine the
quantity of rain water, which will reach the sewers. The runoff coefficient depends upon the
porosity of soil cover, wetness and ground cover. The overall runoff coefficient for the
catchment area can be worked out as follows:

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Overall runoff coefficient, C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + .+ An.Cn] / [ A1 + A2 + + An] (3)

Where, A1, A2, .An are types of area with C1, C2, Cn as their coefficient of runoff,
respectively.
The typical runoff coefficient for the different ground cover is provided in the Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Runoff coefficient for different type of cover in catchment
Type of Cover Coefficient of runoff

Business areas 0.70 0.90
Apartment areas 0.50 0.70
Single family area 0.30 0.50
Parks, Playgrounds, Lawns 0.10 0.25
Paved Streets 0.80 0.90
Water tight roofs 0.70 0.95
6.3.1 Rational method

Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method as below:
Storm water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360 (4)
Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) for the duration equal to time of concentration, and
A = Drainage area in hectares
OR
Q = 0.278 C.I.A (5)
Where, Q is m3/sec; I is mm/hour, and A is area in square kilometer
6.3.2 Empirical Formulae

Empirical formulae are used for determination of runoff from very large area. Various
empirical relationships are developed based on the past observations on specific site conditions
suiting a particular region. These empirical formulae can be used for prediction of storm water
runoff for that particular catchment.
A] Burkli Zeiglar formula
C.I.A 4
Q S/A
141.58

5|Page
(6)
B] Mc Math formula (used in USA)
C.I.A 5
Q S/A
148.35
(7)
C] Fullers formula
C.M 0.8
Q
13.23
(8)
(Where, S- Slope of the area in meter per thousand meter, M- drainage area in sq. km., A
drainage area in hectare)
6.3.3 Empirical formulae for rainfall intensities
These relationships between rainfall intensity and duration are developed based on long term
experience in field (Figure 6.2). Under Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall in design is
usually in the range 12 mm/h to 20 mm/h. In general, the empirical relationship has the
following forms:
I = a/ (t + b) OR I = b / tn (9)
Where, a, b, and n are constants.
Figure 6.2 Relationship of rainfall duration and intensity
British Ministry of Health formula
I = 760 / (t + 10) (for storm duration of 5 to 20 minutes) (10)
I = 1020 / (t + 10) (for storm duration of 20 to 100 minutes) (11)

Where, I is intensity of rainfall, mm/h and t is duration of storm, minutes.
6|Page
6.4 Examples
1. Determine designed discharge for a combined system serving population of 50000 with
rate of water supply of 135 LPCD. The catchment area is 100 hectares and the average
coefficient of runoff is 0.60. The time of concentration for the design rainfall is 30 min
and the relation between intensity of rainfall and duration is I = 1000/(t + 20).
Solution
Estimation of sewage quantity
Considering 80% of the water supplied will result in wastewater generation,
The quantity of sanitary sewage = 50000 x 135 x 0.80 = 5400 m3/day = 0.0625 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2.5, the design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.0625 x 2.5
= 0.156 m3/sec
Estimation of storm water discharge
Intensity of rainfall, I = 1000/(t + 20)
Therefore, I = 1000/(30 + 20) = 20 mm/h
Hence, storm water runoff, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.6 x 20 x 100/(360) = 3.33 m3/sec
Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 3.33 + 0.156 = 3.49 m3/sec
2. The catchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface cover in the catchment can be
classified as given below:
Type of cover Coefficient of runoff Percentage
Roofs 0.90 15
Pavements and yards 0.80 15
Lawns and gardens 0.15 25
Roads 0.40 20
Open ground 0.10 15
Single family dwelling 0.50 10
Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm water runoff, if intensity of rainfall is
30 mm/h for rain with duration equal to time of concentration. If population density in the
area is 350 persons per hectare and rate of water supply is 200 LPCD, calculate design
discharge for separate system, partially separate system, and combined system.

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Solution
Estimation of storm water discharge for storm water drain of separate system
Overall runoff coefficient C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + .+ An.Cn] / [ A1 + A2 + + An]
= (0.15 x 0.90 + 0.15 x 0.80 + 0.25 x 0.15 + 0.20 x 0.4 + 0.15 x 0.1 + 0.10 x 0.5)
0.15 + 0.15 + 0.25 + 0.20 + 0.15 + 0.10
= 0.44
Therefore quantity of storm water, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.44 x 30 x 300/360
= 11 m3/sec
Estimation of sewage discharge for sanitary sewer of separate system
Quantity of sanitary sewage = 300 x 350 x 200 x 0.80 = 16800 m3/day = 0.194 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2, the design discharge for sanitary sewers = 0.194 x 2
= 0.389 m3/sec
Estimation of discharge for partially separate system
Storm water discharge falling on roofs and paved courtyards will be added to the sanitary
sewer. This quantity can be estimated as:
Average coefficient of runoff = (0.90 x 45 + 0.80 x 45) / 90 = 0.85
Discharge = 0.85 x 30 x 90 / 360 = 6.375 m3/sec
Therefore total discharge in the sanitary sewer of partially separate system = 6.375 + 0.389 =
6.764 m3/sec, and the discharge in storm water drains = 11 6.375 = 4.625 m3/sec

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Questions
1. Explain the factors affecting the storm water discharge.
2. What is time of concentration? What is its role in determination of the storm water
runoff?
3. Explain critical rainfall duration. Why rainfall of this duration will generate maximum
runoff?
4. Write short notes on the estimation of storm water runoff.
5. What is coefficient of runoff?
6. A catchment is having total area of 60 hectares. The rainfall intensity relation with
duration for this catchment is given by the relation I = 100/(t+20), where I is in cm/h
and t is duration of rain in min. (a) Draw the graph of rainfall intensity relation with
duration at 10 min interval? (b) What will be the storm water runoff from this
catchment if the average imperviousness factor is 0.63, and time of concentration is 35
min? (c) If population density of the area is 350 persons per hectare and water
consumption is 170 LPCD, what will be the design discharge for separate system and
combined system?
Q. 6.Solution:
(a)
3.5
3.0
Rainfall intensity (cm/h)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Time (min)

3
b) 1.91 m /sec; c) design discharge for sanitary sewers of separate system = 0.0662
m3/sec; and design discharge of combined system = 1.976 m3/sec.

1|Page
Module 7: Hydraulic Design of Sewers and Storm Water Drains
Lecture 7 : Hydraulic Design of Sewers and Storm Water Drains

2|Page
7.1 General Consideration
Generally, sewers are laid at steeper gradients falling towards the outfall point with circular
pipe cross section. Storm water drains are separately constructed as surface drains at suitable
gradient, either rectangular or trapezoidal section. Sewers are designed to carry the maximum
quantity of sanitary sewage likely to be produced from the area contributing to the particular
sewer. Storm water drains are designed to carry the maximum storm runoff that is likely to be
produced by the contributing catchment area from a rain of design frequency and of duration
equal to the time of concentration.
7.2 Requirements of Design and Planning of Sewerage System
The sewerage scheme is designed to remove entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the
houses to the point of treatment and disposal. Following aspects should be considered while
designing the system.
The sewers provided should be adequate in size to avoid overflow and possible health
hazards.
For evaluating proper diameter of the sewer, correct estimation of sewage discharge is
necessary.
The flow velocity inside the sewer should neither be so large as to require heavy
excavation and high lift pumping, nor should be so small causing deposition of the solid in
the sewers.
The sewers should be laid at least 2 to 3 m deep to carry sewage from basement.
The sewage in sewer should flow under gravity with 0.5 to 0.8 full at designed discharge,
i.e. at the maximum estimated discharge.
The sewage is conveyed to the point usually located in low-lying area, where the treatment
plant is located.
Treatment plant should be designed taking into consideration the quality of raw sewage
expected and to meet the discharge standards.
7.3 Difference Between Water Supply Pipes and Sewer Pipes

The major difference between the water distribution network and sewerage system is presented
in the Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Comparison between the water distribution network and sewage collection system

3|Page
Water Supply Pipes Sewer Pipes

It carries pure water. It carries contaminated water containing
organic or inorganic solids which may
settle in the pipe. It can cause corrosion
of the pipe material.
Velocity higher than self-cleansing is not To avoid deposition of solids in the pipes
essential, because of solids are not present self-cleansing velocity is necessary at all
in suspension. possible discharge.
It carries water under pressure. Hence, the It carries sewage under gravity.
pipe can be laid up and down the hills and Therefore it is required to be laid at a
the valleys within certain limits. continuous falling gradient in the
downward direction towards outfall point.
These pipes are flowing full under Sewers are design to run partial full at
pressure. maximum discharge. This extra space
ensures non-pressure gravity flow. This
will minimize the leakage from sewer,
from the faulty joints or crack, if any.
7.4 Provision of Freeboard in Sewers
7.4.1 Sanitary Sewers

Sewers with diameter less than 0.4 m are designed to run half full at maximum discharge, and
sewers with diameter greater than 0.4 m are designed to flow 2/3 to full at maximum
discharge. The extra space provided in the sewers provides factor of safety to counteract
against the following factors:
1. Safeguard against lower estimation of the quantity of wastewater to be collected at the end
of design period due to private water supply by industries and public. Thus, to ensure that
sewers will never flow full eliminating pressure flow inside the sewer.
2. Large scale infiltration of storm water through wrong or illegal connection, through
underground cracks or open joints in the sewers.
3. Unforeseen increase in population or water consumption and the consequent increase in
sewage production.

4|Page
7.4.2 Storm Water Drains

Storm water drains are provided with nominal freeboard, above their designed full supply line
because the overflow from storm water drains is not much harmful. Minimum of 0.3 m free
board is generally provided in storm water drains.
4
7.5 Hydraulic Formulae for Determining Flow Velocities
Sewers of any shape are hydraulically designed as open channels, except in the case of inverted
siphons and discharge lines of pumping stations. Following formulae can be used for design of
sewers.
1. Mannings Formula
This is most commonly used for design of sewers. The velocity of flow through sewers can be
determined using Mannings formula as below:
1 2/3 1/2
v r s
n
Where, (1)
v = velocity of flow in the sewer, m/sec
r = Hydraulic mean depth of flow, m
= a/p
a = Cross section area of flow, m2
p = Wetted perimeter, m
n = Rugosity coefficient, depends upon the type of the channel surface i.e., material and
lies between 0.011 and 0.015. For brick sewer it could be 0.017 and 0.03 for stone
facing sewers.
s = Hydraulic gradient, equal to invert slope for uniform flows.
2. Chezys Formula
v C r1/2 s1/2
(2)
Where, C is Chezys constant and remaining variables are same as above equation.
3. Crimp and Burges Formula
v 83.5 r2/3 s1/2

(3)
4. Hazen- Williams Formula
V = 0.849 C R0.63 S0.54 (4)

5|Page
The Hazen-Williams coefficient C varies with life of the pipe and it has high value when the
pipe is new and lower value for older pipes. For example for RCC new pipe it is 150 and the
value recommended for design is 120, as the pipe interior may become rough with time. The
design values of C; for AC pipes, Plastic pipes, CI pipes, and steel lined with cement are 120,
120, 100, and 120, respectively. Modified Hazen-Williams equation is also used in practice.
7.6 Minimum Velocity: Self Cleansing Velocity
The velocity that would not permit the solids to settle down and even scour the deposited
particles of a given size is called as self-cleansing velocity. This minimum velocity should at
least develop once in a day so as not to allow any deposition in the sewers. Otherwise, if such
deposition takes place, it will obstruct free flow causing further deposition and finally leading
to the complete blocking of the sewers. This minimum velocity or self-cleansing velocity can
be worked out as below:
8K
Vs (Ss 1)g.d '
f'
Where, (5)
K= constant, for clean inorganic solids = 0.04 and for organic solids = 0.06
f' = Darcy Weisbach friction factor (for sewers = 0.03)
Ss = Specific gravity of sediments
g = gravity acceleration
d' = diameter of grain, m
Hence, for removing the impurities present in sewage i.e., sand up to 1 mm diameter
with specific gravity 2.65 and organic particles up to 5 mm diameter with specific
gravity of 1.2, it is necessary that a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/sec and an
average velocity of about 0.9 m/sec should be developed in sewers.
Hence, while finalizing the sizes and gradients of the sewers, they must be checked for
the minimum velocity that would be generated at minimum discharge, i.e., about 1/3 of
the average discharge.
While designing the sewers the flow velocity at full depth is generally kept at about 0.8
m/sec or so. Since, sewers are generally designed for to full, the velocity at
designed discharge (i.e., to full) will even be more than 0.8 m/sec. Thus, the
minimum velocity generated in sewers will help in the following ways:

6|Page
Adequate transportation of suspended solids,

Keeping the sewer size under control; and
Preventing the sewage from decomposition by moving it faster, thereby
preventing evolution of foul gases.
7.7 Maximum Velocity or Non-scouring Velocity
The interior surface of the sewer pipe gets scored due to the continuous abrasion caused by
suspended solids present in sewage. The scoring is pronounced at higher velocity than what
can be tolerated by the pipe materials. This wear and tear of the sewer pipes will reduce the
life span of the pipe and their carrying capacity. In order to avoid this, it is necessary to limit
the maximum velocity that will be produced in sewer pipe at any time. This limiting or non-
scouring velocity mainly depends upon the material of sewer. The limiting velocity for
different sewer material is provided in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Limiting or non-scouring velocity for different sewer material
Sewer Material Limiting velocity, m/sec

Vitrified tiles 4.5 5.5
Cast iron sewer 3.5 4.5
Cement concrete 2.5 3.0
Stone ware sewer 3.0 4.5
Brick lined sewer 1.5 2.5
The problem of maximum or non-scouring velocity is severe in hilly areas where ground slope
is very steep and this is overcome by constructing drop manholes at suitable places along the
length of the sewer.
7.8 Effect of Flow Variations on Velocities in a Sewer
The discharge flowing through sewers varies considerably from time to time. Hence, there
occur variation in depth of flow and thus, variation in Hydraulic Mean Depth (H.M.D.). Due
to change in H.M.D. there occur changes in flow velocity, because it is proportional to
(H.M.D.)2/3. Therefore, it is necessary to check the sewer for minimum velocity of about 0.45
m/sec at the time of minimum flow (1/3 of average flow) and the velocity of about 0.9 to 1.2
m/sec should be developed at a time of average flow. The velocity should also be checked for
limiting velocity i.e. non-scouring velocity at the maximum discharge.

7|Page
For flat ground sewers are designed for self-cleansing velocity at maximum discharge. This
will permit flatter gradient for sewers. For mild slopping ground, the condition of developing
self-cleansing velocity at average flow may be economical. Whereas, in hilly areas, sewers can
be designed for self-cleansing velocity at minimum discharge, but the design must be checked
for non-scouring velocity at maximum discharge.

8|Page
Example: 1
Design a sewer for a maximum discharge of 650 L/s running half full. Consider Mannings
rugosity coefficient n = 0.012, and gradient of sewer S = 0.0001.
Solution
Q = A.V
0.65 = (D2/8) (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
R = A/P
Solving for half full sewer, R = D/4
Substituting in above equation and solving we get D = 1.82 m.
Comments: If the pipe is partially full it is not easy to solve this equation and it is time
consuming.

1|Page
Module 7 : Hydraulic Design of Sewers and Storm Water Drains
Lecture 8 : Hydraulic Design of Sewers and Storm Water Drains (Contd.)

2|Page
7.9 Hydraulic Characteristics of Circular Sewer Running Full or Partially Full
Figure 7.1 Section of a circular sewer running partially full
a) Depth at Partial flow

D D
d cos
2 2 2 (6)
b) Therefore proportionate depth

d 1
1 cos
D 2 2 (7)
c) Proportionate area
a Sin

A 360 2 (8)
p
d) Proportionate perimeter:
P 360 (9)
e) Proportionate Hydraulic Mean Depth

r 360Sin
1
R 2 (10)
v N r 2/3
f) Proportionate velocity =
V n R2/3 (11)
In all above equations except everything is constant (Figure 7.1). Hence, for different
values of , all the proportionate elements can be easily calculated. These values of the
hydraulic elements can be obtained from the proportionate graph prepared for different values

3|Page
of d/D (Figure 7.2). The value of Mannings n can be considered constant for all depths. In
reality, it varies with the depth of flow and it may be considered variable with depth and
accordingly the hydraulic elements values can be read from the graph for different depth ratio
of flow.
From the plot it is evident that the velocities in partially filled circular sewer sections can
exceed those in full section and it is maximum at d/D of 0.8. Similarly, the discharge obtained
is not maximum at flow full condition, but it is maximum when the depth is about 0.95 times
the full depth.
The sewers flowing with depths between 50% and 80% full need not to be placed on steeper
gradients to be as self cleansing as sewers flowing full. The reason is that velocity and
discharge are function of tractive force intensity which depends upon friction coefficient as
well as flow velocity generated by gradient of the sewer. Using subscript s denoting self
cleansing equivalent to that obtained in full section, the required ratios vs/V, qs/Q and ss/S can
be computed as stated below:
(a) Hydraulic elements for circular sewer

4|Page
(b) Hydraulic elements of circular sewer possessing equal selfcleansing properties at all depths
Figure 7.2 Proportionate graph for circular sewer section (CPHEEO Manual, 1993)
Consider a layer of sediment of unit length, unit width and thickness t, is deposited at the
invert of the sewer (Figure 7.3). Let the slope of the sewer is degree with horizontal. The
drag force or the intensity of tractive force () exerted by the flowing water on a channel is
given by:
= w . R. S (12)
Figure 7.3 A sediment particle moving on the sewer invert
Where,
w = unit weight of water
R = Hydraulic mean depth
S = slope of the invert of the sewer per unit length
5|Page
With the assumption that the quantity of tractive force intensity at full flow and partial flow
implies equality of cleansing, i.e., for sewers to be same self-cleansing at partial depth as full
depth:
=T
Therefore, w . r. ss = w . R. S (13)
Hence, ss = (R/r) S
ss R
Or
S r (14)
Therefore,
2/3 1/ 2
vs N r ss

V n R S (15)
OR, by substituting r/R = S/ss
1/ 6
vs N r

V n R (16)
And
1/ 6
qs N a r

Q n A R (17)
Example: 2
A 300 mm diameter sewer is to flow at 0.3 depth on a grade ensuring a degree of self cleansing
equivalent to that obtained at full depth at a velocity of 0.9 m/sec. Find the required grade and
associated velocity and rate of discharge at this depth. Assume Mannings rugosity coefficient
n = 0.013. The variation of n with depth may be neglected.
Solution:
Mannings formula for partial depth
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v r s
n
For full depth
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V R S
N
Using V = 0.90 m/sec, N = n = 0.013 and R = D/4 = 75 mm = 0.075 m
1
0.90 0.075 2 / 3 S 1 / 2
0.013

6|Page
S = 0.0043
This is the gradient required for full depth.
and, Q = A.V = /4 (0.3)2 x 0.90 = 0.064 m3/s
At depth d = 0.3D, (i.e., for d/D = 0.3) we have a/A = 0.252 and r/R = 0.684 (neglecting
variation of n)
Now for the sewer to be same self cleansing at 0.3 m depth as it will be at full depth, we have
the gradient (ss) required as ss = (R/r)S
Therefore, ss = S / 0.684
= 0.0043 / 0.0684 = 0.0063
Now, the velocity vs generated at this gradient is given by
1/ 6
Nr
vs V
n R
= 1 x (0.684)1/6 x 0.9
= 0.846 m/s
The discharge qs is given by
1/ 6
N ar
qs Q
n A R
qs = 1 x (0.258) x (0.939) x (0.064)
= 0.015 m3/s
Example: 3
A combined sewer was designed to serve an area of 60 sq. km with an average population
density of 185 persons/hectare. The average rate of sewage flow is 350 L/Capita/day. The
maximum flow is 50% in excess of the average sewage flow. The rainfall equivalent of 12 mm
in 24 h can be considered for design, all of which is contributing to surface runoff. What will
be the discharge in the sewer? Find the diameter of the sewer if running full at maximum
discharge.
Solution:
Total population of the area = population density x area
= 185 x 60 x 102
= 1110 x 103 persons
Average sewage flow = 350 x 11.1 x 105 Liters/day
= 388.5 x 106 L/day

7|Page
= 4.5 m3/sec
Storm water flow = 60 x 106 x (12/1000) x [1/(24 x 60 x 60)]
= 8.33 m3/sec
Maximum sewage flow = 1.5 x average sewage flow
= 1.5 x 4.5 = 6.75 m3/sec
Total flow of the combined sewer = sewage flow + storm flow
= 6.75 + 8.33 = 15.08 m3/sec
Hence, the capacity of the sewer = 15.08 m3/sec
Hence, diameter of the sewer required at the velocity of 0.9 m/s can be calculated as
/4 (D)2 x 0.90 = 15.08 m3/s
Hence, D = 4.62 m
Example: 4
Find the minimum velocity and gradient required to transport coarse sand through a sewer of
40 cm diameter with sand particles of 1.0 mm diameter and specific gravity 2.65, and organic
matter of 5 mm average size with specific gravity 1.2. The friction factor for the sewer
material may be assumed 0.03 and roughness coefficient of 0.012. Consider k = 0.04 for
inorganic solids and 0.06 for organic solids.
Solution
Minimum velocity i.e. self cleansing velocity
8k
Vs ( Ss 1) gd '
f'
8 x0.04
Vs (2.65 1) x9.81x0.001
0.03
= 0.4155 m/sec say 0.42 m/sec
Similarly, for organic solids this velocity will be 0.396 m/sec
Therefore, the minimum velocity in sewer = 0.42 m/sec
Now, Diameter of the sewer D = 0.4 m

Hydraulic Mean Depth = D/4 = 0.4/4 = 0.1 m
Using Mannings formula:
V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
0.42 = (1/0.012) x (0.1)2/3 x S1/2

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S = 1/1824.5
Therefore, gradient of the sewer required is 1 in 1824.5.
Example : 5
Design a sewer running 0.7 times full at maximum discharge for a town provided with the
separate system, serving a population 80,000 persons. The water supplied from the water
works to the town is at a rate of 190 LPCD. The mannings n = 0.013 for the pipe material and
permissible slope is 1 in 600. Variation of n with depth may be neglected. Check for
minimum and maximum velocity assuming minimum flow 1/3 of average flow and maximum
flow as 3 times the average. (for d/D = 0.7, q/Q = 0.838, v/V = 1.12)
Solution
Average water supplied = 80000 x 190 x (1/24 x 60 x 60 x 1000) = 0.176 m3/sec
Sewage production per day, (considering 80% of water supply) = 0.176 x 0.8 = 0.14 m3/sec
Maximum sewage discharge = 3 x 0.14 = 0.42 m3/sec
Now for d/D = 0.7, q/Q = 0.838, v/V = 1.12
Therefore, Q = 0.42/0.838 = 0.5 m3/sec
Now
2/3
1 D 2 D
Q S 1/ 2
n 4 4
2/3 1/ 2
1 D 2 D 1
Q
0.013 4 4 600
Therefore, D = 0.78 m
V = Q/A = 1.04 m/sec
Now, v/V = 1.12
Therefore v = 1.12 x 1.04 = 1.17 m/sec
This velocity is less than limiting velocity hence, OK
Check for minimum velocity
Now qmin = 0.14/3 = 0.047 m3/sec
qmin/Q = 0.047/0.5 = 0.09
From proportional chart, for q/Q = 0.09, d/D = 0.23 and v/V = 0.65
Therefore, the velocity at minimum flow = 0.65 x 1.04 = 0.68 m/sec
This velocity is greater than self cleansing velocity, hence OK
dmin = 0.23 x 0.78 = 0.18 m

9|Page
Comment: If the velocity at minimum flow is not satisfactory, increase the slope or try with
reduction in depth of flow at maximum discharge or reduction in diameter of the sewer.
Assignment: Solve the above problem with population 100000 persons and pipe flowing 0.75
full at maximum discharge. The rate of water supply is 150 LPCD, n = 0.013, and permissible
S = 1 in 600.

1|Page
Module 7: Hydraulic Design Of Sewers And Storm Water Drains
Lecture 9 : Hydraulic Design Of Sewers And Storm Water Drains (Contd.)

2|Page
7.10 Design of Storm Water Drains for Separate System
Important points for design
Storm water is collected from streets into the link drains, which in turn discharge into main
drains of open type. The main drain finally discharges the water into open water body. As far
as possible gravity discharge is preferred, but when it is not possible, pumping can be
employed. While designing, the alignment of link drains, major drains and sources of disposal
are properly planned on contour maps. The maximum discharge expected in the drains is
worked out. The longitudinal sections of the drains are prepared keeping in view the full
supply level (FSL) so that at no place it should go above the natural surface level along the
length. After deciding the FSL line, the bed line is fixed (i.e. depth of drain) based on
following consideration.
a. The bed level should not go below the bed level of source into which storm water is
discharged.
b. The depth in open drain should preferably be kept less than man height.
c. The depth is sometimes also decided based on available width.
d. The drain section should be economical and velocities generated should be non-silting and
non-scouring in nature.
The drain section is finally designed using Mannings formula. Adequate free board is
provided over the design water depth at maximum discharge.
7.11 Laying of Sewer Pipes
Sewers are generally laid starting from their outfall ends towards their starting points.
With this advantage of utilization of the tail sewers even during the initial periods of its
construction is possible.
It is common practice, to first locate the points where manholes are required to be
constructed as per drawing, i.e., L-section of sewer, and then laying the sewer pipe
straight between the two manholes.
The central line of the sewer is marked on the ground and an offset line is also marked
parallel to the central line at suitable distance, about half the trench width plus 0.6 m.
This line can be drawn by fixing the pegs at 15 m intervals and can be used for finding
out center line of the sewer simply by offsetting.
The trench of suitable width is excavated between the two manholes and the sewer is
laid between them. Further excavation is then carried out for laying the pipes between

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the next consecutive manholes. Thus, the process is continued till the entire sewers are
laid out.
The width of the trench at the bottom is generally kept 15 cm more than the diameter of
the sewer pipe, with minimum 60 cm width to facilitate joining of pipes.
If the sewer pipes are not to be embedded in concrete, such as for firm grounds, then
the bottom half portion of the trench is excavated to confirm the shape of the pipe itself.
In ordinary or softer grounds, sewers are laid embedded in concrete.
The trench is excavated up to a level of the bottom embedding concrete or up to the
invert level of the sewer pipe plus pipe thickness if no embedding concrete is provided.
The designed invert levels and desired slope as per the longitudinal section of the sewer
should be precisely transferred to the trench bottom.
After bedding concrete is laid in required alignment and levels. The sewer pipes are
then lowered down into the trench either manually or with the help of machines for
bigger pipe diameters.
The sewer pipe lengths are usually laid from the lowest point with their sockets facing
up the gradient, on desired bedding. Thus, the spigot end of new pipe can be easily
inserted on the socket end of the already laid pipe.
7.12 Hydraulic Testing of Sewers
7.12.1 Test for Leakage or Water Test
The sewers are tested after giving sufficient time for the joints to set for no leakage. For this
sewer pipe sections are tested between the manholes to manhole under a test pressure of about
1.5 m water head. To carry this, the downstream end of the sewer is plugged and water is
filled in the manhole at upper end. The depth of water in manhole is maintained at about 1.5
m. The sewer line is inspected and the joints which leak are repaired.
7.12.2 Test for Straightness of alignment
This can be tested by placing a mirror at one end of the sewer line and a lamp at the other end.
If the pipe line is straight, full circle of light will be observed.
Backfilling the trench: After the sewer line has been laid and tested, the trenches are back
filled. The earth should be laid equally on either side with layer of 15 cm thickness. Each
layer should be properly watered and rammed.

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Questions
1. A 900 m long storm sewer collects water from a catchment area of 40 hectares,
where 35% area is covered by roof (C=0.9), 20% area by pavements (C=0.8) and
45% area is covered by open plots (C=0.15). Determine the average intensity of
rainfall and diameter of storm water drain. Assume the time of entry = 3 min;
velocity at full flow = 1.45 m/sec; gradient of sewer = 0.001, and roughness
coefficient = 0.013. The intensity of rainfall, cm/h = 75/(t + 5).
2. Explain the importance of considering minimum and maximum velocity while
designing the sewers.
3. Explain Self-cleansing velocity.
4. Explain important consideration while finalizing alignment and bed line of storm
water drain.
5. Find the gradient required in sewer of 0.5 m diameter to maintain self cleansing
velocity at flow full condition.
6. Write short notes on laying of sewer pipes. What hydraulic tests are conducted on
the sewers?
7. Prepare notes on sewer maintenance.
Answers
Q. 1: Overall runoff coefficient = 0.5425; Average intensity of rainfall = 4.09 cm/h; Storm
water quantity = 2.465 m3/sec; and diameter of storm water drain = 1.556 m

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Module 8 : Sewer Appurtenances
Lecture 10 : Sewer Appurtenances

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The structures, which are constructed at suitable intervals along the sewerage system to help
its efficient operation and maintenance, are called as sewer appurtenances. These include:
(1) Manholes, (2) Drop manholes, (3) Lamp holes,
(4) Clean-outs, (5) Street inlets called Gullies, (6) Catch basins,
(7) Flushing Tanks, (8) Grease & Oil traps, (9) Inverted Siphons, and
(10) Storm Regulators.
8.1 Manholes
The manhole is masonry or R.C.C. chamber constructed at suitable intervals along the sewer
lines, for providing access into them. Thus, the manhole helps in inspection, cleaning and
maintenance of sewer. These are provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or
change of diameter of the sewer. The sewer line between the two manholes is laid straight
with even gradient. For straight sewer line manholes are provided at regular interval
depending upon the diameter of the sewer. The spacing of manhole is recommended in IS
1742-1960. For sewer up to 0.3 m diameter or sewers which cannot be entered for cleaning
or inspection the maximum spacing between the manholes recommended is 30 m, and 300 m
spacing for pipe greater than 2.0 m diameter (Table 8.1). A spacing allowance of 100 m per
1 m diameter of sewer is a general rule in case of very large sewers (CPHEEO, 1993). The
internal dimensions required for the manholes are provided in Table 8.2 (CPHEEO, 1993).
The minimum width of the manhole should not be less than internal diameter of the sewer
pipe plus 150 mm benching on both the sides.
Table 8.1 Spacing of Manholes

Pipe Diameter Spacing
Small sewers 45 m
0.9 to 1.5 m 90 to 150 m
1.5 to 2.0 m 150 to 200 m
Greater than 2.0 m 300 m
Table 8.2 The minimum internal dimensions for manhole chambers

Depth of sewer Internal dimensions
0.9 m or less depth 0.90 m x 0.80 m
For depth between 0.9 m and 2.5 m 1.20 m x 0.90 m, 1.2 m dia. for circular
For depth above 2.5 m and up to 9.0 m For circular chamber 1.5 m dia.
For depth above 9.0 m and up to 14.0 m For circular chamber 1.8 m dia.

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8.1.1 Classification of Manholes
Depending upon the depth the manholes can be classified as:

(a) Shallow Manholes, (b) Normal Manholes, and (c) Deep Manholes
Shallow Manholes: These are 0.7 to 0.9 m depth, constructed at the start of the branch sewer
or at a place not subjected to heavy traffic conditions (Figure 8.1). These are provided with
light cover at top and called inspection chamber.
Figure 8.1 Shallow manhole
Normal Manholes: These manholes are 1.5 m deep with dimensions 1.0 m x 1.0 m square or
rectangular with 1.2 m x 0.9 m (Figure 8.2). These are provided with heavy cover at its top
to support the anticipated traffic load.
Figure 8.2 Rectangular manhole for depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m
Deep Manholes: The depth of these manholes is more than 1.5 m. The section of such
manhole is not uniform throughout (Figure 8.3). The size in upper portion is reduced by
providing an offset. Steps are provided in such manholes for descending into the manhole.
These are provided with heavy cover at its top to support the traffic load.

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(a)
(b)
Figure 8.3 (a) Rectangular and (b) Circular deep manhole
8.1.2 Other Types of Manholes
Straight Through Manholes

This is the simplest type of manhole, which is built on a straight run of sewer with no side
junctions. Where there is change in the size of sewer, the soffit or crown level of the two
sewers should be the same, except where special conditions require otherwise.

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Junction Manholes
This type of manholes are constructed at every junction of two or more sewers, and on the
curved portion of the sewers, with curved portion situated within the manhole. This type of
manholes can be constructed with the shape other than rectangular to suit the curve
requirement and achieve economy. The soffit of the smaller sewer at junction should not be
lower than that of the larger sewer. The gradient of the smaller sewer may be made steeper
from the previous manhole to reduce the difference of invert at the point of junction to a
convenient amount.
Side entrance Manholes

In large sewers where it is difficult to obtain direct vertical access to the sewer from the top
ground level due to obstructions such as, other pipe lines like water, gas, etc., the access shaft
should be constructed in the nearest convenient position off the line of sewer, and connected
to the manhole chamber by a lateral passage. The floor of the side entrance passage which
should fall at about 1 in 30 towards the sewer should enter the chamber not lower than the
soffit level of the sewer. In large sewers necessary steps or a ladder (with safety chain or
removable handrail) should be provided to reach the benching from the side entrance above
the soffit.
Drop Manholes
When a sewer connects with another sewer, where the difference in level between invert level
of branch sewer and water line in the main sewer at maximum discharge is greater than 0.6
m, a manhole may be built either with vertical or nearly vertical drop pipe from higher sewer
to the lower one (Figure 8.4). The drop manhole is also required in the same sewer line in
sloping ground, when drop more than 0.6 m is required to control the gradient and to satisfy
the maximum velocity i.e., non-scouring velocity.
The drop pipe may be outside the shaft and encased in concrete or supported on brackets
inside the shaft. If the drop pipe is outside the shaft, a continuation of the sewer should be
built through the shaft wall to form a rodding and inspection eye, provided with half blank
flange (Figure 8.4). When the drop pipe is inside the shaft, it should be of cast iron and
provided with adequate arrangements for rodding and with water cushion of 150 mm depth at
the end. The diameter of the drop pipe should be at least equal to incoming pipe.

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Figure 8.4 Drop manhole
Scraper (service) type manhole

All sewers above 450 mm in diameter should have one manhole at intervals of 110 to 120 m
of scraper type. This manhole should have clear opening of 1.2 m x 0.9 m at the top to
facilitate lowering of buckets.
Flushing Manholes
In flat ground for branch sewers, when it is not possible to obtain self cleansing velocity at all
flows, due to very little flow, it is necessary to incorporate flushing device. This is achieved
by making grooves at intervals of 45 to 50 m in the main drains in which wooden planks are
inserted and water is allowed to head up. When the planks are removed, the water will rush
with high velocity facilitating cleaning of the sewers. Alternatively, flushing can be carried
out by using water from overhead water tank through pipes and flushing hydrants or through
fire hydrants or tankers and hose.
Flushing manholes are provided at the head of the sewers. Sufficient velocity shall be
imparted in the sewer to wash away the deposited solids. In case of heavy chocking in
sewers, care should be exercised to ensure that there is no possibility of back flow of sewage
into the water supply mains.
8.2 INVERTED SIPHONS

An inverted siphon or depressed sewer is a sewer that runs full under gravity flow at a
pressure above atmosphere in the sewer. Inverted siphons are used to pass under obstacles
such as buried pipes, subways, etc (Fig. 8.5). This terminology siphon is misnomer as there

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is no siphon action in the depressed sewer. As the inverted siphon requires considerable
attention for maintenance, it should be used only where other means of passing an obstacle in
line of the sewer are impracticable.
Figure 8.5 Inverted siphon
8.3 STORMWATER INLETS

Storm water inlets are provided to admit the surface runoff to the sewers. These are classified
in three major groups viz. curb inlets, gutter inlets, and combined inlets. They are provided
either depressed or flush with respect to the elevation of the pavement surface. The structure
of the inlet is constructed with brickwork with cast iron grating at the opening confirming to
IS 5961. Where the traffic load is not expected, fabricated steel grating can be used. The clear
opening shall not be more than 25 mm. The connecting pipe from the street inlet to the sewer
should be minimum of 200 mm diameter and laid with sufficient slope. A maximum spacing
of 30 m is recommended between the inlets, which depends upon the road surface, size and
type of inlet and rainfall.
Curb Inlet: These are vertical opening in the road curbs through which stormwater flow
enters the stormwater drains. These are preferred where heavy traffic is anticipated (Figure
8.6a).
Gutter Inlets: These are horizontal openings in the gutter which is covered by one or more
grating through which stormwater is admitted (Figure 8.6b).
Combined Inlets: In this, the curb and gutter inlet both are provided to act as a single unit.
The gutter inlet is normally placed right in front of the curb inlets.

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Figure 8.6 (a) Curb inlet and (b) Gutter inlet
8.4 CATCH BASINS

Catch basins are provided to stop the entry of heavy debris present in the storm water into the
sewers. However, their use is discouraged because of the nuisance due to mosquito breeding
apart from posing substantial maintenance problems. At the bottom of the basin space is
provided for the accumulation of impurities. Perforated cover is provided at the top of the
basin to admit rain water into the basin. A hood is provided to prevent escape of sewer gas
(Figure 8.7).
Figure 8.7 Catch basin
8.5 CLEAN-OUTS
It is a pipe which is connected to the underground sewer. The other end of the clean-out pipe
is brought up to ground level and a cover is placed at ground level (Figure 8.8). A clean-out
is generally provided at the upper end of lateral sewers in place of manholes. During
blockage of pipe, the cover is taken out and water is forced through the clean-out pipe to
lateral sewers to remove obstacles in the sewer line. For large obstacles, flexible rod may be

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inserted through the clean-out pipe and moved forward and backward to remove such
obstacle.
Figure 8.8 Clean-out
8.6 REGULATOR OR OVERFLOW DEVICE

These are used for preventing overloading of sewers, pumping stations, treatment plants or
disposal arrangement, by diverting the excess flow to relief sewer. The overflow device may
be side flow or leaping weirs according to the position of the weir, siphon spillways or float
actuated gates and valves.
8.6.1 Side Flow Weir

It is constructed along one or both sides of the combined sewer and delivers the excess flow
during storm period to relief sewers or natural drainage courses (Figure 8.9). The crest of the
weir is set at an elevation corresponding to the desired depth of flow in the sewer. The weir
length must be sufficient long for effective regulation of the flow.
Steps
Manhole
Combinedsewer Adjustableplates
Tostormwatersewer
Concrete
(a) (b)
Figure 8.9 (a) Side flow weir (b) Overflow weir arrangement
8.6.2 Leaping Weir

The term leaping weir is used to indicate the gap or opening in the invert of a combined
sewer. The leaping weir is formed by a gap in the invert of a sewer through which the dry
weather flow falls and over which a portion of the entire storm leaps. This has an advantage

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of operating as regulator without involving moving parts. However, the disadvantage of this
weir is that, the grit material gets concentrated in the lower flow channel. From practical
consideration, it is desirable to have moving crests to make the opening adjustable. When
discharge is small, the sewage falls directly into the intercepting sewer through the opening.
But when the discharge exceeds a certain limit, the excess sewage leaps or jumps across the
weir and it is carried to natural stream or river. This arrangement is shown in the Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10 Leaping weir with adjustable crest
8.6.3 Float Actuated Gates and Valves

The excess flow in the sewer can also be regulated by means of automatic mechanical
regulators. These are actuated by the float according to the water level in the sump
interconnected to the sewers. Since, moving part is involved in this, regular maintenance of
this regulator is essential.
8.6.4 Siphon Spillway

This arrangement of diverting excess sewage from the combined sewer is most effective
because it works on the principle of siphon action and it operates automatically. The overflow
channel is connected to the combined sewer through the siphon. An air pipe is provided at
the crest level of siphon to activate the siphon when water will reach in the combined sewer
at stipulated level (Figure 8.11).

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Figure 8.11 Siphon spillway
8.7 FLAP GATES AND FLOOD GATES

Flap gates or backwater gates are installed at or near sewer outlets to prevent back flow of
water during high tide, or at high stages in the receiving stream. These gates can be
rectangular or circular in shape and made up of wooden planks or metal alloy sheets. Such
gates should be designed such that the flap should get open at a very small head difference.
Adequate storage in outfall sewer is also necessary to prevent back flow into the system due
to the closure of these gates at the time of high tides, if pumping is to be avoided.
8.8 SEWER VENTILATORS

Ventilation to the sewer is necessary to make provision for the escape of air to take care of
the exigencies of full flow and to keep the sewage as fresh as possible. In case of stormwater,
this can be done by providing ventilating manhole covers. In modern sewerage system,
provision of ventilators is not necessary due to elimination of intercepting traps in the house
connections allowing ventilation.
8.9 LAMP HOLE

It is an opening or hole constructed in a sewer for purpose of lowering a lamp inside it. It
consists of stoneware or concrete pipe, which is connected to sewer line through a T-junction
as shown in the Figure 8.12. The pipe is covered with concrete to make it stable. Manhole
cover of sufficient strength is provided at ground level to take the load of traffic. An electric
lamp is inserted in the lamp hole and the light of lamp is observed from manholes. If the
sewer length is unobstructed, the light of lamp will be seen. It is constructed when

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construction of manhole is difficult. In present practice as far as possible the use of lamp
hole is avoided. This lamp hole can also be used for flushing the sewers. If the top cover is
perforated it will also help in ventilating the sewer, such lamp hole is known as fresh air inlet.
Figure 8.12 Lamp hole

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Questions
1. Define sewer appurtenances. What are the appurtenances used in sewerage?

2. Describe different types of Manholes used in collection system.
3. When the drop manhole is used in sewers?
4. Describe different types of storm water inlets used in collection system.
5. Why flow regulator device is used in sewers? Describe different types of regulators
used.

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Module 9 : Sewage And Storm water Pumping Stations
Lecture 11 : Sewage And Storm water Pumping Stations
NPTELIITKharagpurWebCourses
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9.1 Introduction
There are certain locations where it is possible to convey sewage by gravity to a central
treatment facility or stormwater is conveyed up to disposal point entirely by gravity.
Whereas, in case of large area being served with flat ground, localities at lower elevation or
widely undulating topography it may be essential to employ pumping station for conveyance
of sewage to central treatment plant. Sewage and stormwater is required to be lifted up from a
lower level to a higher level at various places in a sewerages system. Pumping of sewage is
also generally required at the sewage treatment plant.
Pumping of sewage is different than water pumping due to polluted nature of the wastewater
containing suspended solids and floating solids, which may clog the pumps. The dissolved
organic and inorganic matter present in the sewage may chemically react with the pump and
pipe material and can cause corrosion. The disease causing bacteria present in the sewage
may pose health hazard to the workers. Sedimentation of organic matter in the sump well
may lead to decomposition and spreading of foul odour in the pumping station, requiring
proper design to avoid deposition. Also, variation of sewage flow with time makes it a
challenging task.
Pumping stations are often required for pumping of (1) untreated domestic wastewater, (2)
stormwater runoff, (3) combined domestic wastewater and stormwater runoff, (4) sludge at a
wastewater treatment plant, (5) treated domestic wastewater, and (6) recycling treated water
or mixed liquor at treatment plants. Each pumping application requires specific design and
pump selection considerations. At sewage treatment plant pumping is also required for
removal of grit from grit chamber and pumping may be required for conveying separated
grease and floating solids to disposal facility.
Generally pumping station should contain at least three pumping units of such capacity to
handle the maximum sewage flow if the largest unit is out of service. The pumps should be
selected to provide as uniform a flow as possible to the treatment plant. All pumping stations
should have an alarm system to signal power or pump failure and every effort should be made
to prevent or minimize overflow. Flow measuring device such as venturimeter shall be
provided at the pumping station. In all cases raw-sewage pumps should be protected by
screens or racks unless special devices such as self cutting grinder pumps are provided.
Housing for electric motors should be made above ground and in dry wells electric motors
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should be provided protection against flooding. Good ventilation in dry well should be
provided, preferably of forced air type, and accessibility for repairs and replacements should
be ensured.
The site selection for the pumping station is important and the area selected should never get
flooded. The station should be easily accessible in all weathers. The stormwater pumping
station should be so located that the water may be impounded without causing damage to the
properties. Location of the pumping station should be finalize considering the future
expansion and expected increase in the sewage flow. There need to be enough space in the
pumping station to replace low capacity pump with higher capacities as per the need in
future. The capacity of the pumping station is based on the present and future sewage flow.
Generally design period up to 15 years is considered for pumps. The civil structure and the
pipelines shall be adequate to serve for the design period of 30 years.
9.2 Types of Pumps

Following types of pumps are used in the sewerage system for pumping of sewage, sewage
sludge, grit matter, etc. as per the suitability:
a. Radial-flow centrifugal pumps
b. Axial-flow and mixed-flow centrifugal pumps
c. Reciprocating pistons or plunger pumps
d. Diaphragm pumps
e. Rotary screw pumps
f. Pneumatic ejectors
g. Air-lift pumps
Other pumps and pumping devices are available, but their use in environmental engineering
is infrequent.
Radial-Flow Centrifugal pumps: These pumps consist of two parts: (1) the casing and (2)
the impeller. The impeller of the pump rotates at high speed inside the casing. Sewage is
drawn from the suction pipe into the pump and curved rotating vanes throw it up through
outlet pipe because of centrifugal force. Radial-flow pumps throw the liquid entering the
center of the impeller out into a spiral volute or casing. The impellers of all centrifugal pumps
can be closed, semi open, or open depending on the application. Open impeller type pumps
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are more suitable because suspended solids and floating matter present in the sewage can be
easily pumped without clogging. These pumps can have a horizontal or vertical design.
These pumps are commonly used for any capacity and head. These pumps have low specific
speed up to 4200.
Axial- flow Centrifugal pumps: Axial-flow designs can handle large capacities but only with
reduced discharge heads. They are constructed vertically. The vertical pumps have positive
submergence of the impeller. These are used for pumping large sewage flow, more than 2000
m3/h and head up to 9.0 m. These pumps have relatively high specific speed of 8000
16000. The water enters in this pump axially and the head is developed by the propelling
action of the impeller vanes.
Mixed flow pumps: These pumps develop heads by combination of centrifugal action and the
lift of the impeller vane on the liquid. They are having single impeller. The flow enters the
pump axially and discharges in an axial and radial direction into volute type casing. The
specific speed of the pump varies from 4200 to 9000. These are used for medium heads
ranging from 8 m to 15 m.
Most water and wastewater can be pumped with centrifugal pumps. They should not be used
for the following:
Pumping viscous industrial liquids or sludges, where the efficiencies of centrifugal
pumps are very low, and therefore positive displacement pumps are used for such
applications.
Low flows against high heads. Except for deep-well applications, the large number of
impellers needed is a disadvantage for the centrifugal design.
The rotational speed of impeller affects the capacity, efficiency, and extent of cavitation.
Even if the suction lift is within permissible limits, cavitations can be a problem and should
be checked. Centrifugal pumps are classified on the basis of their specific speed (Ns) at the
point of maximum efficiency. The specific speed of the pump is defined as speed of the
impeller in revolution per minute such that it would deliver discharge of 1 m3/min against 1.0
m of head; and it is determined using the following equation:
3.65n Q
Ns 4
H 0.75 (1)
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Where, Q = flow in m3/min; H = Head in m; and n = speed in rpm.

The pumps with low specific speed are suitable for more suction lift than the pumps with
high specific speed. The axial flow pumps with high specific speed will not work with any
suction lift; rather these pumps require positive suction head and some minimum
submergence for trouble free operation. It is advisable to avoid suction lift for the centrifugal
pumps. Hence pumps are generally installed either to work submerged in the wet well or
installed in the dry well at such a level that the impeller will be below the level of the liquid
in the wet well.
Positive displacement pumps: These pumps include reciprocating piston, plunger, and
diaphragm pumps. Almost all reciprocating pumps used in environmental engineering are
metering or power pumps. A piston or plunger is used in a cylinder, which is driven forward
and backward by a crankshaft connected to an outside driving unit. Adjusting metering pump
flow involves merely changing the length and number of piston strokes. A diaphragm pump
is similar to a reciprocating piston or plunger, but instead of a piston, it contains a flexible
diaphragm that oscillates as the crankshaft rotates. Plunger and diaphragm pumps feed
metered amounts of chemicals (acids or caustics for pH adjustment) to a water or wastewater
stream. These are not suitable for sewage pumping because solids and rugs present in the
sewage may clog them. These pumps have high initial cost and very low efficiency.
Rotary Screw Pumps: In this type, a motor rotates a vane screw or rubber stator on a shaft to
lift or feed sludge or solid waste material to a higher level or the inlet of another pump. These
are used in the square grit chamber for removal of grit.
Air Pumps: These pumps include pneumatic ejectors and airlifts. In pneumatic ejector
wastewater flows into a receiver pot and an air pressure system then blows the liquid to a
treatment process at a higher elevation. The air system can use plant air (or steam), a
pneumatic pressure tank, or an air compressor. This pumping system has no moving parts in
contact with the waste; thus, no clogging of impeller is involved. Ejectors are normally
maintenance free and operate for longer time. Airlift pumps consist of an updraft tube, an air
line, and an air compressor or blower. Airlifts blow air at the bottom of a submerged updraft
tube. As the air bubbles travel upward, they expand reducing density and pressure within the
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tube. Higher flows can be lifted for short distances in this way. Airlifts are used in wastewater
treatment to transfer mixed liquors or slurries from one process to another. These pumps
have very low efficiency and can lift the sewage up to small head.
9.3 Efficiencies of Pumps
Efficiencies of the pumps range from 85% for large capacity centrifugals (radial-flow
centrifugals and axial-flow and mixed-flow centrifugals) to below 50% for many smaller
units. For reciprocating pistons or plunger pumps efficiency varies from 30% onward
depending on horsepower and number of cylinders. For diaphragm pumps, efficiency is about
30%, and for rotary screw type, pneumatic ejectors type and air-lift pumps it is below 25%.
9.4 Materials for Construction of Pumps

For pumping of water using radial-flow centrifugals and axial-flow and mixed-flow
centrifugal type pumps normally bronze impellers, bronze or steel bearings, stainless or
carbon steel shafts, and cast iron housing is used. For domestic wastewater pumping using
radial-flow centrifugals and axial-flow and mixed-flow centrifugal type pumps similar
material is used except that they are often made from cast iron or stainless steel impellers. For
industrial wastewater and chemical feeders using radial-flow centrifugal or reciprocating
piston or plunger type pumps, a variety of materials depending on corrosiveness are used. In
diaphragm pumps the diaphragm is usually made of rubber. Rotary screw type, pneumatic
ejectors type and air-lift pumps normally have steel components.
9.5 Pumping System Design

To choose the proper pump, the environmental engineer must know the capacity, head
requirements, and liquid characteristics. This section addresses the capacity and head
requirements.
9.5.1 Capacity
To compute capacity, the environmental engineer should first determine average system flow
rate, then decide if adjustments are necessary. For example, when pumping wastes from a
community sewage system, the pump must handle peak flows roughly two to five times the
average flow, depending on community size. Summer and winter flows and future needs also
dictate capacity. Population increase trends and past flow rates should also be considered in
this evaluation. The capacity of the pumping station should be so determined that the pump
of minimum duty should also run for at least 5 min. In addition, the capacity of the well
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should be such that with any combination of inflow and pumping, the cycle of operation for
each pump will not be less than 5 min and the maximum detention time in the wet well will
not exceed 30 min at average flow.
The capacity of the pumps installed should meet the peak flow rate with about 100% standby.
Two or more number of pumps should be provided. The size and number of pumps for larger
pumping station is so selected that variation in the flow rate can be adjusted by manipulating
speed of the pump or throttling the delivery valve, without starting or stopping the pumps too
frequently. The general practice is to provide three pumping sets in small stations consisting
of one pump of capacity equal to dry weather flow (DWF), second pump with capacity of 2
times DWF and third pump of capacity 3 times DWF. For larger pumping stations five pump
sets are provided with capacities of 2 units of 0.5 DWF, 2 pumps of 1 DWF and one pump of
3 DWF.
9.5.2 Head Requirement

Head describes pressure in terms of lift. The discharge head on a pump is a sum of the
following contributing factors:
1) Static Head (hd) - The vertical distance through which the liquid must be lifted i.e. the
lowest water level in wet well and highest point on the discharge side.
2) Friction Head (hf) - The resistance to flow caused by friction in the pipes, valves, and
bends. Entrance and transition losses shall also be included. The loss of head in friction in the
pipes is estimated from the well known equation hf = fLv2/(2gD)
3) Velocity Head (hv) - The head required to impart energy into a fluid to induce velocity.
Normally this head is quite small and can be ignored unless the total head is low. This is
estimated as v2/2g.
4) Pressure Head (hp) - The pressure differential that the pump must develop to deliver water
on the delivery side under higher pressure. The pressure on water in sump well is usually
atmospheric pressure, whereas when pumping into sewers there would be potential head at
the point of delivery, against which the pump have to deliver. Thus, this is the difference
between pressures on the liquid in the wet well and at the point of delivery.
Total Head (H) of pumping is thus expressed by the following equation:
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H = hd + hf + hv hp (2)
9.5.3 Suction Lift
The amount of suction lift that can be handled must be carefully computed. It is limited by
the barometric pressure (which depends on elevation and temperature), the vapor pressure
(which also depends on temperature), friction and entrance losses on the suction side, and the
net positive suction head (NPSH) - a factor that depends on the shape of the impeller and is
obtained from the pump manufacturer.
9.5.4 Horsepower
The horsepower required to drive the pump is called brake horsepower (BHP). The following
equation determines the brake horsepower:
BHP = (w.Q.H)/(75.p. m) (3)
Where, Q = discharge (m3/s); H = head of water (m); w = Density of water (kg/m3); p =

Efficiency of the pump; and m = efficiency of the driving motor.
9.6 Types of Pumping Stations

Pumping stations can be configured in a wide variety of arrangements, depending on size and
application. The classifications for such pumping-station configurations are: wet well/dry
well, wet well only with submersible pumps, and wet well only with non-submersible pumps.
Wet well and dry well: In this configuration, two pits (wells) are required: one to hold the
fluid, and one to house the pumps and appurtenances (Figure 9.1). This is required for fluids
that cannot be primed or conveyed long distances in suction piping, this option is typically
used to pump large volumes of raw wastewater, where uninterrupted flow is critical and
wastewater solids could clog suction piping. While construction costs of this type may be
higher and a heating, ventilation, and cooling (HVAC) system is necessary due to installation
below ground. This configuration is best for operation and maintenance activities because
operators can see and touch the equipment.
Wet well with submersible pumps: In this configuration, one well holds both the pumps and
the wastewater being pumped. The pump impeller is submerged or nearly submerged in the
wastewater. Additional piping is not required in this type to convey the wastewater to the
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impeller. This option is common worldwide, and the submersible centrifugal pumps can be
installed and operated cost-effectively. When vertical pumps are installed the driving motor
is mounted on the floor above the ceiling of the wet well.
Wet well with non-submersible Pumps: In this configuration, one well holds the wastewater.
The pumps are installed above the water level in wet well. This option is used in areas where
the wastewater can be pulled through suction piping e.g., treated or finished water or where
shutdowns or failures would not be immediately critical e.g., a package plants raw
wastewater lift stations, equalization of secondary treated wastewater, etc.
In selecting the best design for an application, environmental engineers should consider the
following factors:
Many gases are formed by domestic wastewater, including some that are flammable.
When pumps or other equipment are located in rooms below ground level, the possibility
of explosion or gas buildup exists, and ventilation is extremely important.
When wastewater is pumped at high velocities or through long lines, the hammering
caused by water can be a problem. Valves and piping should be designed to withstand
these pressure waves. Even pumps that discharge to the atmosphere should use check
valves to cushion the surge. Coarse bar screens shall be provided ahead of pumping
station when centrifugal pumps are installed.
Most of the places dry-well design is preferred. The pumping station must be able to
adjust the variation of wastewater flow. The smallest capacity pump should be able to
pump from the wet well and discharge at a self cleansing velocity of about 0.6 m/s.
Pumping stations typically include at least two pumps and a basic wet-well level control
system. One pump is considered a standby pump, although the controls typically cycle
back and forth during normal flows so they receive equal wear.
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(a) (b)
(c) (d)
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Figure 9.1 Pumping stations (a) Pumping station with horizontal pumps installed in dry well,
(b) Pumping station with vertical pump in dry well, (c) Pumping station with vertical pumps
in wet well, and (d) Wet well with submersible sewage pump
Example: 1
A per capita water demand of a township is 200 LPCD having total population of 50000
persons. The sewage generated from this town is required to lifted for 10 m of static head
and 100 m distance. Consider loss of head in bends and valves of 0.4 m. Determine (a) size
of the sump well, (b) horsepower required for the pump, (c) diamter of the rising main.
Assume suitable data required.
Solution
Estimation of sewage flow considering sewage generation equal to 80% of the water supply
Average sewage flow = 50000 x 200 x 0.8 x 10-3 = 8000 m3/d = 0.093 m3/s
Peak sewage flow, considering peak factor of 3 = 0.278 m3/s
Considering velocity of 1 m/s in rising main, diameter required
0.278 x 4
D = 0.595 m

Provide diamter of 0.6 m, hence actual velocity = 0.278*4/(D2) = 0.984 m/s
Design of sump well
Desing the sump for minimum time of 15 min for any pump to run continuously.
Quantity of sewage = 0.278 * 60 * 15 = 250.2 m3
Quantity of sewage in rising main = (D2)*L/4 = * 0.62 * 100/4 = 28.26 m3
Net storage capacity of the sump = 250.2 + 28.26 = 278.46 m3
Provide 3 sump units, two for storage of sewage and one as standby, with effective water
depth of 3.0 m. Hence the surface area of each sump = 250.2/(2 * 3) = 41.7 m2
Provide circular or rectangular shaped three sump wells each having surface area of 41.7 m2
and depth of 3.0 m.
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Check for detention time of sewage in the sump at average inflow = volume/flow
=41.7 * 3/(0.093 * 60) = 22.42 min (less than 30 min, hence acceptable)
Check for minimum duration of pumping
If pump with the maximum discharge of 0.278 m3/s (peak flow) is operated,
The maximum duration of storage at average flow = 30 min
Volume of sewage collected at average flow = 0.093 x 60 x 30 = 167.4 m3
Hence duration of pumping for maximum capacity pump = 167.4 / (0.278 x 60) = 10 min
Hence, for lower capacity pump the continuous duration of operation will be more than 10
min, which is greater than minimum operation duration of 5 min.
Power of pump
Considering friction factor of 0.04, the frictional head loss = hf = fLv2/(2gD)
= 0.04 * 100 * (0.984)2/ (2 * 9.81 * 0.6)
= 0.33 m
Velocity head = v2/2g = (0.984)2/ (2 * 9.81) = 0.05 m
Total head of pumping = 10 + 0.33 + 0.4 + 0.05 = 10.78 m
Considering efficiency of pump = 65% and efficiency of motor = 75%; hence HP of motor
required for highest capacity pump (to be able to pump peak flow) = 0.278 x 1000 x 10.78 /
(75 x 0.65 x 0.75) = 82 HP
Provide minimum 3 pumps one with 82 HP to handle peak flow alone and other two pumps
of capacity to handle of 1 DWF and 2 DWF. The power required for these pumps need to be
calculated considering discharge for each pump, and hence the change in velocity and head
loss, and following the similar procedure as mentioned above.
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Questions
1. Describe when pumping station will be required in sewerage scheme.
2. How pumping of sewage is different than pumping fresh water?
3. Write short notes on pumps used in sewage pumping and capacity of pumps required
to be installed at pumping stations.
4. Prepare short notes on specific speed of the centrifugal pumps.
5. Describe the criteria for selection of site for pumping station. What are the facilities/
accessories required in the pumping station?
6. Describe different types of pumping stations and the types of pumps used in each.
What is the basis for deciding the capacity of the wet well?
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Module 10 : Classification Of Water Pollutants And Effects On Environment
Lecture 12 : Classification Of Water Pollutants And Effects On Environment

2|Page
The various types of water pollutants can be classified in to following major categories:
(1) Organic pollutants, (2) Pathogens, (3) Nutrients and agriculture runoff, (4) Suspended
solids and sediments (organic and inorganic), (5) Inorganic pollutants (salts and metals), (6)
Thermal Pollution, and (7) Radioactive pollutants.
10.1 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS

Organic pollutants can be further divided into following categories:
a) Oxygen Demanding wastes: The wastewaters such as, domestic and municipal sewage,
wastewater from food processing industries, canning industries, slaughter houses, paper and
pulp mills, tanneries, breweries, distilleries, etc. have considerable concentration of
biodegradable organic compounds either in suspended, colloidal or dissolved form. These
wastes undergo degradation and decomposition by bacterial activity.
The dissolved oxygen available in the water body will be consumed for aerobic oxidation of
organic matter present in the wastewater. Hence, depletion of the DO will be a serious
problem adversely affecting aquatic life, if the DO falls below 4.0 mg/L. This decrease of
DO is an index of pollution.
b) Synthetic Organic Compounds

Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to enter the ecosystem through various manmade
activities such as production of these compounds, spillage during transportation, and their
uses in different applications. These include synthetic pesticides, synthetic detergents, food
additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, paints, synthetic fibers, plastics, solvents and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Most of these compounds are toxic and biorefractory organics
i.e., they are resistant to microbial degradation.
Even concentration of some of these in traces may make water unfit for different uses. The
detergents can form foams and volatile substances may cause explosion in sewers.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are used in the industries since 1930s which are complex
mixtures of chlorobiphenyls. Being a fat soluble they move readily through the environment
and within the tissues or cells. Once introduced into environment, these compounds are
exceedingly persistent and their stability to chemical reagents is also high.

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c) Oil
Oil is a natural product which results from the plant remains fossilized over millions of years,
under marine conditions. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and degradable under
bacterial action, the biodegradation rate is different for different oils, tars being one of the
slowest. Oil enters in to water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater from
production and refineries.
Being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water, separating the contact of water
with air, hence resulting in reduction of DO. This pollutant is also responsible for
endangering water birds and coastal plants due to coating of oils and adversely affecting the
normal activities. It also results in reduction of light transmission through surface waters,
thereby reducing the photosynthetic activity of the aquatic plants. Oil includes polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which are known to be carcinogenic.
10.2 PATHOGENS
The pathogenic microorganisms enter in to water body through sewage discharge as a major
source or through the wastewater from industries like slaughterhouses. Viruses and bacteria
can cause water borne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious
hepatitis in human.
10.3 NUTRIENTS
The agriculture run-off, wastewater from fertilizer industry and sewage contains substantial
concentration of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. These waters supply nutrients to the
plants and may stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic weeds in receiving waters.
Thus, the value of the water body is degraded. In long run, water body reduces DO, leads to
eutrophication and ends up as a dead pool of water. People swimming in eutrophic waters
containing blue-green algae can have skin and eye irritation, gastroenteritis and vomiting.
High nitrogen levels in the water supply, causes a potential risk, especially to infants under
six months. This is when the methemoglobin results in a decrease in the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood (blue baby disease) as nitrate ions in the blood readily oxidize ferrous
ions in the hemoglobin.
In freshwater systems, eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies receive excess

inorganic nutrients, especially N and P, which stimulate excessive growth of plants and algae.

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Eutrophication can happen naturally in the normal succession of some freshwater ecosystems.
However, when the nutrient enrichment is due to the activities of humans, sometimes referred
to as cultural eutrophication, the rate of this natural process is greatly intensified. Two
major nutrients, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), occur in streams in various forms as ions or
dissolved in solution. Aquatic plants convert dissolved inorganic forms of nitrogen (nitrate,
nitrite, and ammonium) and phosphorus (orthophosphate) into organic or particulate forms
for use in higher trophic production. The main effects caused by eutrophication can be
summarized as follows:
1. Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota changes
2. Plant and animal biomass increase
3. Turbidity increases
4. Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the lifespan of the lake, and
5. Anoxic conditions may develop.
10.4 SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND SEDIMENTS
These comprise of silt, sand and minerals eroded from land. These appear in the water
through the surface runoff during rainy season and through municipal sewers. This can lead
to the siltation, reduces storage capacities of reservoirs. Presence of suspended solids can
block the sunlight penetration in the water, which is required for the photosynthesis by
bottom vegetation. Deposition of the solids in the quiescent stretches of the stream or ocean
bottom can impair the normal aquatic life and affect the diversity of the aquatic ecosystem. If
the deposited solids are organic in nature, they will undergo decomposition leading to
development of anaerobic conditions. Finer suspended solids such as silt and coal dust may
injure the gills of fishes and cause asphyxiation.
10.5 INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Apart from the organic matter discharged in the water body through sewage and industrial
wastes, high concentration of heavy metals and other inorganic pollutants contaminate the
water. These compounds are non-biodegradable and persist in the environment. These
pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic salts, trace elements, metals, metals compounds,
complexes of metals with organic compounds, cyanides, sulphates, etc.
The accumulation of heavy metals may have adverse effect on aquatic flora and fauna and
may constitute a public health problem where contaminated organisms are used for food.

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Algal growth due to nitrogen and phosphorous compounds can be observed.

Metals in high concentration can be toxic to biota e.g. Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, and Se.
Copper greater than 0.1 mg/L is toxic to microbes.
10.6 THERMAL POLLUTION
Considerable thermal pollution results due to discharge of hot water from thermal power
plants, nuclear power plants, and industries where water is used as coolant. As a result of hot
water discharge, the temperature of water body increases. Rise in temperature reduces the DO
content of the water, affecting adversely the aquatic life. This alters the spectrum of
organisms, which can adopt to live at that temperature and DO level. When organic matter is
also present, the bacterial action increases due to rise in temperature; hence, resulting in rapid
decrease of DO. The discharge of hot water leads to the thermal stratification in the water
body, where hot water will remain on the top.
10.7 RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS
Radioactive materials originate from the following:

Mining and processing of ores,
Use in research, agriculture, medical and industrial activities, such as I131, P32, Co60, Ca45,
S35, C14, etc.
Radioactive discharge from nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors, e.g., Sr90, Cesium
Cs137, Plutonium Pu248, Uranium-238, Uranium-235,
Uses and testing of nuclear weapons.
These isotopes are toxic to the life forms; they accumulate in the bones, teeth and can cause
serious disorders. The safe concentration for lifetime consumption is 1 x 10-7 microcuries per
ml.
The summary of various pollutants and their adverse effect on the environment is presented
in Table 10.1. The major impacts have been described, however there are additional adverse
effects of release of these pollutants in the environment.

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Table 10.1 Various pollutants and their adverse effect
Sr. Pollutants Impact

No.
1. Organic pollutants
i)Oxygen Demanding Depletion of the DO will be a serious problem adversely
wastes: affecting aquatic life, if the DO falls below 4.0 mg/L.
ii)Synthetic organic Most of these compounds are toxic and biorefractory organics. It
pollutants also make water unfit for different uses.
iii) oil This pollutant is also responsible for endangering water birds and
coastal plants due to coating of oils and adversely affecting the
normal activities which cause reduction of light transmission and
photosynthesis.
2. Pathogens Number of diseases transmitted by pathogens available in
wastewater
3. Nutrients When these are disposed in aquatic environment, it can lead to
growth of undesirable aquatic life. When it discharged on land
it causes groundwater pollution.
4. Thermal pollutants When organic matter is also present, the bacterial action
increases due to rise in temperature; hence, resulting in rapid
decrease of DO. It also results in thermal stratification which
alters spectrum of organisms.
5. Radioactive These isotopes are toxic to the life forms; they accumulate in
pollutants the bones, teeth and can cause serious disorders
6. Suspended solids and Presence of suspended solids can block the sunlight penetration
sediments in the water, which is required for the photosynthesis by bottom
vegetation. Finer suspended solids such as silt and coal dust
may injure the gills of fishes and cause asphyxiation.
7. Inorganic pollutants These pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic salts, trace
elements, metals, metals compounds, complexes of metals with
organic compounds, cyanides, sulphates, etc. They have
adverse effect on aquatic flora and fauna and may constitute a
public health problem.

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Questions
1. Explain different types of water pollutants.

2. What are the adverse effects on the receiving water body when these pollutants are
discharged in water along with effluents?
3. Describe thermal pollution. How it is caused?

1|Page
Module 11 : Water Quality And Estimation Of Organic Content
Lecture 13 : Water Quality And Estimation Of Organic Content

2|Page
11.1 Surface Water Quality: Rivers and Streams
Surface water is highly susceptible to contamination due to sewage, industrial waste

discharge, and agricultural run-off apart from the recreational activities. The objective of the
water quality management is to control the discharge of pollutants so that water quality is not
degraded to an unacceptable extent below the acceptable level. To achieve this quantitative
analysis of pollutants is must. It is necessary to understand the background water quality
which would be present without human interventions, and decide the levels of pollutants
acceptable for intended uses of the water. The impact of different pollutants joining the water
body should be understood well for this purpose. The impact of the pollution on a river
depends both on the nature of the pollutant and the characteristics of the individual river.
Some of the important characteristics include velocity of water flowing in the river, depth of
flow, type of river bottom, and surrounding vegetation. The other factors include, climate of
the region, geological characteristics of the watershed, land used pattern, and aquatic life in
the rivers. All these parameters must be considered in water quality management in the river.
It is understood that the water quality in the rivers will not remain same throughout the
stretch of river i.e. from origin to the point where it meet to the sea. The water quality is best
near the origin of the river and goes on deteriorating as the river flows and goes on
assimilating the pollutant discharged in it. Proper management is necessary if the water
quality is to remain usable for intended purpose. Oxygen demanding wastes and nutrients are
among the common pollutant having profound impact on almost all types of rivers, hence
they deserve special emphasis.
11.2 Effect of Oxygen Demanding Wastes on Rivers

Depletion of dissolved oxygen is a major problem due discharge of oxygen demanding
organic or inorganic pollutant in the surface water. This poses threat to higher forms of
aquatic life, if the concentration of oxygen falls below a critical point. To quantify how much
oxygen will be depleted, it is necessary to know the quantity of oxygen demanding waste and
how much oxygen will be required to degrade the waste. Although, oxygen is getting
depleted for the degradation of organic matter, it is continuously being replenished from the
atmosphere and through photosynthesis. The net concentration of oxygen in the water body
is determined by the relative rates of these competing processes i.e. deoxygenation and
reoxygenation.

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11.3 Estimation of organic content of the wastewater
The organic matter present in the water body can be analyzed in laboratory by determining
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and by
determination of Total Organic Carbon (TOC). These test procedures and relevance of these
tests are discussed below.
11.3.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The BOD can be defined as the oxygen required for biochemical oxidation of organic matter
present in the water under aerobic conditions. This test is based on the premise that all the
biodegradable organic matter contained in a water sample will be oxidized to CO2 and H2O
by microorganisms using molecular oxygen. For example, the general overall oxidation
reaction for glucose is
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
5
Thus, the theoretical oxygen demand would then be:
Oxygen demand = (Gram of oxygen used) / (Gram of carbon oxidized)
= 192 / 72 = 2.67 g/g of carbon
The actual BOD will be less than theoretical oxygen demand due to incorporation of some of
the carbon into newly synthesized bacterial cells. The test is performed under the conditions
similar to those in actual natural water to measure indirectly the amount of biodegradable
organic matter present. A water sample is inoculated with bacteria (1 to 2 mL of sewage per
liter) that consume the biodegradable organic matter to obtain energy for their life processes.
The organisms also utilizes oxygen in the process of consuming the organic matter, the
process is called as aerobic decomposition. This oxygen consumption is measured; more is
the organic matter concentration more is the amount of oxygen utilized. Thus, the BOD test
is the indirect measurement of organic matter in terms of the oxygen requirement to convert
them into stable end product. Although, not all organic matter is biodegradable within the
stipulated incubation period, and the actual test procedure lack in precision due to different
inoculum seed and many fold dilution required, it is still the most widely used method of
quantifying organic matter because of the direct conceptual relationship between BOD and
oxygen depletion in receiving waters.

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The BOD test is performed for the following:

To determine quantity of oxygen required for biochemical stabilization of organic
matter.
To determine suitability of biological treatment method, depending on COD/BOD
ratio, and sizing the treatment units. For COD/BOD ratio less than 2 the wastewater
is most suitable for biological treatment; for COD/BOD ratio between 2 to 6
acclimation of the inoculum is required for effective biological treatment; and for
higher COD/BOD ratio biological treatment of such wastewater may not be suitable
option.
To monitor efficiency of the process.
To determine compliance with wastewater discharge permits.
During the BOD test the organic matter will be converted into stable end product such as
CO2, sulphate (SO4), orthophosphate (PO4) and nitrate (NO3).
The simple representation of carbonaceous BOD can be explained as below:
microorganisms
Organic matter + O2 CO2 + H2O + New Cells + Stable products
This reaction continues till sufficient DO is available in the water. When DO is not available
condition becomes anaerobic decomposition (fermentative reduction). The reaction under
anaerobic conditions is as under:
microorganisms
Organic matter CO2 + CH4 + New Cells + Other products (NH3, H2S)
BOD Test
Biochemical oxidation is slow process and theoretically takes an infinite time to go to
completion i.e. complete oxidation of organic matter. During the first few days the rate of
oxygen depletion is rapid because of the high concentration of organic matter present. As the
concentration of organic matter decreases, so does the rate of oxygen consumption. Also
initially concentration of easily biodegradable organic matter will be more and as the time
proceeds fraction of this component will deplete faster as compared to total organic matter
reduction. Hence, during initial days the rate of BOD exerted will be more as compared to
later days. During the last part of the BOD curve, oxygen consumption is mostly associated
with the decay of the bacteria that grew during the early part of the test. The oxygen
consumption typically follows the pattern as shown in Figure 11.1. For wastewater like

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sewage, within 20 day period, the oxidation of carbonaceous organic matter is about 95 to
99% complete, and in the first five days, the period used for BOD determination, 60 to 70%
oxidation is complete. The 20 oC temperature used is an average temperature value typically
for slow moving streams in temperate climate. Different results would be obtained at
different temperatures because biochemical reaction rates are temperature dependent.
Ultimate BOD, Lo
Oxygen consumption
and BOD remaining
BOD5 BODt (Oxygen exerted)

BODt BODt = Lo (1 e-kt)
BOD remaining (Lt)

Lt = Lo. e-kt
5 Time, days 20
Figure 11.1 Variation in DO profile during BOD test with duration of incubation
The biochemical oxygen demand is represented as BOD5 20oC, which indicates the total
amount of oxygen consumed for biochemical oxidation of organic matter for first five days at
20oC incubation temperature. Under Indian conditions, the BOD values are acceptable for 3
days incubation at 27 oC temperature.
Since, the saturation value of DO for water at 20oC is only 9.1 mg/L, it is usually necessary to
dilute the samples to keep final DO level, at the end of incubation period, above 1.5 mg/L.
Hence, according to BOD values expected for that wastewater appropriate dilution should be
carried out. Thus, the actual BOD of the unseeded sample can be worked out as
DOi DO f
The 5 day BOD of sample =
p (1)
Where, DOi and DOf are initial and final DO of diluted wastewater sample
p is the dilution fraction = Volume of wastewater . (2)
Volume of wastewater + volume dilution water
The total volume of the BOD bottle used for test is usually 300 mL. The dilution water
(distilled water) is aerated for sufficient time to correct DO close to the saturation value.
Nutrients and buffer solutions are added to the dilution water to provide nutrient for bacterial
growth and maintain pH near neutral. Sufficient amount of seed is added to the BOD bottle to
ensure adequate concentration of bacterial population to carry out the biodegradation.

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Usually 1 to 2 mL of sewage per liter is considered as sufficient to act as a seed. In such case
it is necessary to subtract the oxygen demand of the seed from the mixed sample, because
organic matter present in this 1 to 2 mL of seed will also exert oxygen demand. Thus, the
BOD of the wastewater with seeded sample can be worked out as below. The DO drop in
blank is multiplied by (1- p) because this volume of blank is only present in the sample.
( DOi DO f ) ( Bi B f )(1 p)
BOD5 =
p (3)
Where,
DOi an DOf = DO of mixture, initial and final values, respectively,
Bi and Bf = DO of blank, initial and final values, respectively,
p = Vw/Vm = Volume of wastewater in mixture / Total volume of mixture.
Example:1
1. Dilution water requirement:
A wastewater is expected to have BOD5 of about 200 mg/L. The initial DO of dilution water
is 8.0 mg/L. Calculate the dilution requirement for BOD determination.
Solution
BOD = 200 mg/L; DOi = 8.0 mg/L,
Minimum DO that should be left after five days of incubation is 1.5 2.0 mg/L,
Say final DO = 2.0 mg/L
Hence, dilution required = 200 / (8.0 2.0) = 33.33 say 35 to 40 times.
Comments: To have accurate test result, the total DO drop during five days incubation should
be 2.0 mg/L.
Example: 2. BOD determination

A test bottle containing only seeded dilution water has its DO level drop by 1.0 mg/L in a 5-
day incubation. A 300 mL BOD bottle filled with 10 mL of wastewater and the rest seeded
dilution water experiences a DO drop of 6.2 mg/L in the same time period. What would be
five day BOD of the wastewater?
Solution:
Dilution factor p = 10/300
Therefore, BOD5 = [6.2 1.0 (1 (10/300))] / (10/300) = 157 mg/L

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Module 11 : Water Quality And Estimation Of Organic Content
Lecture 14 : Water Quality And Estimation Of Organic Content

2|Page
11.3.2 BOD Model

It is generally assumed that the rate at which the oxygen is consumed is directly proportional
to the concentration of degradable organic matter remaining at any time. The kinetics of
BOD reaction can be formulated in accordance with first order reaction kinetics as:
d Lt / d t = - K Lt (4)
Where, Lt = amount of first order BOD remaining in wastewater at time t
K = First order BOD reaction rate constant, time-1
t
Integrating dL
0
t KLt .dt
i.e., log Lt t0 K .t
Lt / Lo = e-K.t or 10-K.t (5)
Where Lo or BODu at time t = 0, is the ultimate first stage BOD initially present in the
sample.
The relation between K(base e) and K (base 10) is
K(base 10) = K(base e) / 2.303 (6)
The amount of BOD remaining at time t equals (Figure 11.1)
Lt = Lo (e-k.t) (7)
The amount of BOD that has been exerted (amount of oxygen consumed) at any time t is
given by
BODt = Lo Lt = Lo (1 e-k.t) (8)
and the five day BOD is equal to
BOD5 = Lo L5 = Lo (1 e-5k) (9)
o
For polluted water and wastewater, a typical value of K (base e, 20 C) is 0.23 per day and K
(base 10, 20oC) is 0.10 per day. These values vary widely for the wastewater in the range
from 0.05 to 0.3 per day for K (base 10) and 0.23 to 0.7 for K (base e).
The ultimate BOD (Lo) is defined as the maximum BOD exerted by the wastewater. It is
difficult to assign exact time to achieve ultimate BOD, and theoretically it takes infinite time.
From the practical point of view, it can be said that when the BOD curve is approximately
horizontal (Figure 11.1) the ultimate BOD has been achieved. The time required to achieve
the ultimate BOD depends upon the characteristics of the wastewater, i.e., chemical
composition of the organic matter present in the wastewater and its biodegradable properties
and temperature of incubation. At higher temperature for same concentration and nature of
organic matter ultimate BOD will be achieved in shorter time as compared to lower

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temperatures, where it will require more time. The ultimate BOD best expresses the
concentration of degradable organic matter based on the total oxygen required to oxidize it.
However, it does not indicate how rapidly oxygen will be depleted in the receiving water.
Oxygen depletion is related to both the ultimate BOD and the BOD rate constant (K). The
ultimate BOD will increase in direct proportion to the concentration of biodegradable organic
matter.
The BOD reaction rate constant is dependent on the following:

1. The nature of the waste
2. The ability of the organisms in the system to utilize the waste
3. The temperature
Nature of the waste: Thousands of organic matters exist with different chemical
composition in nature. All organic matter will not have same degradation rate. Simple sugar
and starches are rapidly degraded and will therefore have a high value of BOD rate constant.
Cellulose degrades much more slowly and hairs are almost undegradable during BOD test or
during biological treatment of wastewater. Other compounds are intermediate degradable
between these extremes. For complex waste, like sewage, the BOD rate constant depends
upon the relative proportions of the various components. The BOD rate constant is high for
the raw sewage (K (base e) = 0.35 -0.7 per day) and low for the treated sewage (K (base e) =
0.12 - 0.23 per day), owing to the fact that, during wastewater treatment the easily
biodegradable organic matter will get more completely removed than the less biodegradable
organics. Hence, in the treated wastewater, relative proportion of the less biodegradable
organic matter will be higher, giving lower BOD rate constant.
Ability of organisms to utilize waste: Every microorganism is limited in its ability to utilize
organic compounds. Many organic matters can only be utilized by particular group of
microorganisms. In natural environment, where the water course is receiving particular
organic compound, the microorganisms which have capability to degrade that organic matter
will grow in predominant. However, the culture used during BOD test may have very small
fraction of the organisms which can degrade that particular organic compounds in the waste.
As a result the BOD value, for limited incubation duration, and the rate constant would be
lower in the laboratory test than in the natural water environment where the waste is regularly
discharged. Therefore, the BOD test should be conducted with organisms which have been

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acclimated to the waste so that the rate constant determined in the laboratory can be
compared to that in the river.
Temperature: The biochemical reactions are temperature dependent and the activity of the
microorganism increases with the increase in temperature up to certain value, and drop with
decrease in temperature. Since, the oxygen utilization in BOD test is caused by microbial
metabolism, the rate of utilization is similarly affected by the temperature. The standard
temperature at which BOD is determined is usually 20oC. However, the water temperature
may vary from place to place for the same river; hence, the BOD rate constant is adjusted to
the temperature of receiving water using following relationship:
KT = K20 (T-20) (10)
Where
T = temperature of interest, oC
KT = BOD rate constant at the temperature of interest, day-1
K20 = BOD rate constant determined at 20oC, day-1
= temperature coefficient. This has a value of 1.056 in general and 1.047 for higher
temperature greater than 20oC. This is because increase in reaction rate is higher when
temperature increases from 10 to 20oC as compared to when temperature is increased from 20
to 30oC.
Example: 3
The treated wastewater is being discharged into a river that has a temperature of 15oC. The
BOD rate constant determined in the laboratory for this mixed water is 0.12 per day. What
fraction of maximum oxygen consumption will occur in first four days?
Solution
Determine the BOD rate constant at the river water temperature:
K15 = K20 (1.056)(T-20)
= 0.12 (1.056)(15-20)
= 0.091 per day
Using this value of K to find the fraction of maximum oxygen consumption in four days:
BOD4 = Lo (1 e-0.091x4)
Therefore, BOD4 / Lo = 0.305

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Example: 4
The dissolved oxygen in an unseeded sample of diluted wastewater having an initial DO of
9.0 mg/L is measured to be 3.0 mg/L after 5 days. The dilution fraction is 0.03 and reaction
rate constant k = 0.22 day-1. Calculate a) 5 day BOD of the waste, b) ultimate carbonaceous
BOD, and c) What would be remaining oxygen demand after 5 days?
Solution
a) Oxygen demand for first 5 days
BOD5 = (DOi Dof) / p = (9.0 3.0) / 0.03 = 200 mg/L
b) Ultimate BOD
BODu = Lo = BODt / (1 e-kt) = 200 / (1 e-0.22 x 5) = 300 mg/L
c) After 5 days, 200 mg/L of oxygen demand out of total 300 mg/L would be satisfied.
Hence, the remaining oxygen demand would be 300 200 = 100 mg/L
Example: 5
Determine ultimate BOD for a wastewater having 5 day BOD at 20oC as 160 mg/L. Assume
reaction rate constant as 0.2 per day (base 10).
Solution
BOD5 = Lo ( 1 10-k.t)
160 = Lo (1 10-5 x 0.2)
Therefore, Lo = 177.8 mg/L ~ 178 mg/L
Example: 6
The BOD of a sewage incubated for one day at 30oC has been found to be 100 mg/L. What
will be the five day 20oC BOD? Assume K = 0.12 (base 10) at 20oC, and = 1.056
Solution:
BOD at 30oC = 100 mg/L
K20 = 0.12
Now K30 = K20 (T-20)
K30 = 0.12 (1.056)30-20 = 0.207 per day
BODt = Lo (1 10-kt)
100 = Lo (1 10-0.207 x 1)
Lo = 263.8 mg/L
This is ultimate BOD, the value of which is independent of incubation temperature.

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Now BOD5 at 20oC can be calculated as:

BOD5 at 20oC = Lo (1 10-kt) = 263.8 (1 10- 0.12 x 5) = 197.5 mg/L
Example: 7
Determine the 1 day BOD and ultimate first stage BOD for a wastewater whose 5 day 20oC
BOD is 200 mg/L. The reaction rate constant k (base e) = 0.23 per day.
Solution
Ultimate BOD
BODu = Lo = BODt / (1 e-kt) = 200 / (1 e-0.23 x 5) = 293 mg/L
Therefore, one day BOD
Y1 = Lo L1 = Lo (1 e-kt) = 293 (1 e- 0.23 x 1) = 60 mg/L
11.3.3 Interpretation of the BOD test Result

Following factors must be considered in the interpretation of the BOD for industrial
wastewaters:
1. The seed is acclimated to the wastewater and lag period required for acclimation is
eliminated.
2. The rate constant should be established based on long term BOD tests on both
wastewater and treated effluents. The rate constant for untreated and treated
wastewater is not same for many wastewaters. The rate constant value is higher for
untreated wastewater and lower for treated wastewater. For example, for raw sewage
rate constant is about 0.15 to 0.3 and that for treated sewage it is around 0.05 to 0.15
(base 10). Hence, direct comparison of BOD may not be valid. The value of K (base
e) for raw sewage varies in the range 0.35 to 0.7 and that for treated sewage it will be
0.12 to 0.23.
3. In case of acidic waste, all samples must be neutralized before incubation.
4. When organic matter is present in suspended form, interpretation of the test result is
difficult due to lag time involved in hydrolysis of organic matter before actual
oxidation starts during BOD test.
11.3.4 Nitrification in BOD Test

Non-carbonaceous matter, such as ammonia is produced during the hydrolysis of proteins. In
addition, when the living things die, excreta waste, and nitrogen organic compounds, the
nitrogen tied to organic molecule is converted to ammonia by bacterial and fungal action.

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Under aerobic conditions, this ammonia will be converted to nitrate, called as nitrification as
per the reactions given below:
Nitrosomonas
2NH3 + 3O2 2 NO2- + 2 H+ + 2H2O
Nitrobacter
2NO2- + O2 2 NO3-
Hence, the organic matter containing nitrogen will have oxygen requirement for nitrification.
The oxygen demand associated with the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate is called the
nitrogenous BOD. Due to low growth rate of nitrifying bacteria, this BOD demand normally
occurs from 6 to 10 days (Figure 11.2). This is one of the reasons to use incubation period of
5 days for BOD determination to eliminate oxygen demand for nitrification and to find out
only carbonaceous oxygen demand. Incidentally, the five day period was chosen for the test
because the Themes River requires five days from its origin to join sea, and if oxygen
demand for these five days is determined and satisfied the river water quality can be
protected.
Oxygen consumed, mg/L
Ultimate carbonaceous BOD Nitrogenous BOD
BOD5
Carbonaceous
BOD
BODt
5 Time, days 15 20
Figure 11.2 Nitrification during BOD test
11.3.5 Other Measures of Oxygen Demand

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
During COD determination total organic content of the waste is oxidized by dichromate in
acid solution.
In this test to determine the oxygen requirement of the wastewater, strong oxidizing
agent potassium dichromate is used.
8|Page
Acidic environment is provided to accelerate the reactions by addition of sulphuric

acid.
The reflux flasks (or closed reflux vials), used for the test, are heated to 150oC for two
hours with silver sulphate as catalyst. When silver sulphate catalyst is used, the
recovery of most organic compounds is greater than 92 percent.
COD test measures virtually all oxidizable organic compounds whether biodegradable
or not, except some aromatic compounds which resists dichromate oxidation.
The COD is proportional to BOD only for readily soluble organic matter in dissolved
form e.g. sugars.
No correlation between BOD and COD exists when:
o Organic matter is present in suspended form; under such situation filtered
samples should be used.
o Complex wastewater containing refractory substances.
For readily biodegradable waste, such as dairy COD = BODu/0.92
The correlation between BOD and COD for sewage is presented in the Figure 11.3 (Haandel
and Lettinga, 1994).
1
BODu/CODb = 0.87
BODu
BOD/CODb ratio
BOD5
0.5 BOD5/BODu = 0.68
BOD5/CODb = 0.59
BODt
0
5 Time, days 15 20
Figure 11.3 Correlation between BOD and COD for sewage at 20oC incubation and k = 0.23
per day.
The COD is faster determination but does not give idea about the nature of organic matter
whether biodegradable or biorefractory organic matter. Hence, determination of BOD is
necessary for the wastewater to know biodegradable organic matter fraction. The BOD is not
very useful test for routine plant control due to long incubation period required, hence
requiring long time (5 days) to obtain results. Thus, it is important to develop correlation

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between BOD and COD (or TOC), so that COD (or TOC) can be used as a parameter for
routine analysis and control of the treatment plant. Once COD values are known, the BOD
can be estimated using correlation. The test results are more reproducible for COD.
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

Theoretical oxygen demand for the wastewater is calculated as oxygen required for oxidizing
the organic matter to end products. For example, for glucose, the theoretical oxygen demand
can be worked out as below:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
ThOD = (6 Mo2) / (M C6H12O6) = (6 x 16 x 2) / (12 x 6 + 1 x 12 + 6 x 16) = 1.07
For most of the organic compounds (except aromatics resisting dichromate oxidation) COD is
equal to ThOD.
TOC is related to COD through carbon-oxygen balance.
COD/TOC = (6 Mo2) / (MC) = 2.66
Depending on the organic matter in question COD/TOC ratio may vary from zero (for
organic matter resistant to dichromate oxidation) to 5.33 for methane (most reduced organic
compound). Since, organic content undergoes changes during biological oxidation,
COD/TOC and BOD/TOC, BOD/COD values will change during treatment.

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Questions
1. Explain objectives of conducting BOD test.
2. Explain BOD reaction rate constant and parameters on which it is dependent.
3. Draw a curve for BOD exerted and remaining with respect to time for organic
wastewater and derive mathematical expression for both.
4. Why only about 60% BOD is satisfied during BOD test determination, whereas
during actual wastewater treatment in aerobic process more than 90% of BOD can be
removed during 5 to 6 hours of retention time in biological reactor?
5. BOD of a sewage incubated for 3 days at 27oC was measured 110 mg/L. Calculate
BOD5 at 20oC. Consider k = 0.23 per day (base e) and temperature coefficient =
1.047.
6. Describe nitrification during BOD test.
7. Explain correlation between BOD, BODu and COD for sewage.
Answers:
Q 5: Lo = 179 mg/; BOD5 at 20oC = 122 mg/L

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Module 12 : Self Purification Of Natural Streams
Lecture 15 : Self Purification Of Natural Streams

2|Page
The self purification of natural water systems is a complex process that often involves
physical, chemical, and biological processes working simultaneously. The amount of
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in water is one of the most commonly used indicators of a river
health. As DO drops below 4 or 5 mg/L the forms of life that can survive begin to be reduced.
A minimum of about 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen is required to maintain higher life forms.
A number of factors affect the amount of DO available in a river. Oxygen demanding wastes
remove DO; plants add DO during day but remove it at night; respiration of organisms
removes oxygen. In summer, rising temperature reduces solubility of oxygen, while lower
flows reduce the rate at which oxygen enters the water from atmosphere.
12.1 Factors Affecting Self Purification
1. Dilution: When sufficient dilution water is available in the receiving water body, where
the wastewater is discharged, the DO level in the receiving stream may not reach to zero
or critical DO due to availability of sufficient DO initially in the river water before
receiving discharge of wastewater.
2. Current: When strong water current is available, the discharged wastewater will be
thoroughly mixed with stream water preventing deposition of solids. In small current, the
solid matter from the wastewater will get deposited at the bed following decomposition
and reduction in DO.
3. Temperature: The quantity of DO available in stream water is more in cold temperature
than in hot temperature. Also, as the activity of microorganisms is more at the higher
temperature, hence, the self-purification will take less time at hot temperature than in
winter.
4. Sunlight: Algae produces oxygen in presence of sunlight due to photosynthesis.
Therefore, sunlight helps in purification of stream by adding oxygen through
photosynthesis.
5. Rate of Oxidation: Due to oxidation of organic matter discharged in the river DO
depletion occurs. This rate is faster at higher temperature and low at lower temperature.
The rate of oxidation of organic matter depends on the chemical composition of organic
matter.

3|Page
12.2 Oxygen Sag Analysis
The oxygen sag or oxygen deficit in the stream at any point of time during self purification
process is the difference between the saturation DO content and actual DO content at that
time.
Oxygen deficit, D = Saturation DO Actual DO
The saturation DO value for fresh water depends upon the temperature and total dissolved
salts present in it; and its value varies from 14.62 mg/L at 0oC to 7.63 mg/L at 30oC, and
lower DO at higher temperatures.
The DO in the stream may not be at saturation level and there may be initial oxygen deficit
Do. At this stage, when the effluent with initial BOD load Lo, is discharged in to stream, the
DO content of the stream starts depleting and the oxygen deficit (D) increases. The variation
of oxygen deficit (D) with the distance along the stream, and hence with the time of flow
from the point of pollution is depicted by the Oxygen Sag Curve (Figure 12.1). The major
point in sag analysis is point of minimum DO, i.e., maximum deficit. The maximum or
critical deficit (Dc) occurs at the inflexion points of the oxygen sag curve.
Pointofoxygendemandingwastedischarge
SaturationDO
100
Do OxygenSagCurve
Dt
Dc
DOContent,%
Reoxygenation Curve
t
tc Criticalpoint
Deoxygenation Curve
0
Timeofflowinstream,t,days
Figure 12.1 Deoxygenation, reoxygenation and oxygen sag curve
12.3 Deoxygenation and Reoxygenation Curves
When wastewater is discharged into the stream, the DO level in the stream goes on depleting.
This depletion of DO content is known as deoxygenation. The rate of deoxygenation depends
upon the amount of organic matter remaining (Lt) to be oxidized at any time t, as well as
temperature (T) at which reaction occurs. The variation of depletion of DO content of the
stream with time is depicted by the deoxygenation curve in the absence of aeration. The

4|Page
ordinates below the deoxygenation curve (Figure 12.1) indicate the oxygen remaining in the
natural stream after satisfying the bio-chemical oxygen demand of oxidizable matter.
When the DO content of the stream is gradually consumed due to BOD load, atmosphere
supplies oxygen continuously to the water, through the process of re-aeration or
reoxygenation, i.e., along with deoxygenation, re-aeration is continuous process.
The rate of reoxygenation depends upon:

i) Depth of water in the stream: more for shallow depth.
ii) Velocity of flow in the stream: less for stagnant water.
iii) Oxygen deficit below saturation DO: since solubility rate depends on difference
between saturation concentration and existing concentration of DO.
iv) Temperature of water: solubility of oxygen is lower at higher temperature and also
saturation concentration is less at higher temperature.
12.4 Mathematical analysis of Oxygen Sag Curve: Streeter Phelps equation
The analysis of oxygen sag curve can be easily done by superimposing the rates of
deoxygenation and reoxygenation as suggested by the Streeter Phelps analysis. The rate of
change in the DO deficit is the sum of the two reactions as explained below:
dDt/ dt = f ( deoxygenation and reoxygenation)

OR dDt / dt = KLt RDt .(1)
Where, 6
Dt = DO deficit at any time t,

Lt = amount of first stage BOD remaining at any time t
K = BOD reaction rate constant or deoxygenation constant (to the base e)
R = Reoxygenation constant (to the base e)
t = time (in days)
dDt/ dt = rate of change of DO deficit
Now,
Lt Lo.e K 't
Where, Lo = BOD remaining at time t = 0 i.e. ultimate first stage BOD

Hence,

5|Page
dDt
K ' Lo.e K 't R ' Dt .(2)
dt
dDt
or R' Dt K ' Lo.e K 't .(3)
dt
This is first order first degree differential equation and solution of this equation is as under
Dt
R ' K '
e
K ' Lo K 't

e R 't Do.e R 't
.(4)
Changing base of natural log to 10 the equation can be expressed as:
Dt
KLo
RK

10 K .t 10 R.t Do.10 R.t .(5)
Where, K = BOD reaction rate constant, to the base 10

R = Reoxygenation constant to the base 10
Do = Initial oxygen deficit at the point of waste discharge at time t = o
t = time of travel in the stream from the point of discharge = x/u
x = distance along the stream
u = stream velocity
This is Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag equation. The graphical representation of this equation is
shown in Figure 12.2.
Pointofwastedischarge
SaturationDO
Do
Dt
Dc
DOConcentration
Xc Criticalpoint
Distancedownstream,X
Figure 12.2 Oxygen sag curve of Streeter-Phelps equation
Note: Deoxygenation and reoxygenation occurs simultaneously. After critical point, the rate
of re-aeration is greater than the deoxygenation and after some distance the DO will reach to
original level and stream will not have any effect due to addition of wastewater. At time t=0
at x = 0.
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Determination of Critical DO deficit (Dc) and distance Xc
The value of Dc can be obtained by putting dDt/dt = 0 in equation 3,

Hence,
K'
Dc Lo.e K 'tc .(6)
R'
OR
K .(7)
Dc Lo.10 K .tc
R
Where, tc is time required to reach the critical point.
The value of tc can be obtained by differentiating equation 4 (or 5) with respect to t and
setting dDt/dt = 0
Therefore,
1 R ' DoR' K '
tc log e 1
K ' K ' Lo
.(8)
R ' K '
OR
1 R DoR K
tc log10 1 K .Lo .(9)
RK K
The distance Xc is given by Xc = tc . u

Where, u = velocity of flow in the stream
The deoxygenation constant K, is obtained by laboratory test or field tests, and varies with
temperature as given below:
K T K 20
T 20
.(10)
Where, varies with the temperature = 1.056 in general or 1.047 for 20oC to 30oC
temperature, and 1.135 for 4oC to 20oC
K = 0.1 to 0.3 for municipal sewage, base 10, (0.23 to 0.70 for base e)
The reoxygenation constant R also varies with the temperature and can be expressed as:
RT R20 1.024
T 20
.(11)
Where, R/R = 2.303

R = 0.15 to 0.20 for low velocity large stream
= 0.20 to 0.30 for normal velocity large stream

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= 0.10 to 0.15 for lakes and sluggish stream
RT R20 1.016
T 20
(Peavy et al., 1985)
The ratio of R/K (or R/K) is called the self purification constant fs and it is equal to 0.50 to
5.0.
Example : 1
A city discharges 20000 m3/day of sewage into a river whose rate of flow is 0.7 m3/sec.
Determine D.O. deficit profile for 100 km from the following data:
River Sewage effluent from STP

5 day B.O.D. at 200C = 3.4 mg/l 5 day B.O.D. at 200C = 45 mg/l
Temperature 230C Temperature 260C
D.O. = 8.2 mg/l D.O. = 2.0 mg/l
Velocity of mix = 0.25 m/sec, R=0.4, K = 0.23
Solution
River discharge = 0.7 m3/sec, Sewage discharge = 20000/(24x 3600) = 0.231 m3/sec
. . .
BOD of mix= = 13.72 mg/l
. .
. . . .
D.O. of mix = 6.66 mg/l
. .
. .
Temp. of mix = 23.74 0C
. .
Saturation value of D.O. at 23.74 0C is 8.57 mg/l
Ultimate B.O.D. Lt = L0 (1 - )
13.72 = L0 (1 - . )
L0 = 20.08 mg/L
Initial D.O. deficit (D0) = 8.57 - 6.66 = 1.91 mg/L
Deoxygenation and reoxygenation coefficients at 23.74 0C temperature

T-20
KT = K20 ( ) Hence, K23.74 = 0.23 (1.047)23.74-20 = 0.273 day-1

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T-20
RT = R20 ( ) Hence, R23.74 = 0.40 (1.016)23.74-20 = 0.424 day-1

Critical time tc = loge (1- )

. . . .
= loge (1- )
. . . . .
= 2.557 days.
Critical D.O. deficit, Dc = L0 .
.
= 20.08 . .
.
= 6.432 mg/l
Distance at which it occurs = L= velocity x time
= (0.25 m/sec) x ( 2.557 x 24 x 60 x 60 sec)
= 55231 m = 55.23 km

Similarly time required for mix to reach at 20 km distance, t20km =
.
= 0.926 day
And DO deficit at 20 km can be calculated using equation 4
Dt
R ' K '
e
K ' Lo K 't

e R 't Do.e R 't
Where, K = 0.273 d-1, R = 0.424 d-1, Do = 1.91 mg/L and Lo = 20.08 mg/L and t = 0.926
day
Hence, DO deficit at 20 km = 4.970 mg/L
Similarly DO deficit at 40 km (i.e. t = 1.852 days) = 6.211 mg/L
and DO deficit at 80 km (i.e., t = 3.704 days) = 6.056 mg/L
and DO deficit at 100 km (i.e., t = 4.63 days) = 5.427 mg/L

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The DO deficit at different points along length of river is as below:
Distance in km Time in days DO deficit, mg/L DO, mg/L

0 0 1.91 6.66
20 0.926 4.97 3.6
40 1.852 6.211 2.359
55.23 2.557 6.432 2.138
80 3.704 6.056 2.514
100 4.63 5.427 3.143

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Questions
1. Explain factors affecting self purification of natural streams.
2. What is reoxygenation? What are the factors that affect reoxygenation?
3. Derive Streeter-Phelps equation for oxygen sag analysis.
4. A river is having discharge of 22 m3/s receives wastewater discharge of 0.5 m3/s. The
initial DO of the river water is 6.3 mg/L, and DO content in the wastewater is 0.6
mg/L. The five day BOD in the river water is 3 mg/L, and the wastewater added to
river has five day BOD of 130 mg/L. Consider saturation DO of 8.22 mg/L and
deoxygenation and reoygenation constant values of 0.1 and 0.3 per day, respectively.
Find critical DO deficit and DO in the river after one day. The average velocity of
flow in the stream after mixing of wastewater is 0.18 m/sec.
5. A municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges secondary effluent to a river. The
worst condition occurs in the summer when the treated wastewater in summer is
found to have a maximum flow rate of 10000 m3/day, a BOD5 of 30 mg/L, dissolved
oxygen concentration of 1.5 mg/L and temperature of 25oC. At upstream of the
disposal point the minimum flow in the stream is 0.65 m3/sec with BOD5 of 3.0 mg/L,
dissolved oxygen concentration of 7.0 mg/L and temperature of 22oC. The mixing of
wastewater and stream is almost instantaneous at the point of disposal and velocity of
the mixture is 0.2 m/sec. The reaeration constant is estimated to be 0.4 per day at
20oC temperature. Determine the critical DO deficit and distance at which it will
occur. Also draw the dissolve oxygen profile for 100 km downstream of the river
from the point of discharge.
Answers:
Q 4: Critical DO deficit = 2.27 mg/L; and DO in the river after one day = 2.26 mg/L; tc =
0.97 day
Q 5: Critical DO deficit = 2.48 mg/L; and distance at which it will occur = 33.83 km

1|Page
Module 13 : Characteristics Of Sewage And Overview of Treatment Methods
Lecture 16 : Characteristics Of Sewage And Overview of Treatment Methods

2|Page
13.1 Sewage Characteristics

Characterization of wastes is essential for an effective and economical waste management
programme. It helps in the choice of treatment methods deciding the extent of treatment,
assessing the beneficial uses of wastes and utilizing the waste purification capacity of natural
bodies of water in a planned and controlled manner. While analysis of wastewater in each
particular case is advisable, data from the other cities may be utilized during initial stage of
planning.
Domestic sewage comprises spent water from kitchen, bathroom, lavatory, etc. The factors
which contribute to variations in characteristics of the domestic sewage are daily per capita
use of water, quality of water supply and the type, condition and extent of sewerage system,
and habits of the people. Municipal sewage, which contains both domestic and industrial
wastewater, may differ from place to place depending upon the type of industries and
industrial establishment. The important characteristics of sewage are discussed here.
13.1.1 Temperature
The observations of temperature of sewage are useful in indicating solubility of oxygen,
which affects transfer capacity of aeration equipment in aerobic systems, and rate of
biological activity. Extremely low temperature affects adversely on the efficiency of
biological treatment systems and on efficiency of sedimentation. In general, under Indian
conditions the temperature of the raw sewage is observed to be between 15 and 35 0C at
various places in different seasons.
13.1.2 The pH
The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH, is a valuable parameter in the operation of
biological units. The pH of the fresh sewage is slightly more than the water supplied to the
community. However, decomposition of organic matter may lower the pH, while the
presence of industrial wastewater may produce extreme fluctuations. Generally the pH of raw
sewage is in the range 5.5 to 8.0.
13.1.3 Colour and Odour

Fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy and cloudy appearance depending upon its
concentration. As time passes the sewage becomes stale, darkening in colour with a
pronounced smell due to microbial activity.

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13.1.4 Solids
Though sewage generally contains less than 0.5 percent solids, the rest being water, still the
nuisance caused by the solids cannot be overlooked, as these solids are highly degradable and
therefore need proper disposal. The sewage solids may be classified into dissolved solids,
suspended solids and volatile suspended solids. Knowledge of the volatile or organic fraction
of solid, which decomposes, becomes necessary, as this constitutes the load on biological
treatment units or oxygen resources of a stream when sewage is disposed off by dilution. The
estimation of suspended solids, both organic and inorganic, gives a general picture of the load
on sedimentation and grit removal system during sewage treatment. Dissolved inorganic
fraction is to be considered when sewage is used for land irrigation or any other reuse is
planned.
13.1.5 Nitrogen and Phosphorus

The principal nitrogen compounds in domestic sewage are proteins, amines, amino acids, and
urea. Ammonia nitrogen in sewage results from the bacterial decomposition of these organic
constituents. Nitrogen being an essential component of biological protoplasm, its
concentration is important for proper functioning of biological treatment systems and
disposal on land. Generally, the domestic sewage contains sufficient nitrogen, to take care of
the needs of the biological treatment. For industrial wastewater if sufficient nitrogen is not
present it is required to be added externally. Generally nitrogen content in the untreated
sewage is observed to be in the range of 20 to 50 mg/L measured as TKN.
Phosphorus is contributing to domestic sewage from food residues containing phosphorus

and their breakdown products. The use of increased quantities of synthetic detergents adds
substantially to the phosphorus content of sewage. Phosphorus is also an essential nutrient
for the biological processes. The concentration of phosphorus in domestic sewage is
generally adequate to support aerobic biological wastewater treatment. However, it will be
matter of concerned when the treated effluent is to be reused. The concentration of PO4 in
raw sewage is generally observed in the range of 5 to 10 mg/L.
13.1.6 Chlorides
Concentration of chlorides in sewage is greater than the normal chloride content of water
supply. The chloride concentration in excess than the water supplied can be used as an index
of the strength of the sewage. The daily contribution of chloride averages to about 8 gm per
person. Based on an average sewage flow of 150 LPCD, this would result in the chloride

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content of sewage being 50 mg/L higher than that of the water supplied. Any abnormal
increase should indicate discharge of chloride bearing wastes or saline groundwater
infiltration, the latter adding to the sulphates as well, which may lead to excessive generation
of hydrogen sulphide.
13.1.7 Organic Material

Organic compounds present in sewage are of particular interest for environmental
engineering. A large variety of microorganisms (that may be present in the sewage or in the
receiving water body) interact with the organic material by using it as an energy or material
source. The utilization of the organic material by microorganisms is called metabolism. The
conversion of organic material by microorganism to obtain energy is called catabolism and
the incorporation of organic material in the cellular material is called anabolism.
To describe the metabolism of microorganisms and oxidation of organic material, it is

necessary to characterize quantitatively concentration of organic matter in different forms. In
view of the enormous variety of organic compounds in sewage it is totally unpractical to
determine these individually. Thus a parameter must be used that characterizes a property
that all these have in common. In practice two properties of almost all organic compounds
can be used: (1) organic compound can be oxidized; and (2) organic compounds contain
organic carbon.
In environmental engineering there are two standard tests based on the oxidation of organic
material: 1) the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and 2) the Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) tests. In both tests, the organic material concentration is measured during the test.
The essential differences between the COD and the BOD tests are in the oxidant utilized and
the operational conditions imposed during the test such as biochemical oxidation and
chemical oxidation. The other method for measuring organic material is the development of
the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) test as an alternative to quantify the concentration of the
organic material.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The BOD of the sewage is the amount of oxygen
required for the biochemical decomposition of biodegradable organic matter under aerobic
conditions. The oxygen consumed in the process is related to the amount of decomposable
organic matter. The general range of BOD observed for raw sewage is 100 to 400 mg/L.
Values in the lower range are being common under average Indian cities.

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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The COD gives the measure of the oxygen required for
chemical oxidation. It does not differentiate between biological oxidisable and nonoxidisable
material. However, the ratio of the COD to BOD does not change significantly for particular
waste and hence this test could be used conveniently for interpreting performance efficiencies
of the treatment units. In general, the COD of raw sewage at various places is reported to be
in the range 200 to 700 mg/L.
In COD test, the oxidation of organic matter is essentially complete within two hours,
whereas, biochemical oxidation of organic matter takes several weeks. In case of wastewaters
with a large range of organic compounds, an extra difficulty in using BOD as a quantitative
parameter is that the rate of oxidation of organic compounds depends on the nature and size
of its molecules. Smaller molecules are readily available for use by bacteria, but large
molecules and colloidal and suspended matters can only be metabolized after preparatory
steps of hydrolysis. It is therefore not possible to establish a general relationship between the
experimental five-day BOD and the ultimate BOD of a sample, i.e., the oxygen consumption
after several weeks. For sewage (with k=0.23 d-1 at 20oC) the BOD5 is 0.68 times of ultimate
BOD, and ultimate BOD is 87% of the COD. Hence, the COD /BOD ratio for the sewage is
around 1.7.
13.1.8 Toxic Metals and Compounds

Some heavy metals and compounds such as chromium, copper, cyanide, which are toxic may
find their way into municipal sewage through industrial discharges. The concentration of
these compounds is important if the sewage is to treat by biological treatment methods or
disposed off in stream or on land. In general these compounds are within toxic limits in
sanitary sewage; however, with receipt of industrial discharges they may cross the limits in
municipal wastewaters.
13.2 Effect of Industrial Wastes

Wastewaters from industries can form important component of sewage in both volume and
composition. It is therefore necessary that details about nature of industries, the quantity and
characteristics of the wastewater and their variations, which may affect the sewerage system
and sewage treatment process, should be collected.

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In case, where wastewaters high in suspended solids and BOD are to be accepted, provision
should be made in the design of the treatment plant to handle such wastes. In certain
instances, it is more economical to tackle the industrial waste at the source itself. Where, the
wastewater has high or low pH, corrective measures are necessary before admitting them to
the sewers or the treatment plant. Toxic metals and chemicals having adverse effects on
biological treatment processes, or upon fish life in a natural water course, or render the
receiving water stream unfit as a source of water supply, should be brought down to
acceptable limits at the source itself. Oil and grease in excessive amounts not only add
considerably to the cost of treatment, but also pose a disposal problem. The industrial
wastewaters may be discharged into public sewers if the effluents meet the tolerance limits
prescribed by the authority. If the wastewaters are to be discharged into inland surface waters,
tolerance limits set by the concerned authority should be satisfied.
13.3 Effluent Disposal and Utilization

The sewage after treatment may be disposed either into a water body such as lake, stream,
river, estuary, and ocean or on to land. It may also be utilized for several purposes such as (a)
industrial reuse or reclaimed sewage effluent cooling system, boiler feed, process water, etc.,
(b) reuse in agriculture and horticulture, watering of lawns, golf courses and similar purpose,
and (c) groundwater recharge for augmenting groundwater resources for downstream users or
for preventing saline water intrusion in coastal areas.
13.4 Status of Wastewater Generation, Collection, and Treatment in Indian Metro

Cities
The prime cause of critical unsanitary conditions in many cities in India is due the lack of
facilities to collect wastewater and to dispose off after treatment. Data on wastewater
generation and collection is less when compared to information on water supply. Hence, it is
difficult to assess the total pollution potential. As per the CPCB reports the total wastewater
generated by 23 metro cities is 9,275 MLD [CPCB, 1997]. Out of this, about 58.5% is
generated by the first four metro cities, viz. Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Chennai. The city of
Bombay generates the maximum wastewater to the tune of 2,456 MLD and Madurai
generates the least with 48 MLD [CPCB, 1997]. From the available data it may be seen that
the ratio of industrial to municipal wastewater varies from 0.06% to 2%. Out of the 23
metrocities, 19 cities have sewerage coverage for more than 75% of the population and the

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remaining 4 cities have more than 50% coverage. On the whole 78% of the total metro
population is provided with sewerage facility, compared to 63% in 1988 [CPCB, 1997].
Out of 9275 MLD of total wastewater generated, only 31% (2,923 MLD) is treated before
letting out and the rest i.e., 6,352 MLD is disposed off untreated. Three cities have only
primary treatment facilities and thirteen have primary and secondary facilities. The
municipalities dispose off their treated or partly treated or untreated wastewater into natural
drains joining rivers or lakes or used on land for irrigation or fodder cultivation or into the sea
or combination thereof.
It is found that in 12 metrocities there is some level of organized sewage farming under the
control of government or local body. The municipal corporations of Bhopal, Calcutta,
Hyderabad, Indore, Jaipur, Madras, Nagpur, Patna, Pune, Surat, Vadodara and Varanasi have
sewage farms organized by government / farmers and controlled by Government / Municipal
Corporation / irrigation departments. The cost of sewage charge was in the range of Rs.400/
hectare / year in Jaipur to Rs.75/hectare / year in Hyderabad. The average sale price of
sewage works out to be Rs.188/hectare / year for metrocities.
13.5 Economic Value of Sewage

The sewage contains nutrients, which if not optimally reused may cause eutrophication in
receiving water bodies, thus causing their premature ageing. Hence, instead of directly
discharging the effluents into water bodies it can be used for irrigation or fodder cultivation.
The economic value of sewage can be assessed based on its nutrient value. This will guide
for considering sewage as a source of income, and to make sewage treatment economically
viable.
The nutrient value of sewage in terms of nitrogen 30 mg/L, phosphate 7.5 mg/L, and
potassium 25 mg/L is provided by CPCB [1997]. The total value of nutrient in sewage
assuming @ Rs. 4220/- per tone of nutrient (as per 1996 cost), works out to be Rs. 1018
million, i.e., Rs. 890.6 million towards nutrients plus Rs. 127.4 million toward the cost of
water.
A realistic rate for tariff towards sewage supplied for sewage farming should consider the
cost of nutrients apart from the cost of water supplied. At present the sewage is charged at
average rate of Rs. 188/hectare/ annum, which is towards the cost of irrigation water only. If
nutrients in the sewage are also to be accounted for, then an additional cost of Rs. 263/MLD

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or Rs. 1315 per hectare/annum should be levied for application levels of 500 cm per hectare
per annum. Hence, the tariff should be levied at Rs. 1503 per hectare/annum (Rs.1315 + 188)
from cultivators [CPCB, 1997].
13.6 Wastewater Treatment

Treatment and safe disposal of wastewater is necessary. This will facilitate protection of
environment and environmental conservation, because the wastewater collected from cities
and towns must ultimately be returned to receiving water or to the land. Once the minimum
effluent quality has been specified, for maximum allowable concentrations of solids (both
suspended and dissolved), organic matter, nutrients, and pathogens, the objective of the
treatment is to attain reliably the set standards. The role of design engineer is to develop a
process that will guarantee the technical feasibility of the treatment process, taking into
consideration other factors such as construction and maintenance costs, the availability of
construction materials and equipment, as well as specialized labour.
Primary treatment alone will not produce an effluent with an acceptable residual organic
material concentration. Almost invariably biological methods are used in the treatment
systems to effect secondary treatment for removal of organic material. In biological treatment
systems, the organic material is metabolized by bacteria. Depending upon the requirement for
the final effluent quality, tertiary treatment methods and/or pathogen removal may also be
included.
Today majority of wastewater treatment plants use aerobic metabolism for the removal of
organic matter. The popularly used aerobic processes are the activated sludge process,
oxidation ditch, trickling filter, and aerated lagoons. Stabilization ponds use both the aerobic
and anaerobic mechanisms. In the recent years due to increase in power cost and subsequent
increase in operation cost of aerobic process, more attention is being paid for the use of
anaerobic treatment systems for the treatment of wastewater including sewage. Recently at
few places the high rate anaerobic process such as Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
(UASB) reactor followed by oxidation pond is used for sewage treatment.
13.6.1 Characterization of Wastewater

The wastewater after treatment is ultimately disposed on to land or into the water body.
Normally the treatment consists of removal of SS and organic matter either in suspended or
soluble form, which consumes DO from the water body. The plant can be designed for 100%

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removal of this pollutant, but the treatment will become uneconomical. In addition, the
existing watercourses can assimilate certain portion of pollution load without seriously
affecting the environment. Thus, major portion of pollutants are removed in treatment plants
and the remaining treatment is left with natural purification process. Therefore, before
proceeding with the design of the treatment plant, it is essential to determine
1) The characteristics of the raw wastewater, and
2) The required degree of treatment i.e., the required characteristics of the treatment plant
effluent.
The characteristic of the wastewater differs from industry to industry and from city to city for
domestic wastewater, depending upon the standard of living of the people and commercial
and industrial activities in the city. In absence of any data for Indian cities, the per capita SS
can be considered as 90 to 95 gm per day and BOD as 40 to 45 gm/day. The BOD associated
with suspended solids is usually at a rate of 0.25 kg of BOD per kg of SS.
13.6.2 Characteristics of the Treatment plant effluent

The required quality of treatment plant effluent is dictated by the quality requirements of the
receiving water. The quality requirements of the receiving water are established either by
law or by vigorous engineering analysis giving consideration to natural purification or self-
purification that occurs in the receiving water. It can either be regulated by Stream Standards
looking in to assimilative capacity of the water body or discharge standards which will be
implemented uniformly under jurisdiction of the authority without looking in to the rive
water quality at specific location. In India the effluent standards required for domestic
sewage and industrial effluent is available on the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
website (http://cpcb.nic.in/GeneralStandards.pdf).
13.7 Classification and Application of Wastewater Treatment Methods
The degree of treatment required can be determined by comparing the influent wastewater
characteristics to the required effluent characteristics, adhering to the regulations. Number of
different treatment alternatives can be developed to achieve the treated wastewater quality.
13.7.1 Classification of Treatment Methods

The individual treatment methods are usually classified as:
Physical unit operations
Chemical unit processes

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Biological unit processes.
Physical Unit Operations: Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces
predominates are known as physical unit operations. Most of these methods are based on
physical forces, e.g. screening, mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration.
Chemical Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which removal or conversion of

contaminant is brought by addition of chemicals or by other chemical reaction are known as
chemical unit processes, for example, precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, and disinfection.
Biological Unit Processes: Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is

brought about by biological activity are known as biological unit processes.
This is primarily used to remove biodegradable organic substances from the
wastewater, either in colloidal or dissolved form.
In the biological unit process, organic matter is converted into gases that can escape to
the atmosphere and into bacterial cells, which can be removed by settling.
Biological treatment is also used for nitrogen removal and for phosphorous and
sulphate removal from the wastewater.
The different treatment methods used in wastewater treatment plant are classified in three
different categories as:
Primary Treatment : Refers to physical unit operations.

Secondary Treatment: Refers to chemical and biological unit processes.
Tertiary Treatment: Referes to any one or combination of two or all three i.e.,
physical unit operations and chemical or biological unit processes, used after
secondary treatment.
13.7.2 Elements of plant Analysis and Design

The important terms used in analysis and design of treatment plants are (CPHEEO, 1993):
Flow Sheet: It is the graphical representation of a particular combination of unit operations
and processes used in treatment.
Process Loading Criteria (or designed criteria): The criteria used as the basis for sizing the
individual unit operation or process is known as process loading criteria.

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Solid Balance: It is determined by identifying the quantities of solids entering and leaving
each unit operation or process.
Hydraulic profile: This is used to identify the elevation of free surface of wastewater as it
flows through various treatment units.
Plant Layout: It is spatial arrangement of the physical facilities of the treatment plant
identified in the flow sheet.
13.7.3 Order of Reaction

The reactions occurring during wastewater treatment are slow and hence, kinetic
considerations are important for design. The general equation used for relating the rate of
change of concentration with respect to time can be expressed as
7
dS/dt = K. Sn
Where, S is the concentration of the reacting substance, K is the reaction rate constant per
unit time, and n denotes the order of the reaction (n = 1 for first order reaction, n = 2 for
second order reaction, and so on).
The value of K depends on the environmental conditions in the reactor, such as (a)
temperature, (b) presence of toxicity, (c) presence of catalyst, (d) availability of nutrients and
growth factors.
Zero order reactions (n = 0) are independent of the substance concentration and hence their
rate (dS/dt) is constant. Certain catalytic reactions occur in this way and some times even
biological reaction may follow zero order reaction.
In first order reactions, the rate of change of concentration of substance is proportional to the
concentration of that substance. This concentration of the substance and rate will diminish
with respect to time. Decomposition of single substrate exhibits the true first order reaction.
Biological stabilization of organic matter in batch reactor is a typical example of a pseudo-

first-order reaction. The rate of reaction is proportional to the concentration of a single item,
organic matter in this case, provided the other parameters controlling reactions are
favourable. If the substrate concentration (organic matter) is maintained constant within the
narrow range (as in the case of continuous flowing, completely mixed reactors), then the rate
of reaction is practically constant and then it is like pseudo-zero-order type of reaction. Some
biological treatment systems behave in this manner.

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There are various complex processes whose overall rate is approximately first order in nature.
With a complex substrates (sewage or industrial wastewaters) over all reaction rate may
appear like a first order reaction, although the individual substrate among the several may
exhibit the zero order reaction. This is because, the rate of reaction may be higher initially
due to higher utilization of easily biodegradable substrate, but rate will slower down with
respect to time due to more difficult substrate left in the reactor.
13.7.4 Types of Reactors Used
a) Batch Reactor: These reactors are operated as fill and draw type. In this the wastewater
flow is not continuous in the reactor. The reactors are operated in batch mode with fill
time, reaction time, and withdrawal time. For example, BOD test, Sequencing Batch
Reactor (SBR). The reactor content may be completely mixed to ensure that no
temperature or concentration gradient exists. All the elements in the reactor, under batch
mode of operation, are exposed to treatment for the same length of time for which the
substrate is held in the reactor. Hence, they are like ideal plug flow reactors.
b) Plug-Flow (tubular flow) Reactor: In this reactor, the fluid particles pass through the
tank and are discharged in the same sequence in which they enter in the tank. The
particles remain in the tank for a time equal to theoretical detention time. There is no
overtaking or falling behind; no intermixing or dispersion. Longitudinal dispersion is
considered as minimum and this type can occur in high length to width ratio of the tanks.
For example, grit chamber, aeration tank of ASP with high length to width ratio.
c) Continuous-flow Stirred Tank (Complete mixed) reactor: In this reactors, particles are
dispersed immediately throughout the tank as they enter the tank. Thus, the content in the
reactor are perfectly homogeneous at all points in the reactor. This can be achieved in
square, circular or rectangular tank. The particles leave the tank in proportion to their
statistical population. The concentration of the effluent from the reactor is the same as
that in the reactor.
d) Arbitrary Flow: Any degree of partial mixing between plug flow and completely mixing
condition exists in this reactor. Each element of the incoming flow resides in the reactor
for different length of time. It is also called as intermixing or dispersed flow and lies
between ideal plug flow and ideal completely mixed reactor. This flow condition can be
used in practice to describe the flow conditions in most of the reactors.

13 | P a g e
e) Packed Bed Reactor: They are filled with some packing medium, such as, rock, slag,
ceramic or synthetic plastic media. With respect to flow they can be anaerobic filter,
when completely filled and no air is supplied, or aerobic (trickling filter) when flow is
intermittent or submerged aerobic filter when compressed air is supplied from the bottom.
f) Fluidized Bed Reactor: This reactor is similar to packed bed except packing medium is
expanded by upward movement of fluid (or air) than resting on each other in fixed bed.
The porosity or degree of fluidization can be controlled by controlling flow rate of fluid
(wastewater or air).
13.7.5 Flow Patterns of Reactors
The flow pattern in the reactors depends on mixing conditions in them. This mixing in tern
depends upon the shape of the reactor, energy spent per unit volume of the reactor, the size
and scale of the unit, up-flow velocity of the liquid, rate of biogas generation (in an anaerobic
reactors) or the rate of gas supplied (in an aerobic reactor), etc. Flow pattern affect the time
of exposure to treatment and substrate distribution in the reactor. Depending upon the flow
pattern the reactors can be classified as:
(a) Batch reactors,
(b) Ideal plug flow reactors,
(c) Ideal completely-mixed flow reactors,
(d) Non ideal, dispersed flow reactors, and
(e) Series or parallel combinations of the reactors.
The hydraulic regime in the reactor can be defined with respect to the Dispersion number,
which characterizes mixing condition in the reactor (Arceivala and Asolekar, 2007).
Dispersion Number = D/UL
Where,
D = Axial or longitudinal dispersion coefficient, L2/t
U = Mean flow velocity along the reactor, L/t
L = Length of axial travel path, L
For ideal plug flow D/UL = 0, since, dispersion is zero by definition.
D/UL 0.2 indicate the regime approaching plug flow conditions.
D/UL 3.0 to 4.0 indicates approaching completely mixed conditions.

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Module 13 : Characteristics Of Sewage And Overview Of Treatment Methods
Lecture 17 : Characteristics Of Sewage And Overview Of Treatment Methods

(Contd.)

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13.8 Sewage Treatment Flow Sheet

The design of process flow sheet involves selection of an appropriate combination of various
unit operations and unit processes to achieve a desired degree of contaminant removal. The
selection of unit operations and processes primarily depends on the characteristics of the
sewage and the required level of contaminants permitted in the treated effluents. The design
of process flow sheet is important step in overall design of wastewater treatment and requires
thorough understanding of the treatment units. It calls for optimization of wastewater
treatment system coupled with stage wise optimal design of individual operation/ process to
achieve a minimal cost design.
The main contaminants in domestic sewage, to be removed, are biodegradable organics,

Suspended Solids (SS) and pathogens, with first two having been considered as the
performance indicators for various treatment units. In general the objective of the domestic
wastewater treatment is to bring down BOD less than 30 mg/L and SS less than 30 mg/L for
disposal into inland water bodies.
The conventional flow sheet of sewage treatment plant consists of unit operations such as
screening, grit removal, and Primary Settling Tank (PST), followed by unit process of aerobic
biological treatment such as Activated Sludge Process (ASP) or Trickling Filter. The sludge
removed from primary and secondary sedimentation tanks are digested anaerobically
followed by drying of anaerobically digested sludge on sand drying beds. This process flow
sheet is presented in Figure 13.1.
Figure 13.1 Process Flow-sheet of Conventional Domestic Sewage Treatment Plant

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It is possible to replace the activated sludge process or trickling filter process by low cost
treatment devices such as oxidation ditch, aerated lagoon or waste stabilization ponds. Such
treatment devices obviate the necessity of some of the unit operations and processes like
primary sedimentation and anaerobic digestion. Some of the process flow sheets are shown in
Figure 13.2.
a) Process Flow sheet Incorporating Oxidation Ditch
b) Process Flow sheet Employing Aerated Lagoon
c) Process Flow sheet Employing Waste Stabilization Pond
Figure 13.2 Process flow sheet using oxidation ditch, aerated lagoon, and waste
stabilization pond
With the better understanding of microbiology and biochemistry of anaerobic treatment, it is

now feasible to treat dilute organic wastewater such as domestic wastewater directly through
anaerobic treatment using recently developed innovative device such as Upflow Anaerobic
Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASBR), FluidBed Submerged Media Anaerobic Reactor (FB-
SMAR) and Anaerobic Filter (AF) or StaticBed SMAR (SB-SMAR) and Anaerobic
Rotating Biological Contactor (AnRBC). Though, enough field data is to be generated as yet

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on their performance, it is generally reported that BOD5 removal efficiencies may range from
60-80%. Consequently, post treatment will generally be required to achieve the prescribed
effluent standards. The process flow sheet anaerobic process is depicted in Figure 13.3.
Figure 13.3 Process flow sheet employing anaerobic treatment system (CPHEEO, 1993)
13.9 Primary Treatment Units

Primary treatment consists solely separating the floating materials and also the heavy settable
organic and inorganic solids. It also helps in removing the oils and grease from the sewage.
This treatment reduces the BOD of the wastewater by about 15 to 30%. The operations used
are screening for removing floating papers, rages, cloths, etc., grit chambers or detritus tanks
for removing grit and sand, and skimming tanks for removing oils and grease; and primary
settling tank is provided for removal of residual suspended matter. The organic solids, which
are separated out in the sedimentation tanks in primary treatment, are often stabilized by
anaerobic decomposition in digestion tank or incinerated. After digestion the sludge can be
used as manure after drying on sludge drying beds or by some other means.
13.9.1 Bar Screens

Bar screen is a set of inclined parallel bars, fixed at a certain distance apart in a channel.
These are used for removing larger particles of floating and suspended matter. The
wastewater entering the screening channel should have a minimum self-clearing velocity
0.375 m/sec. Also the velocity should not rise to such extent as to dislodge the screenings
from the bars. The slope of the hand-cleaned screens should be between 300 and 450 with the
horizontal and that of mechanically cleaned screens may be between 450 and 800. The
submerged area of the surface of the screen, including bars and opening should be about
200% of the c/s area of the extract sewer for separate sewers and 300% for combined sewers.

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Clear spacing of bars for hand cleaned bar screens may be from 25 to 50 mm and that for
mechanically cleaned bars may range from 15 mm to 75 mm. The width of the bars, facing
the flow may be 8 mm to 15 mm and depth may vary from 25 mm to 75 mm, but sizes less
than 8 x 25 mm are normally not used.
13.9.2 Grit Chamber

Grit chambers are designed to remove grit consists of sand, gravel, cinders or other inert solid
materials that have specific gravity about 2.65, which is much greater than those of the
organic solids in the wastewater. In this chamber particles settle as individual entities and
there is no significant interaction with the neighboring particles. This type of settling is
referred as free settling or zone-I settling. For proper functioning of the grit chamber, the
velocity through the grit chamber should not be allowed to change in spite of the change in
flow. One of the most satisfactory types of automatic velocity control is achieved by
providing a proportional weir at the outlet.
The horizontal flow grit chambers should be designed in such a way that under the most
adverse conditions, all the grit particles of size 0.20 mm or more in diameter should reach the
bed of the channel prior to reaching outlet end. The length of the channel depends on the
depth required which again depends on the settling velocity. A minimum allowance of
approximately twice the maximum depth should be given for inlet and outlet zones. An
allowance of 20-50% of the theoretical length of the channel may also be given.
Width of grit chamber should be between 1 m to 1.5 m and depth of flow is normally kept
shallow. For total depth of channel a free board of about 0.3 m and grit space about 0.25 m
should be provided. For larger plants two or more number of grit chambers in parallel may be
used. In grit chambers the recommended detention time is about 30 to 60 seconds.
13.9.3 Skimming Tank

The floating solid materials such as soap, vegetables, debris, fruit skins, pieces of corks, etc.
and oil and grease are removed from the wastewater in skimming tanks. A skimming tank is a
chamber designed so that floating matter rises and remains on surface of the wastewater until
removed, while the liquid flows continuously through outlet or partition below the water
lines. The detention time in skimming tank is 3 minutes. To prevent heavy solids from
settling at the bed, compressed air is blown through the diffusers placed in the floor of the
tank. Due to compress air supply, the oily matters rise upward and are collected in the side

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trough, from where they are removed. In conventional sewage treatment plant separate
skimming tank is not used and these materials are removed by providing baffle ahead of the
effluent end of the primary sedimentation tank.
13.9.4 Primary Sedimentation Tank

Effluent of the grit chamber, containing mainly lightweight organic matter, is settled in the
primary sedimentation tanks. The objective of treatment by sedimentation is to remove
readily settleable solids and floating material and thus to reduce the suspended solids content
when they are used as preliminary step to biological treatment, their function is to reduce the
load on the biological treatment units.
The primary sedimentation tanks are usually designed for a flow through velocity of 1 cm/sec
at average rate of flow. The detention period in the range of 90 to 150 minutes may be used
for design. These tanks may be square, circular, or rectangular in plan with depth varying
from 2.3 to 5 m. The diameter of circular tanks may be up to 40 m. The width of rectangular
tank may be 10 to 25 m and the length may be up to 100 m. But to avoid water currents due
to wind, length is limited up to 40 m. The slope of sludge hoppers in these tanks is generally
2:1 (vertical: horizontal). The slope of 1% is normally provided at the bed for rectangular
tanks and 7.5 to 10% for circular tanks. This slope is necessary so that solids may slide to the
bottom by gravity.
13.10 Secondary Treatment

The effluent from primary treatment is treated further for removal of dissolved and colloidal
organic matter in secondary treatment. This is generally accomplished through biochemical
decomposition of organic matter, which can be carried out either under aerobic or anaerobic
conditions. In these biological units, bacterias decompose the fine organic matter, to produce
clearer effluent. The end products of aerobic decomposition are mainly carbon dioxide and
bacterial cells, and that for anaerobic process are CH4, CO2 and bacterial cells.
The biological reactor in which the organic matter is decomposed (oxidized) by aerobic
bacteria may consist of:
1) Filters (tricking filters),

2) Activated Sludge Process (ASP),
3) Oxidation ponds, etc.

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The bacterial cells separated out in secondary setting tanks will be disposed after stabilizing
them under aerobic or anaerobic process in a sludge digestion tank along with the solids
settled in primary sedimentation tanks.
13.10.1 Trickling Filter
Trickling filters can be used for complete treatment for domestic waste and as roughing filter
for strong industrial waste prior to activated sludge process. The primary sedimentation tank
is provided prior to trickling filter so that the settleable solids in the sewage may not clog the
filter. The trickling filter is followed by secondary settling tank for removal of settleable
biosolids produced in filtration process.
As the wastewater trickles through the filter media (consisting rocks of 40 to 100 mm size or
plastic media), a biological slime consisting of aerobic bacteria and other biota builds up
around the media surface. Organic material in the sewage is absorbed on the biological slime,
where they are partly degraded by the biota, thus increasing the thickness of the biofilm.
Eventually there is a scouring of the biofilm and fresh biofilm begins to grow on the media.
This phenomenon of detachment of the biofilm is called sloughing of the filter.
The trickling filters are classified as low rate and high rate depending on the organic and
hydraulic loadings. Low rate filters are designed for hydraulic loading of 1 to 4 m3/m2.d and
organic loadings as 80 to 320 g BOD/m3.d. The high rate trickling filters are designed for
hydraulic loading of 10 to 30 m3/m2.d (including recirculation) and organic loading of 500 to
1000 g BOD/m3.d (excluding recirculation). Generally recirculation is not adopted in low
rate filter and recirculation ratio of 0.5 to 3.0 or higher is used in case of high rate trickling
filters. The depth of media varies from 1.0 to 1.8 m for high rate filters and 2.0 to 3.0 m for
low rate filters. The bed of trickling filter is provided with slope 1 in 100 to 1 in 50. The
under drainage system consists of V shaped or half round channels, cast in concrete floor
during its construction. Revolving distributors are provided at top with two or four horizontal
arms of the pipe having perforations or holes. These rotating arms remain 15 to 25 cm above
the top surface of the media. The distribution arms are rotated by the electric motor or by
back reaction on the arms by the wastewater, at about 2 rpm. The head of 30 to 80 cm of
wastewater is required to rotate the arms.

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13.10.2 Activated Sludge Process
It is aerobic biological treatment system. The settled wastewater is aerated in an aeration

tank for a period of few hours. During the aeration, the microorganisms in the aeration tank
stabilize the organic matter. In this process part of the organic matter is synthesized into new
cells and part is oxidized to derive energy. The synthesis reaction followed by subsequent
separation of the resulting biological mass and the oxidation reaction is the main mechanism
of BOD removal in the activated sludge process.
The biomass generated in the aeration tank is generally flocculent and it is separated from the
aerated wastewater in a secondary settling tank and is recycled partially to the aeration tank.
The mixture of recycled sludge and wastewater in the aeration tank is referred as mixed
liquor. The recycling of sludge helps in the initial built up of a high concentration of active
microorganism in the mixed liquor, which accelerates BOD removal. Once the required
concentration of microorganism in the mixed liquor has been reached its further increase is
prevented by the regulating quantity of sludge recycled and wasting the excess sludge from
the system.
Aeration units are main units of activated sludge process, the main aim of which is to supply
oxygen to the wastewater to keep the reactor content aerobic and to mix up the return sludge
with wastewater thoroughly. The usual practice is to keep the detention period between 6 to
8 hours for treatment of sewage or similar industrial wastewater. The volume of aeration
tank is also decided by considering the return sludge, which is about 25 to 50% of the
wastewater volume.
Normally liquid depth provided should be between 3 and 4.5 m. A free board of 0.3 to 0.6 m
is also provided. The mode of air supply in aeration tank can be either diffused air aeration,
by supplementing compressed air from tank bottom, or by mechanical aerators provided at
surface or by both diffused aeration and mechanical aerators. Depending on flow regime the
activated sludge process can be classified as conventional (plug flow) and completely mixed
activated sludge process. The modification of activated sludge process such as extended
aeration is popularly used for treatment of wastewaters. The extended aeration is design for
higher hydraulic retention time (18 h) and low F/M ratio (0.05 to 0.15 kg COD/kg VSS.d).

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13.10.3 Secondary Settling Tank (SST)
Design of secondary settling is somewhat different than that of the primary settling tanks. In
the secondary settling tank the function served is clarification as well as thickening of the
sludge. This type of settling which takes place in secondary settling tank is refereed as zone
settling followed by compression. The SST is designed for detention period of 1.5 to 2.5 h.
The depth of the tank can be between 2.5 and 4.5 m. The area of the tank is to worked out on
the basis of surface overflow rate, overflow rate for SST of trickling filter should be 15-25
m3/m2.d and for SST of ASP 15-35 m3/m2.d at average flow. The length of effluent weir
should be such that the weir loading rate is less than 185 m3/m.d.
13.10.4 Oxidation Ponds

Oxidation ponds are the stabilization ponds, which received partially treated sewage. It is an
earthen pond dug into the ground with shallow depth. The pond should be at least 1.0 m deep
to discourage growth of aquatic weeds and should not exceed 1.8 m. The detention time in
the pond is usually 1 to 4 weeks depending upon sunlight and temperature. Better efficiency
of treatment is obtained if several ponds are placed in series so that the sewage flows
progressively from one to another unit until it is finally discharged.
The surface area of the pond may be worked out by assuming a suitable value of organic
loading which may range from 150 300 kg/ha/d in hot tropical countries like India. Each
unit may have an area ranging between 0.5 to 1.0 hectare.
The length of the tank may be kept about twice the width. A free board of about 1 m may also
be provided above a capacity corresponding to 20-30 days of detention period. Properly
operated ponds may be as effective as trickling filter in reducing the BOD of sewage. The
BOD removal efficiency of pond is up to 90% and Coliform removal efficiency of pond is up
to 99%.
13.10.5 Sludge Treatment

Sludge drying beds are commonly used in small wastewater treatment plants to dewater the
sludge prior to final disposal. Two mechanisms are involved in the process, such as filtration
of water through the sand, and evaporation of water from sludge surface. The filtered water is
returned to the plant for treatment. The process is well suited to sludge, which have under
gone proper aerobic or anaerobic digestion. Sludge from the conventional activated sludge,

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contacted stabilization, trickling filter, and rotating biological contactor processes usually
contain a large amount of volatile solid, which tend to unpleasant odour problem. Therefore
this method is generally not suitable for handling this sludge without prior stabilization, and
digestion of sludge is essential prior to application of sludge on sludge drying beds.
A typical sludge drying bed consist of 15 to 30 cm of coarse sand layer underlain by

approximately 20 to 45 cm of grade gravel ranging in size from 0.6 to 4 cm. Open jointed
tubes of 10 to 15 cm diameter spaced at 2.5 to 6 cm are laid in the gravel to provide drainage
for liquid passing through the bed. Sludge is applied to the drying bed in layer of 20 to 30 cm,
depending upon local climatic conditions the sludge is allowed to dry for two to four weeks.
Enclosing drying beds with glass can improve the performance of the dewatering process,
particularly in cold or wet climates. For an enclosed bed the area required for a bed may get
reduced to two third as compared to area required for open beds.
13.11 Tertiary Treatment
This treatment is sometimes called as the final or advanced treatment and consists of
removing the organic matter left after secondary treatment, removal of nutrients from sewage,
and particularly to kill the pathogenic bacteria. Disinfection is normally carried out by
chlorination for safe disposal of treated sewage in water body which is likely to be used at
downstream for water supplies. However, for other reuses tertiary treatment is required for
further removal of organic matter, suspended solids, nutrients and total dissolved solids as per
the needs.
The sewage treatment is generally confined up to secondary treatment only. Various physical
chemical and biological processes are available for treatment, depending upon the particular
requirements. The choice of treatment methods depends on several factors, including the
disposal facilities available. Actually, the distinction between primary, secondary & tertiary
treatment is rather arbitrary, since many modern treatment methods incorporate physical,
chemical, and biological processes in the same operations.
The secondary treatment can be achieved by aerobic process or anaerobic process.

Conventionally the aerobic process i.e. activated sludge process is used for sewage treatment.
As a low cost treatment option, oxidation pond can also be used for sewage treatment. With
the advent of the energy crises, the use of anaerobic process are being taken into

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consideration in greater depth as a substitutes for the traditional energy dependent activated
process or large area demanding oxidation ponds. The application of anaerobic process for
wastewater treatment is attractive only if large volumes of wastewater can be forced through
the system in a relatively short period of time. This will give low hydraulic retention time
and therefore anaerobic reactor becomes space efficient.
Today majority of wastewater treatment plants use aerobic metabolism for the removal of
organic matter. The most well known aerobic processes are the activated sludge process,
oxidation ditch, oxidation pond, trickling filter, and aerated lagoons. Stabilization ponds use
both the aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms. In the recent years due to increase in power cost
and subsequent increase in operation cost of aerobic process, more attention is being paid for
the use of anaerobic treatment systems for the treatment of wastewater including sewage. At
few places the high rate anaerobic process such as UASB reactor is successfully used for
treatment of sewage.
13.12 Effluent Quality Requirement

For disposal of treated effluent in the water body or reuse for irrigation the effluent standards
are defined by Central Pollution Control Board (www.cpcb.nic.in). For discharge of treated
sewage in water body the standard for BOD and SS is 30 mg/L and for application on land
for irrigation it is 100 mg/L. For details about other parameters refer to the CPCB website.

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Questions
1. Describe broad characteristics of the untreated sewage.
2. What are the factors that are responsible for changing characteristics of sewage from
place to place?
3. What are the pollutants that should be removed before the sewage is considered safe
for discharging back to water body?
4. Describe the classification of the water treatment methods.
5. Describe different reactor types used in biological treatment of wastewaters.
6. What is the objective of primary and secondary treatment of sewage?
7. What is secondary treatment of sewage? What types of reactors are used to facilitate
this treatment?
8. What is excess sludge generation in secondary treatment? How this sludge is disposed
off?

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Module 14 : Screens
Lecture 18 : Screens

2|Page
The primary treatment incorporates unit operations for removal of floating and suspended
solids from the wastewater. They are also referred as the physical unit operations. The unit
operations used are screening for removing floating papers, rages, cloths, plastics, cans
stoppers, labels, etc.; grit chambers or detritus tanks for removing grit and sand; skimming
tanks for removing oils and grease; and primary settling tank for removal of residual
settleable suspended matter.
Screen is the first unit operation in wastewater treatment plant. This is used to remove larger
particles of floating and suspended matter by coarse screening. This is accomplished by a set
of inclined parallel bars, fixed at certain distance apart in a channel. The screen can be of
circular or rectangular opening. The screen composed of parallel bars or rods is called a rack.
The screens are used to protect pumps, valves, pipelines, and other appurtenances from
damage or clogging by rags and large objects.
Industrial wastewater treatment plant may or may not need the screens. However, when
packing of the product and cleaning of packing bottles/ containers is carried out, it is
necessary to provide screens even for industrial wastewater treatment plant to separate labels,
stopper, cardboard, and other packing materials. The cross section of the screen chamber is
always greater (about 200 to 300 %) than the incoming sewer. The length of this channel
should be sufficiently long to prevent eddies around the screen. The schematic diagram of
the screen is shown in the Figure 14.1.
TROUGH
BARS
Figure 14.1 Bar Screen

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14.1 Types of Screens
Screens can be broadly classified depending upon the opening size provided as coarse screen
(bar screens) and fine screens. Based on the cleaning operation they are classified as
manually cleaned screens or mechanically cleaned screens. Due to need of more and more
compact treatment facilities many advancement in the screen design are coming up.
14.1.1 Coarse Screen

It is used primarily as protective device and hence used as first treatment unit. Common type
of these screens are bar racks (or bar screen), coarse woven-wire screens, and comminutors.
Bar screens are used ahead of the pumps and grit removal facility. This screen can be
manually cleaned or mechanically cleaned. Manually cleaned screens are used in small
treatment plants. Clear spacing between the bars in these screens may be in the range of 15
mm to 40 mm.
14.1.2 Grinder or Comminutor

It is used in conjunction with coarse screens to grind or cut the screenings. They utilize
cutting teeth (or shredding device) on a rotating or oscillating drum that passes through
stationary combs (or disks). Object of large size are shredded when it will pass through the
thin opening of size 0.6 to 1.0 cm. Provision of bye pass to this device should always be
made.
14.1.3 Fine Screen

Fine screens are mechanically cleaned screens using perforated plates, woven wire cloths, or
very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm, less than 6 mm typical.
Commonly these are available in the opening size ranging from 0.035 to 6 mm. Fine screens
are used for pretreatment of industrial wastewaters and are not suitable for sewage due to
clogging problems, but can be used after coarse screening. Fine screens are also used to
remove solids from primary effluent to reduce clogging problem of trickling filters. Various
types of microscreens have been developed that are used to upgrade effluent quality from
secondary treatment plant. Fine screen can be fixed or static wedge-wire type, drum type,
step type and centrifugal screens. Fixed or static screens are permanently set in vertical,
inclined, or horizontal position and must be cleaned by rakes, teeth or brushes. Movable
screens are cleaned continuously while in operation. Centrifugal screens utilize the rotating
screens that separate effluent and solids are concentrated.

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14.1.4 Types of Medium and Fine Screens

Inclined (fixed): These are flat, cage, or disk type screens meant for removal of smaller
particles. These are provided with opening of 0.25 to 2.5 mm. They are used for primary
treatment of industrial effluents.
Band: It consists of an endless perforated band that passes over upper and lower sprocket.
Brushes are installed to remove the material retained over the screen. Water jet can be used
to flush the debris. Opening size of 0.8 to 2.5 mm is provided in this screen. They are used
for primary treatment of industrial effluents.
Drum Screen or strainer: It consists of rotating cylinder that has screen covering the
circumferential area of the drum. The liquid enters the drum axially and moves radially out.
The solids deposited are removed by a jet of water from the top and discharged into a trough.
The micro-strainers have very fine size screens and are used to polish secondary effluent or
remove algae from the effluent of stabilization ponds. Opening size of 1 to 5 mm and 0.25
to 2.5 mm is used for primary treatment and opening size of 6 to 40 m is used for polishing
treatment of secondary effluents.
14.2 Screen Chamber

It consists of rectangular channel. Floor of the channel is normally 7 to 15 cm lower than the
invert of the incoming sewer. Bed of the channel may be flat or made with desired slope.
This channel is design to avoid deposition of grit and other materials in to it. Sufficient
straight approach length should be provided to assure uniform distribution of screenings over
the entire screen area. At least two bar racks, each designed to carry peak flow, must be
provided. Arrangement of stopping the flow and draining the channel should be made for
routine maintenance. The entrance structure should have a smooth transition or divergence to
avoid excessive head loss and deposition of solids (Figure 14.2). Effluent structure should be
having uniform convergence. The effluent from the individual rack may be combined or kept
separate as necessary.

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Effluent
Gateclosed
Gateclosed
Gateclosed
Figure 14.2 Double chamber bar screen and influent and effluent arrangement
14.3 Requirements and Specifications for Design of Bar Screen
1. The velocity of flow ahead of and through a screen varies materially and affects its
operation. Lower the velocity through the screen, the greater is the amount of screening
that would be removed. However, at lower velocity greater amount of solids would be
deposited at the bottom of the screen channel.
2. Approach velocity of wastewater in the screening channel shall not fall below a self
cleansing velocity of 0.42 m/sec or rise to a magnitude at which screenings will be
dislodged from the bars.
The suggested approach velocity is 0.6 to 0.75 m/sec for the grit bearing
wastewaters. Accordingly the bed slope of the channel should be adjusted to
develop this velocity.
6|Page
The suggested maximum velocity through the screen is 0.3 m/sec at average flow
for hand cleaned bar screens and 0.75 m/sec at the normal maximum flow for
mechanically cleaned bar screen (Rao and Dutta, 2007). Velocity of 0.6 to 1.2
m/sec through the screen opening for the peak flow gives satisfactory result.
3. Head losses due to installation of screens must be controlled so that back water will not
cause the entrant sewer to operate under pressure. Head loss through a bar rack can be
calculated by using Kirchmers equation:
h = (W/b)4/3 hv Sin 8 (1)
where, h = head loss, m

= Bar shape factor
= 2.42 for sharp edge rectangular bars
= 1.83 for rectangular bars with semicircular upstream
= 1.79 for circular bars
= 1.67 for rectangular bars with both u/s and d/s faces as semicircular.
W = Width of bars facing the flow, m
b = Clear spacing between the bars, m
hv = Velocity head of flow approaching the bars, m
= V2/2g
V = geometric mean of the approach velocity, m/sec
= Angle of inclination of the bars with horizontal.
Usually accepted practice is to provide loss of head of 0.15 m but the maximum loss of head
with the clogged hand cleaned screen should not exceed 0.3 m. For mechanically cleaned
screen, the head loss is specified by the manufacturer, and it can be between 150 to 600 mm.
The head loss through the cleaned or partially clogged flat bar screen can also be calculated
using following formula:
h = 0.0729 (V2 v2) (2)

Where, h = loss of head, m
V = velocity through the screen, m/sec
v = velocity before the screen, m/sec
The head loss through the fine screen can be calculated as:

7|Page
h = (1/(2g.Cd))(Q/A)2 (3)
Where, g = gravity acceleration (m/sec2); Cd is coefficient of discharge = 0.6 for clean rack;
Q is discharge through screen (m3/sec); and A is effective open submerged area (m2).
4. The slope of the hand cleaned screen should be in between 30 to 60o with horizontal. The
mechanically cleaned bar screens are generally erected almost vertical; however the angle
with the horizontal can be in the range 45 to 85o.
5. The submerged area of the surface of the screen, including bars and opening should be
about 200% of the cross sectional area of the incoming sewer for separate system, and
300% for the combined system.
6. The clear spacing between the bars may be in the range of 15 mm to 75 mm in case of
mechanically cleaned bar screen. However, for the manually cleaned bar screen the clear
spacing used is in the range 25 mm to 50 mm. Bar Screens with opening between 75 to
150 mm are used ahead of raw sewage pumping. For industrial wastewater treatment the
spacing between the bars could be between 6 mm and 20 mm.
7. The width of bars facing the flow may vary from 5 mm to 15 mm, and the depth may vary
from 25 mm to 75 mm. Generally bars with size less than 5 mm x 25 mm are not used.
These bars are welded together with plate from downstream side to avoid deformation.
14.4 Quantities of Screening

The quantity of screening varies depending on the type of rack or screen used as well as
sewer system (combined or separate) and geographic location. Quantity of screening removed
by bar screen is 0.0035 to 0.0375 m3/ 1000 m3 of wastewater treated (Typical value = 0.015
m3/1000 m3 of wastewater) (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). In combined system, the quantity of
screening increases during storm and can be as high as 0.225 m3/1000 m3 of wastewater. For
industrial wastewaters quantity of the screening depends on the characteristics of the
wastewater being treated.
14.5 Disposal of Screenings
Screening can be discharged to grinders or disintegrator pumps, where they are ground and
returned to the wastewater. Screenings can be disposed off along with municipal solid waste
on sanitary landfill. In large sewage treatment plant, screenings can be incinerated. For small
wastewater treatment plant, screenings may be disposed off by burial on the plant site.

8|Page
Example: 1
Design a bar screen chamber for average sewage flow 20 MLD, minimum sewage flow of 12
MLD and maximum flow of 30 MLD.
Solution:
1. Average flow = 20 MLD
= 0.231 m3/Sec
Maximum Flow = 30 MLD
= 0.347 m3/Sec
Minimum flow = 12 MLD
= 0.139 m3/Sec
2. Assume manual cleaning and angle of inclination of bars with horizontal as 30o.
Assume size of bars 9 mm x 50 mm, 9 mm facing the flow. A clear spacing of 30 mm
between the bars is provided.
3. Assume velocity of flow normal to screen as 0.3 m/sec at average flow.
4. Net submerged area of the screen opening required
= 0.231 m3/Sec = 0.77 m2
0.3 m/sec
Assume velocity of flow normal to the screen as 0.75 m/sec at maximum flow, hence
net submerged area of screen opening
0.347 m3/Sec = 0.46 m2
0.75 m/sec
Provide net submerged area = 0.77 m2
5. Gross submerged area of the screen

When n numbers of bars are used the ratio of opening to the gross width will be
[(n+1)30] / [(n+1)30 + 9 x n] 0.77 (for 20 to 30 number of
bars) y
Therefore gross submerged area of the screen 0.77 / 0.77 = x
1 m2
6. The submerged vertical cross sectional area of the screen Sin 30 = x/Y
2
= 1.0 x Sin 30 = 0.5 m
This is equal to c/s area of screen chamber, therefore velocity of flow in screen chamber

9|Page
= 0.231 / 0.5 = 0.462 m/sec

This velocity is greater than the self cleansing velocity of 0.42 m/sec
7. Provide 30 numbers of bars. The gross width of the screen chamber will be:
= 30 x 0.009 + 31 x 0.03 = 1.2 m
Therefore, liquid depth at average flow = 0.5 / 1.2 = 0.416 m
Provide free board of 0.3 m
Hence, total depth of the screen = 0.416 + 0.3 = 0.716 m, say 0.75 m
Thus, the size of the channel = 1.2 m (width) x 0.75 m (depth)
8. Calculation for bed slope:

R = A/P = (0.416 x 1.2) / (2 x 0.416 + 1.2)
= 0.246 m
Now, V = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
S1/2 = V.n / R2/3
= 0.462 x 0.013 / (0.246)2/3
S1/2 = 0.0153
Therefore bed slope is nearly 1 in 4272 m
9. Head loss through the screen, h, when screen is not clogged.
h = (W/b)4/3 hv Sin
= 2.42 (9/30)4/3 [(0.462)2/(2 x 9.81)] Sin 30
= 2.65 x 10-3 m = 0.00265 m = 2.65 mm
For half clogged screen, the head loss can be worked out using opening width as half
Thus, b = 30/2 = 15 mm
And h = 6.67 x 10-3 m = 6.67 mm < 150 mm
However, provide 150 mm drop of after screen.
If this head loss is very excessive, this can be reduced by providing bars with rounded edges
at upstream, or by reducing width of bars to 6 to 8 mm, or by slight reduction in velocity.
Except for the change in shape of bars in other cases the channel dimensions will change.
For minimum flow and maximum flow, the depth of flow can be worked out using
Mannings formula using known discharge, and check for velocity under both these cases, as
self cleansing and non-scouring, respectively, and also depth of flow at maximum discharge.

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Questions
1. Describe types of screens used in wastewater treatment.
2. Discuss classification of screens and state application of each class.
3. With schematic describe how double chamber bar screen channels can be arranged?
For what discharge each of them will be designed?
4. Describe design guidelines for the bar racks.
5. Determine head loss through a bar screen when it is 50% clogged. The approach
velocity of wastewater in the channel is 0.6 m/sec, velocity of flow through the clear
rack is 0.8 m/sec. Clear opening area in the screen is 0.2 m2. Consider flow coefficient
for clogged bar rack as 0.6.
Answer:
Q 5: Head loss through a bar screen when it is 50% clogged = 0.187 m

1|Page
Module 15 : Grit Chamber
Lecture 19 : Grit Chamber

2|Page
Grit chamber is the second unit operation used in primary treatment of wastewater and it is
intended to remove suspended inorganic particles such as sandy and gritty matter from the
wastewater. This is usually limited to municipal wastewater and generally not required for
industrial effluent treatment plant, except some industrial wastewaters which may have grit.
The grit chamber is used to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy
solids materials that have specific gravity much higher than those of the organic solids in
wastewater. Grit chambers are provided to protect moving mechanical equipment from
abrasion and abnormal wear; avoid deposition in pipelines, channels, and conduits; and to
reduce frequency of digester cleaning. Separate removal of suspended inorganic solids in grit
chamber and suspended organic solids in primary sedimentation tank is necessary due to
different nature and mode of disposal of these solids. Grit can be disposed off after washing,
to remove higher size organic matter settled along with grit particles; whereas, the suspended
solids settled in primary sedimentation tank, being organic matter, requires further treatment
before disposal.
15.1 Horizontal Velocity in Flow Though Grit Chamber

The settling of grit particles in the chamber is assumed as particles settling as individual
entities and referred as Type I settling. The grit chamber is divided in four compartments as
inlet zone, outlet zone, settling zone and sludge zone (Figure 15.1)
Vc
Vo H
I III II
IV
Figure 15.1 Compartments of grit chamber

Zone I: Inlet zone: This zone distributes the incoming wastewater uniformly to entire cross
section of the grit chamber.
Zone II: Outlet zone: This zone collects the wastewater after grit removal.
Zone III: Settling zone: In this zone settling of grit material occurs.
Zone IV: Sludge zone: This is a zone where settled grit accumulates.
L Length of the settling zone
H Depth of the settling zone
v Horizontal velocity of wastewater

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Vo Settling velocity of the smallest particle intended to be removed in grit chamber.
Now, if Vs is the settling velocity of any particle, then

For Vs Vo these particles will be totally removed,
For Vs < Vo, these particles will be partially removed,
Where, Vo is settling velocity of the smallest particle intended to be removed. The smallest
particle expected to be removed in the grit chamber has size 0.2 mm and sometimes in
practice even size of the smallest particle is considered as 0.15 mm. The terminal velocity
with which this smallest particle will settle is considered as Vo. This velocity can be
expressed as flow or discharge per unit surface area of the tank, and is usually called as
surface overflow rate or surface settling velocity. Now for 100 percent removal of the
particles with settling velocity Vs Vo, we have
Detention time = L/v = H/Vo
Or L/H = v/Vo (1)
To prevent scouring of already deposited particles the magnitude of v should not exceed
critical horizontal velocity Vc, and the above equation becomes
L / H = Vc / Vo
The critical velocity, Vc, can be given by the following equation (Rao and Dutta, 2007):
8
Vc g ( S 1) D 9
f
(2)
where, = constant
= 0.04 for unigranular sand
= 0.06 for non-uniform sticky material
f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor = 0.03 for gritty matter
g = Gravitational acceleration,
S = Specific gravity of the particle to be removed (2.65 for sand), and
D = Diameter of the particle, m
The grit chambers are designed to remove the smallest particle of size 0.2 mm with specific
gravity around 2.65. For these particles, using above expression the critical velocity comes
out to be Vc = 0.228 m/sec.

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15.2 Settling Velocity of the Particles

Settling velocity of any discrete particle depends on its individual characteristics and also on
the characteristics of the fluid. Assuming particles to be spherical, the settling velocity of any
particle, Vs, can be given by the following formula:
4 g
Vs ( S 1) D
3 CD
(3)
where, CD = Newtons drag coefficient
24 3
= R 0.34 for 0.3 < R < 104
R
= 24 / R, when R < 0.3
R = Reynolds Number = Vs.D/
= Kinematic viscosity of the fluid
For the value of R < 0.3, CD = 24/R and the above equation becomes (Stokes Law)
g S 1 2
Vs D
18
(4)
For the value of R > 0.3, the value of Vs should be worked out by trial and error.
15.3 Horizontal Flow Rectangular Grit Chamber

A long narrow channel is used in this type of grit chamber (Figure 15.2). The wastewater
moves through this channel in more or less plug flow condition with minimal mixing to
support settling of the particles. Higher length to width ratio of the channel is used to
minimize mixing. For this purpose a minimum allowance of approximately twice the
maximum depth or 20 to 50% of the theoretical length of the channel should be given for
inlet and outlet zones. The width of this channel is kept between 1 and 1.5 m and the depth
of flow is normally kept shallow. A free board of minimum 0.3 m and grit space of about
0.25 m is provided. For large sewage treatment plant, two or more number of grit chambers
are generally provided in parallel. The detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is recommended
for the grit chamber.
Figure 15.2 Horizontal flow grit chamber

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15.4 Control of Velocity Through the Grit Chamber
With variation in sewage flow received at treatment plant, it is important that velocity of the
wastewater in the grit chamber should be maintained nearly constant. Otherwise when flow
is lower, deposition of not only inorganic solids but also organic solids will occur in grit
chamber due to lowering of velocity. With flow higher than average, when the velocity will
exceed the critical velocity, scouring of already deposited grit particles will occur leading to
failure of performance. Hence for proper functioning, the velocity should not be allowed to
change in spite of change in flow in the grit chamber. This can be achieved by provision of
proportional weir (Figure 15.3) or Parshall flume (Figure 15.4) at the outlet end of grit
chamber. The shape of the opening between the plates of a proportional weir is made in such
a way that the discharge is directly proportional to liquid depth in grit chamber. As a result
the velocity of water in the chamber will remain constant for all flow conditions.
The discharge through proportional weir can be given by the following equation (Rao and
Dutta, 2007):
a
Q C.b 2ag . H
3
(5)
where, Q = Discharge, m3/sec1
C = constant, 0.61 for symmetrical sharp edged weir
a = 25 to 35 mm as shown in the Figure 15.3.
b = base width of the weir
H = Height of water above the crest of weir
The equation of the curve forming the edge of the weir is given by the following formula:
b 2 1 y
x 1 tan 1
2 a
(6)
The sharp edges generated by the curve at the bottom are curtailed on both the side, because
such small opening will not contribute for flow due to deposition of solids. These edges are
curtailed from the side wall at a distance of minimum 75 mm and height of the vertical edge
a is in the range of 25 to 35 mm. To compensate this loss of area the edge of the weir is
lowered by a/3 than the theoretical level.
1
Q = Cd (2g)1/2 L H3/2 for normal sharp crested weir, where as in proportional weir Q H instead of H3/2

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Figure 15.3. Proportional Weir
Alternatively, Parshall flume can be placed at the end of the grit chamber (Figure 15.4). The
design details for Parshall flume to meet different discharges are provided in the CPHEEO
manual (1993). With appropriate arrangement this will also facilitate recording of the
discharge received at the sewage treatment plant.
Figure 15.4 Parshall flume
15.5 Disposal of Grit

Considerable quantities of grit will be collected at the sewage treatment plant, about 0.004 to
0.2 m3/ML. Quantity of grit will be more particularly for combined system. Necessary
arrangement should be made at the treatment plant for collection, storage and disposal of this
grit matter. The grit collected can be disposed in the following manner:
In large treatment plant, grit is incinerated with sludge
In the past, grits along with screening was dumped into sea.
Generally, grit should be washed before disposal to remove organic matter.
Land disposal after washing is most common.

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Example:1
Design a grit chamber for population 50000 with water consumption of 135 LPCD.
Solution
Average quantity of sewage, considering sewage generation 80% of water supply, is
= 135 x 50000 x 0.8 = 5400 m3/day = 0.0625 m3/sec
Maximum flow = 2.5 x average flow
= 0.0625 x 2.5 = 0.156 m3/sec
Keeping the horizontal velocity as 0.2 m/sec (<0.228 m/sec) and detention time period as one
minute.
Length of the grit chamber = velocity x detention time
= 0.2 x 60 = 12.0 m
Volume of the grit chamber = Discharge x detention time
= 0.156 x 60 = 9.36 m3
Cross section area of flow A = Volume / Length = 9.36/12 = 0.777 m2
Provide width of the chamber = 1.0 m, hence depth = 0.777 m
Provide 25% additional length to accommodate inlet and outlet zones.
Hence, the length of the grit chamber = 12 x 1.25 = 15.0 m
Provide 0.3 m free board and 0.25 m grit accumulation zone depth, hence total depth
= 0.777 + 0.3 + 0.25 = 1.33 m
and width = 1.0 m
Example :2
Design a horizontal flow grit chamber with rectangular cross section for treating maximum
sewage flow of 10 MLD at maximum temperature of 34 oC during summer and minimum
temperature of 15 oC in winter.
Solution
The settling velocity of the grit particle will be minimum at lower temperature, i.e., 15 oC. At
this temperature kinematic viscosity = 1.14 x 10-2 cm2/sec
In first trial assume Reynolds number R less than or equal to 0.3.
g S 1 2
Vs D
18
981 2.65 1
Vs 0.02 2
18 1.14 x10 2

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= 3.15 cm/sec
Reynolds Number R = v.D/ = 3.15 x 0.02 / 1.14 x 10-2

= 5.53 > 0.3
Therefore, Vs is not equal to 3.15 cm/sec because the equation for Vs is valid only for R <
0.3. Using Vs = 3.15 cm/sec, calculate R and CD and then again Vs till it converges.
Subsequent Trial
Vs = 2.4 cm/sec
R = 2.4 x 0.02 /(1.14 x 10-2) = 4.21
24 3
CD = 0.34
4.21 4.21
= 7.50
From equation
4 981
Vs (2.65 1)0.02
3 7.50
Vs = 2.4 cm/sec Hence, O.K. (2074 m/d)
Now for = 0.06, f = 0.03, and D = 0.02 cm
8
Vc g ( S 1) D
f
8x0.06
Vc 981(2.65 1)0.02
0.03
= 22.76 cm/sec
Now Q = 10 MLD = 0.116 m3/sec

Therefore, C/S Area A = Q/V = 0.116/0.227 = 0.51 m2
If width of 1 m is provided, the depth required = 0.51 m
Provide total depth = 0.51 + 0.3 (free board) + 0.25 (space for grit accumulation)
= 1.06 Say 1.1 m
Now Vo/Vc = H/L = 2.4/22.7
Therefore theoretical length L = 22.7 x 0.51 / 2.4 = 4.824 m
Provide 2 m extra length for inlet and outlet
Therefore total length = 2 + 4.824 = 6.824 m say 6.9 m
Total working volume = 0.51 x 6.9 x 1 = 3.52 m3
Hence, Overall detention time = 3.52 / 0. 116 = 30.34 sec (within 30 to 60 seconds)

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Module 15 : Grit Chamber
Lecture 20 : Grit Chamber

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15.6 Square Grit Chamber
The horizontal flow rectangular grit chamber faces the problem of sedimentation of organic
matter along with grit particles, requiring external washing of the grit before disposal. This
problem can be minimized by providing square shape of the grit chamber rather than long
rectangular channel. Also, this shape will facilitate compact design of sewage treatment plant.
Hence these days square grit chambers are used. In square grit chamber, the flow distribution
may not be uniform due to non-ideal plug flow conditions, and hence continuous removal of
grit is generally considered essential. These are designed based on overflow rates that are
dependent on the particle size and temperature of wastewater. Minimum two number of grit
chambers should be used to facilitate maintenance of the raking mechanism, whenever
required. The grit deposited at the bottom is raked by rotating mechanism to a sump at the
side of the tank, from which it is moved up by an inclined reciprocating rake or screw pump
mechanism (Figure 15.5). While passing up the incline conveyer, organic solids are separated
from grit and flow back into the basin. Thus, cleaned washed grit is obtained, compared to
the grit obtained from separate grit washers.
Figure 15.5 Square grit chamber
15.7 Aerated Grit Chamber

Excessive wear of grit handling equipment and necessity of separate grit washer can be
eliminated by using aerated grit chamber. It is designed for typical detention time of 3
minutes at maximum flow. Grit hopper of about 0.9 m deep with steeply sloping sides is
located along one side of tank under air diffusers (Figure 15.6). The diffusers are located at
about 0.45 to 0.6 m from the bottom. The size of particles removed will depend upon velocity

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of roll or agitation. The air flow rate can be easily adjusted to control efficiency and 100%
removal of grit can be achieved. Wastewater moves in the tank in helical path and makes two
or three passes across the bottom of the tank at maximum flow (and more at less flow).
Wastewater is introduced in the direction of roll in the grit chamber. The expansion in
volume due to introduction of air must be considered in design. The aerated grit chambers
are equipped with grit removal grab buckets, traveling on monorails over the grit collection
and storage trough. Chain and bucket conveyers can also be used. Two grit chambers in
parallel are used to facilitate maintenance. Typical design details for aerated grit chamber are
provided below (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003):
Depth : 2 to 5 m
Length : 7.5 to 20 m
Width : 2.5 to 7.0 m
Width to depth ratio: 1:1 to 5:1
Detention time at peak flow: 2 to 5 min (3 minutes typical)
Air supply m3/min.m of length : 0.15 to 0.45 (0.3 typical)
Figure 15.6 Aerated grit chamber (first figure showing the helical flow pattern of the
wastewater in grit chamber and second showing cross section of grit chamber)

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Example : 3
Design aerated grit chamber for treatment of sewage with average flow of 60 MLD.
Consider the peak factor of 2.
Solution:
1. Average flow = 60 MLD = 0.694 m3/sec, and Peak flow = 0.694 x 2.0 = 1.389 m3/sec
2. Volume of grit chamber
Provide two chambers to facilitate periodic cleaning and maintenance
Provide detention time = 3.0 min
Volume of each tank = 1.389 x 3 x 60 /2 = 125.01 m3
3. Dimensions of aeration basin:
Provide depth to width ratio of 1: 1.2
Provide depth = 3.0 m, hence width = 1.2 x 3.0 = 3.6 m
Length = 125.01 / (3 x 3.6) = 11.575 m
Increase length by 20% to account for inlet and outlet conditions.
Total length = 11.575 x 1.2 = 13.89 m.
4. Determine the air-supply requirement
Consider 0.3 m3/min.m of length air supply
Air Requirement = 13.89 x 0.3 = 4.17 m3/min
Provide air swing arrangement at 0.5 m from floor
5. Quantity of grit :
Consider grit collection 0.015 m3/103 m3
Volume of grit = 1.389 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 0.015 x 10-3
= 1.8 m3/d
6. Check for surface overflow rate (SOR)
The settling velocity of the smallest particle = 2.4 cm/sec, the actual SOR in the grit
chamber = 1.389 / (2 x 3.6 x 11.575) = 0.0167 m/s = 1.67 cm/sec, which is less than the
settling velocity of the smallest particle hence design is safe.
15.8 Vortex-Type Grit Chamber

These types of grit chambers are used in small plants and these require lesser area as
compared to earlier types. In this type, grit is removed with vortex flow pattern. The
wastewater enters tangentially and exit in the perpendicular direction of motion either from
top or from side. Due to inertia the grit particles will remain in the chamber and liquid free
from grit will only escape. The rotating turbine maintains constant velocity and helps in

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separating organic matter and grit. The centrifugal force on the grit particle can also be
maintained without turbine by properly introducing wastewater in the tangential direction in
the chamber. Toroidal flow path is followed by the grit particles due to action of propeller
(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Grit particle settles by the action of gravity into hopper from
where it is removed by a grit pump or air lift pump. Washed grit, free from the organic
matter, can be obtained from this device.

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Questions
1. Why separate grit chamber is provided before primary sedimentation tank in sewage
treatment plant?
2. Describe different types of grit chambers.
3. Describe square grit chamber.
4. Design a rectangular grit chamber and square grit chamber for treatment of sewage
with average flow of 8.5 MLD and peak flow factor of 2.25.
5. Prepare notes on vortex type grit chamber.
Answers:
Q 4:
Rectangular grit chamber: Vc = 22.7 cm/sec; width = 1 m; theoretical length L = 9.2 m,
provide 25% extra length hence length = 11.5 m; Depth = 0.973 + 0.3 (free board) + 0.25
(space for grit accumulation) = Say 1.6 m; D.T. = 50.66 sec.
Square Grit chamber: Assume SOR = 1200 m3/ m2.day; Length = width = 4.0 m; depth = 0.25
+ 0.5 (free board) + 0.25 (space for grit accumulation) = 1.0 m.

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Module 16 : Primary Sedimentation Tank
Lecture 21 : Primary Sedimentation Tank

2|Page
After grit removal in grit chamber, the wastewater containing mainly lightweight organic
matter is settled in the primary sedimentation tank (PST). Due to involvement of many
unknown parameters under settling of light weight, sticky, and non regular shaped particles,
the classical laws of sedimentation as applicable in grit removal are not valid and this settling
is called as flocculant settling. The primary sedimentation tank generally removes 30 to 40%
of the total BOD and 50 to 70% of suspended solids from the raw sewage. The flow through
velocity of 1 cm/sec at average flow is used for design with detention period in the range of
90 to 150 minutes. This horizontal velocity will be generally effective for removal of organic
suspended solids of size above 0.1 mm. Effluent weirs are provided at the effluent end of the
rectangular tanks, and around the periphery in the circular tanks. Weir loading less than 185
m3/m.d is used for designing effluent weir length (125 to 500 m3/m.d). Where primary
treatment follows secondary treatment, higher weir loading rates can be used. The sludge
collection hopper is provided near the centre in circular tank and near the influent end in
rectangular tanks. A baffle is provided ahead of the effluent weir for removal of floating
matter. This scum formed on the surface is periodically removed from the tank mechanically
or manually.
16.1 Analysis of Flocculant Settling

Particles in relatively dilute concentration with smaller size sometimes will not act as discrete
particles (as the grit particles behave in grit chamber) but these particles will coalesce during
sedimentation. As flocculation occurs, the size of the particle increases and it settles faster.
The magnitude of flocculation will depend upon the opportunity for contact between the
particles, which depends upon overflow rate, temporal mean velocity gradient in the system
(representing mixing) and concentration and size of the particles. Although, settling rate of
particle is independent of depth of basin, the basin depth will decide liquid detention time in
the tank and sufficient depth should be provided for settling to separate it from sludge settled
zone. The effect of these variables on settling can only be determined by sedimentation tests,
and classical laws of sedimentation are not applicable, due to change in characteristics of the
particle during settling. Settling column is used to determine the settling characteristics of
the suspension of flocculant particles. A column with diameter of 15 cm and height of 3.0 m
can give satisfactory results, with 5 to 6 ports provided over the height for sampling. The
height of the tank should be ideally equal to side water depth of the settling tank for proper
results.

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The solution containing suspended solids should be added in the column in such a way that
uniform distribution of solid particles occur from top to bottom. Settling should takes place
under quiescent conditions. It is important to maintain uniform temperature throughout the
experimental column to avoid convection currents. At various time intervals, samples are
withdrawn from the ports and analyzed for suspended solids. Percentage removal of solids is
calculated for each sample analyzed and is plotted as a number (%) against time and depth.
The curve of equal percentage removal is drawn between the plotted points.
The efficiency of the sedimentation tank, with respect to suspended solids and BOD removal,
is affected by the following:
Eddy currents formed by the inertia of incoming fluid,
Wind induced turbulence created at the water surface of the uncovered tanks,
Thermal convection currents,
Cold or warm water causing the formation of density currents that moves along the
bottom of the basin, and
Thermal stratification in hot climates.
10
Because of the above reasons the removal efficiency of the tank and detention time has
correlation R = t/(a+b.t), where a and b are empirical constants, R is expected removal
efficiency, and t is nominal detention time.
To account for the non optimum conditions encountered in the field, due to continuously
wastewater coming in and going out of the sedimentation tank, due to ripples formed on the
surface of the water because of wind action, etc., the settling velocity (overflow rate)
obtained from the column studies are often multiplied by a factor of 0.65 to 0.85, and the
detention time is multiplied by a factor of 1.25 to 1.50. This will give adequate treatment
efficiency in the field conditions as obtained under laboratory test.
Example: 1
The settling test was performed in the settling column of height 2.5 m. Four numbers of ports
were provided to the column at the height of 0.5 m from bottom. Samples were collected
from these ports at every 30 min and the results obtained are plotted in the Figure 16.1.
Determine the overall removal of solids after 1.0 h of settling.

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h1
h2
Heightofcolumn
h3
40%
50% 60% 80%

h4
70% 0.5m
30 60 90 120 150
Timeofsampling,min
Figure 16.1. Results of the settling column study
Solution
Percentage removal = h1x (R1 + R2) + h2 x (R2 + R3) + h3x (R3 + R4) + h4 x (R4 + R5)
h5 2 h5 2 h5 2 h5 2
For curve shown in the Figure 16.1, the computation will be
h1x (R1 + R2) = 0.34(100+80)/(2.5 x 2) = 12.24%

h5 2
h2 x (R2 + R3) = 0.16 (80 + 70)/(2.5 x 2) = 4.8%
h5 2
h3x (R3 + R4) = 0.66 (70 + 60)/(2.5 x 2) = 17.16%

h5 2
h4 x (R4 + R5) = 1.34 (60 + 50)/(2.5 x 2) = 29.48%

h5 2
Therefore, total removal under quiescent settling condition is 63.68%. To achieve this
removal the detention time recommended in settling tank is 1 x 1.5 = 1.5 h.
16.2 Recommendation for Design of Primary Sedimentation Tank
Primary sedimentation tanks can be circular or rectangular tanks (Figure 16.2) designed using
average dry weather flow and checked for peak flow condition. The numbers of tanks are
determined by limitation of tank size. Two tanks in parallel are normally used to facilitate
maintenance of any tank. The diameter of circular tank may range from 3 to 60 m (up to 45 m
typical) and it is governed by structural requirements of the trusses which supports scrapper

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in case of mechanically cleaned tank. Rectangular tank with length 90 m are in use, but
usually length more than 40 m is not preferred. Width of the tank is governed by the size of
the scrappers available for mechanically cleaned tank. The depth of mechanically cleaned
tank should be as shallow as possible, with minimum 2.15 m. The average depth of the tank
used in practice is about 3.5 m. In addition, 0.25 m for sludge zone and 0.3 to 0.5 m free
board is provided. The floor of the tank is provided with slope 6 to 16 % (8 to 12 % typical)
for circular tank and 2 to 8% for rectangular tanks. The scrappers are attached to rotating
arms in case of circular tanks and to endless chain in case of rectangular tanks. These
scrappers collect the solids in a central sump and the solids are withdrawn regularly in
circular tanks. In rectangular tanks, the solids are collected in the sludge hoppers at the
influent end, and are withdrawn at fixed time intervals. The scrapper velocity of 0.6 to 1.2
m/min (0.9 m/min typical) is used in rectangular tank and flight speed of 0.02 to 0.05 rpm
(0.03 typical) is used in circular tank.
Inlets for both rectangular and circular tanks are to be designed to distribute the flow equally
across the cross section. Scum removal arrangement is provided ahead of the effluent weir in
all the PST. The surface overflow rate of 40 m3/m2.d (in the range 35 to 50 m3/m2.d) is used
for design at average flow. At peak flow the surface overflow rate of 80 to 120 m3/m2.d
could be used when this PST is followed by secondary treatment. Lower surface settling
rates are used when waste activated sludge is also settled in the PST along with primary
solids. In this case the surface overflow rate of 24 to 32 m3/m2.d and 48 to 60 m3/m2.d are
used for average and peak flow conditions, respectively. The weir loading rate less than 185
m3/m.d is used for designing effluent weir length (in the range 125 to 500 m3/m.d). Weir
loading rate up to 300 m3/m.d is acceptable under peak flow condition. Higher weir loading
can be acceptable when primary treatment is followed by secondary treatment. As such the
weir loading rate has very less impact on the overall performance of sewage treatment plant
when secondary treatment is provided after primary treatment. The detention time in PST
could be as low as 1 h to maximum of 2.5 h. Providing detention time of 1.5 to 2.5 h at
average flow is a common practice.
To avoid resuspension (scouring) of settled particles, horizontal velocities through the PST
should be kept sufficiently low. Following equation by Camp can be used to calculate the
critical velocity, Vc, which is the horizontal velocity that will just produce scour (m/sec).

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8
Vc g ( S 1) D
f
(1)
Where, = constant
= 0.04 for unigranular sand
= 0.06 for non-uniform sticky material
f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor = 0.02 to 0.03
g = Gravity acceleration,
S = Specific gravity of the particle to be removed (1.2 to 1.6)
D = Diameter of the particle, m
For organic particle with size of 0.1 mm and specific gravity of 1.25 this velocity will be
about 0.063 m/sec.
Figure 16.2 (a) Rectangular and (b) Circular primary sedimentation tank
Example: 2
Design the primary sedimentation tank to treat wastewater with average flow rate of 10 MLD
and peak flow of 22.5 MLD.
Solution
Assume surface settling rate = 40 m3/m2.d
Therefore, the surface area of the tank = 10 x 106 / 40 x 103 = 250 m2
Check for peak flow condition: The SOR at peak flow = 22.5 x 103 /250 = 90 m3/m2.d
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This is less than the recommended value at peak flow.

Assume width = 6.0 m
Therefore theoretical length = 250/6 = 41.66 > 40 m
Hence, provide two tanks in parallel
Total length of each tank = 41.66/2 + 2 (inlet) + 2 (outlet) = 24.83 say 24.85 m
Now,
Flow rate x detention time = depth x surface area = volume of tank
or Flow / Surface area = depth / detention time = Surface settling rate
Provide detention time of 1.5 h
Therefore, liquid depth required = 40 x 1.5 / 24 = 2.5 m
3
Therefore, flow through velocity = (0.116 m /sec) / (2 x 2.5 x 6)
= 0.0039 m/sec < 1 cm/sec hence O.K.
At peak flow, the flow through velocity = 22.5 x 103 /(2 x 6 x 2.5) = 750 m/d = 0.0087 m/sec.
(Horizontal velocity should be checked for non-scouring velocity i.e. less than 0.06 m/sec.)
Provide total depth = 2.5 + 0.5 (free board) + 0.25 (space for sludge) = 3.25 m
Weir loading rate = 10 x 103 / 12 = 833.33 m3/m.day > 185 m3/m.day
Length of weir required = 10 x 103 / 185 = 54.05 m
Hence, provide about 27.1 m of weir length for each tank. This can be provided by two
effluent collection channels across the width at outlet end offering total 24.0 m and side weir
of total 1.55 m on each side.

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Questions
1. Describe flocculant settling.

2. What is the purpose of providing primary sedimentation tank in wastewater
treatment? What is the expected BOD and SS removal is primary sedimentation tank?
3. What are the parameters which will govern performance of PSTs?
4. Describe design guidelines for primary sedimentation facilities.
5. Design circular and rectangular PST for treatment of 4 MLD of average sewage flow
with peaking factor of 2.
Answer:
3 2
Q. 5. Assume surface settling rate = 40 m /m .d;
For rectangular tank: Width = 5 m, Length = 24.0 m, Liquid depth = 2.5 m two tanks.
For circular tank: Provide 11.5 m diameter two tanks with side water depth of 2.5 m.

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Module 17 : Other Primary Treatment Systems
Lecture 22 : Other Primary Treatment Systems

2|Page
Other pretreatment operation such as equalization, skimming tanks, flocculation and pre-
aeration are used sometimes. However, for sewage treatment, equalization, flocculation and
pre-aeration are generally not used in conventional treatment plants, but these can be used in
case of industrial wastewater treatment.
17.1 Equalization
For sewage treatment plant of large capacity the variation in the sewage flow received at
sewage treatment plant of centralized system is not that pronounced and equalization may not
be required in this case. However, for sewage treatment plant of small community, where
wastewater flow rate considerably vary with time, and for industrial wastewater treatment
plants, where wastewater flow and characteristic varies with time, equalization becomes
essential to obtain proper performance of the treatment plant by avoiding shock loading
(hydraulic and organic) to the systems. Due to possibility of variation in flow rate received at
treatment plant, there may be deterioration in performance of the treatment plant than the
optimum value. To facilitate maintenance of uniform flow rate in the treatment units, flow
equalization is used. This helps in overcoming the operational problems caused by flow
variation and improves performance of the treatment plant. Flow equalization is provided for
dampening of flow rate variations so that a constant or nearly constant flow rate is achieved.
The equalization can also be provided for dampening the fluctuation in pollutant
concentration in the incoming wastewater to avoid shock loading on the treatment system; to
provide continuous feeding to the treatment system when the wastewater generation is
intermittent; to control pH fluctuations or to control toxic concentration in the feed to the
biological reactor. Equalization can also be used to control the discharge of industrial
effluent in to the sanitary sewers.
Equalization can be of two types:

a) Inline: Where all flow passes through equalization basin
b) Off-line: In this, the flow above average daily flow is diverted to equalization basin. The
pumping is minimized in this case but amount of pollutant concentration damping is
considerably reduced.
Location of Equalization: Location of equalization basin after primary treatment and before
biological treatment is appropriate. This arrangement considerably reduces problem of sludge
and scum in the equalization basin. If the equalization basin is placed before primary

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treatment, it must be provided with sufficient mixing to prevent solids deposition and
concentration variations, and aeration to prevent odour problem. Most commonly submerged
or surface aerators with power level of approximately 0.003 to 0.004 KW/m3 are used. In
diffused air mixing, air requirement of 3.74 m3/m3 (air flow rate to water flow rate) is used
(Eckenfelder, 2000).
Volume requirement: The volume required for the equalization tank can be worked out
using an inflow mass diagram in which cumulative inflow volume is plotted versus the time
of day.
Cumulative average flow

Cumulative flow, volume
Cumulative inflow
Required
equalization volume
0 Time, h 24
Figure 17.1 Inflow mass diagram for determination of required equalization basin volume.
In practice, the volume of tank is kept 10 to 20% greater than the theoretical volume. This
additional volume is provided for the following:
Not to allow complete drawdown to operate continuous mixing or aeration (e.g. floating
aerators)
Some volume must be provided to accommodate concentrated stream to get diluted
wastewater.
Safety for unforeseen changes in flow.
11
Example: 1
Determine the volume required for the equalization tank for the following flow rate given in
Table 17.1.
Solution
Average pumping = 193.3 m3/24 h = 8.054 m3/h, hence in three hours pumping volume of
wastewater pumped = 24.1625 m3
From the table after calculating maximum cumulative deficit and surplus, the volume of
equalization basin required = 42.1875 + 1.86 = 44.047 m3
Provide 20% extra volume, hence volume of the tank = 53 m3

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Provide mixer of capacity 0.004 KW/ m3

Therefore, power required for mixer = 53 x 4 = 212 W
Hence provide mixer of about 250 W to impart mixing in the equalization basin.
Provide depth of the basin = 3.5 m, hence area required = 15.14 m2

Provide suitable square or circular tank.
Table 17.1 Variation in the flow rate of the wastewater

Time Period Volume of Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
wastewater, m3 volume, m3 pumping, m3 surplus, m3 deficit, m3
8 11 22.3 22.3 24.162 1.86
11 14 43.2 65.5 48.325 17.175
14 17 16.8 82.3 72.49 9.81
17 20 41.1 123.4 96.65 26.75
20 23 39.6 163 120.812 42.187
23 2 11.1 174.1 144.975 29.125
25 11.1 185.2 169.137 16.063
58 8.1 193.3 193.3 0
17.2 Skimming Tanks
It is a chamber so arranged that floating matter rises and remains on the surface of wastewater
until removed, while liquid flows out continuously through deep outlets or under partition or
deep scum board. This may be accomplished in separate tank or combined with primary
sedimentation. In conventional sewage treatment plants, separate skimming tanks are not
used, unless specifically required, and this is achieved by providing baffle ahead of effluent
weir in primary sedimentation tank. Skimming tanks are used to remove lighter, floating
substances, including oil, grease, soap, pieces of cork and wood, vegetable debris, and fruit
skins. Tank can be rectangular or circular, designed for detention period of 1 to 15 minutes.
Typical detention time of about 5 min is adopted in design (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). The
submerged outlet is located opposite the inlet and at lower elevation to assist in flotation and
remove any solids that may settle.
Figure 17.2 Skimming tank

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17.3 Flocculation
Flocculation is not commonly used for sewage treatment; however, it may be required in
treatment of industrial wastewater where organic matter is present in high concentration in
colloidal form. Presence of such solids will increase the oxygen demand in aerobic
wastewater treatment system, and may disturb the performance of anaerobic reactor like
UASB reactor, due to presence of finely divided suspended solids which may not settle well
in the reactor to undergo digestion. If flocculation is used, it is provided before the primary
sedimentation tank.
Flocculation is provided with the objective to form flocs from the finely divided matter.
Mixing can be mechanical or air agitation type without any chemical addition. Provision of
flocculation can increase removal of SS and BOD in primary sedimentation tank and help in
increasing efficiency of secondary sedimentation tank after biological treatment. It can be
accomplished in separate tank or in conduits connecting the treatment units or combination of
flocculator and clarifiers. In mechanical or air agitation flocculation systems, it is common
practice to taper the energy input so that the flocs formed will not be broken as they leave the
flocculator. Detention time of 20 to 60 min (typical 30 min) is used in design of the
flocculator (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). In case of mechanical mixing, maximum speed at
periphery for the paddles induced flocculation with adjustable speed is 0.4 1.0 m/sec
(typical 0.6 m/sec). For air agitation flocculation with tube diffusers, air supply is generally
in the range of 0.6 1.2 m3/ ML.
17.4 Pre-aeration
Pre-aeration is sometimes used prior to primary sedimentation to improve treatability, to

provide grease separation, odour control, grit removal, flocculation and more importantly to
promote uniform distribution of suspended solids. This can be achieved by increasing
detention time in aerated grit chamber (d.t. = 3 to 5 min) instead of separate tank. Using
aerated channels for wastewater distribution to primary sedimentation tank can help uniform
distribution of solids and also keeping solids in suspension at all flow rates. Air requirement
for pre-aeration varies from 0.02 to 0.05 m3/min.m length of channel (Metcalf and Eddy,
2003). When separate pre-aeration basin is used, detention time of 10 to 40 min and tank
depth of 3 to 5 m can be adopted. The air requirement for the pre-aeration basin will be 0.75
3.0 m3/ m3.

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Questions
1. Describe equalization. Under what circumstances this is provided? How the
volume of the equalization basin is estimated?
2. What will be ideal location for the equalization basin in wastewater treatment
plant? Give justification for suggested location.
3. Draw schematic of the skimming tank and explain the purpose of providing it and
how removal of pollutant occurs in this tank.
4. What are the advantages of providing flocculation and pre-aeration to wastewater?

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Module 18 : Secondary Treatment
Lecture 23 : Secondary Treatment

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Secondary treatment of the wastewater could be achieved by chemical unit processes such as
chemical oxidation, coagulation-flocculation and sedimentation, chemical precipitation, etc. or
by employing biological processes (aerobic or anaerobic) where bacteria are used as a catalyst
for removal of pollutant. For removal of organic matter from the wastewater, biological
treatment processes are commonly used all over the world. Hence, for the treatment of
wastewater like sewage and many of the agro-based industries and food processing industrial
wastewaters the secondary treatment will invariably consist of a biological reactor either in
single stage or in multi stage as per the requirements to meet the discharge norms.
18.1 Biological Treatment
The objective of the biological treatment of wastewater is to remove organic matter from the
wastewater which is present in soluble and colloidal form or to remove nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorous from the wastewater. The microorganisms (principally bacteria) are used to
convert the colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into cell
tissue. Cell tissue having high specific gravity than water can be removed in settling tank.
Hence, complete treatment of the wastewater will not be achieved unless the cell tissues are
removed. Biological removal of degradable organics involves a sequence of steps including mass
transfer, adsorption, absorption and biochemical enzymatic reactions. Stabilization of organic
substances by microorganisms in a natural aquatic environment or in a controlled environment of
biological treatment systems is accomplished by two distinct metabolic processes: respiration
and synthesis, also called as catabolism and anabolism, respectively.
Respiration: A portion of the available organic or inorganic substrate is oxidized by the bio-
chemical reactions, being catalyzed by large protein molecules known as enzymes produced by
microorganism to liberate energy. The oxidation or dehydrogenation can takes place both in
aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, the oxygen acts as the final electron
acceptor for the oxidation. Under anaerobic conditions sulphates, nitrates, nitrites, carbon
dioxide and organic compounds acts as an electron acceptor. Metabolic end products of the
respiration are true inorganics like CO2, water, ammonia, and H2S.

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The energy derived from the respiration is utilized by the microorganisms to synthesize new
protoplasm through another set of enzyme catalyzed reactions, from the remaining portion of the
substrate. The heterotrophic microorganisms derive the energy required for cell synthesis
exclusively through oxidation of organic matter and autotrophic microorganisms derive the
energy for synthesis either from the inorganic substances or from photosynthesis.
The energy is also required by the microorganisms for maintenance of their life activities. In the
absence of any suitable external substrate, the microorganisms derive this energy through the
oxidation of their own protoplasm. Such a process is known as endogenous respiration (or
decay). The metabolic end products of the endogenous respiration are same as that in primary
respiration.
The metabolic processes in both aerobic and anaerobic processes are almost similar, the yield of
energy in an aerobic process, using oxygen as electron acceptor, is much higher than in
anaerobic condition. This is the reason why the aerobic systems liberates more energy and thus
produce more new cells than the anaerobic systems.
Catabolism and Anabolism: The most important mechanism for the removal of organic material
in biological wastewater treatment system is by bacterial metabolism. Metabolism refers to the
utilization of the organic material, either as a source of energy or as a source for the synthesis of
cellular matter. When organic material is used as an energy source, it is transferred into stable
end products, a process known as catabolism. In the process of anabolism the organic material is
transformed and incorporated into cell mass. Anabolism is an energy consuming process and it
is only possible if catabolism occurs at the same time to supply the energy needed for the
synthesis of the cellular matter. Thus, the processes of catabolism and anabolism are
interdependent and occur simultaneously.
18.2 Principles of Biological Wastewater Treatment
Under proper environmental conditions, the soluble organic substances of the wastewater are
completely destroyed by biological oxidation; part of it is oxidized while rest is converted into
biological mass, in the biological reactors. The end products of the metabolisms are either gas or
liquid; and on the other hand the synthesized biological mass can flocculate easily and it can be

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easily separated out in clarifiers. Therefore, the biological treatment system usually consists of
(1) a biological reactor, and (2) a sedimentation tank, to remove the produced biomass called as
sludge.
The growth of microorganisms and the rate at which the substrate will be utilized with respect to
time will depend on the type of the reactor employed and environmental conditions. This can be
represented for batch process (Figure 18.1) and continuous process (Figure 18.2) differently.
18.2.1 Batch Process
Figure 18.1 Growth of microorganisms under batch process
During fresh commissioning of the reactor if the microorganisms inoculated in the reactor are not
adapted (acclimatized) to the type of wastewater being treated, there may be some lag phase.
During this phase there will be some lag time before the substrate is being accepted by the
microbes, hence to reflect in substrate depletion and microbial growth.
Log growth phase: Substrate is adequate in this phase and rate of metabolism is only dependent
on the ability of microorganism to utilize the substrate.
Declining growth phase: The rate of metabolism and hence growth rate of microorganisms
decreases due to limitations of substrate supply. This is referred as substrate limited growth
condition where substrate available is not enough to support maximum growth rate of
microorganisms.
Stationary phase: When the bacterial growth rate and decay rate are same there will be no net
increase or decrease in mass of microorganism. This phase is referred as stationary phase.
Endogenous growth phase: The microorganisms oxidize their own protoplasm for energy
(endogenous respiration) and thereby decrease in number and mass.

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18.2.2 Continuous System

In continuous system Food to Microorganism ratio (F/M) controls the rate of metabolism. For
low F/M: Food available is lower hence, it is endogenous growth of microorganisms (Figure
18.2). For high F/M: Food available is abundant; hence the growth phase is log growth phase. In
between the growth rate will be declined growth phase. The biological reactors are typically
operated at declining growth phase or endogenous growth phase with sufficient F/M ratio so that
the microorganisms mass is at least constant, and not depleting. The sludge produced at log
phase is of very poor in settling characteristics and the sludge produced in the endogenous phase
has better settling properties and settles well and is more stable.
Figure 18.2 Rate of metabolism in continuous reactors for different F/M ratio
18.3 Nutritional Requirements For Microbial Growth
For reproduction and proper functioning of an organism it must have

A source of energy
Carbon for the synthesis of new cellular material
Nutrients such as N, P, K, S, Fe, Ca, Mg, etc.
Energy needed for the cell synthesis may be supplied by light or by chemical oxidation reaction
catalyzed by the bacteria. Accordingly the microbes can be classified as:
Phototrophs: Organisms those are able to use light as an energy source. These may be
heterotrophic (certain sulphur reducing bacteria) or autotrophic (photosynthetic bacteria and
algae).
Chemotrophs: Organisms that derive their energy from chemical reaction. These may be either
heterotrophic, those derive energy from organic matter like protozoa, fungi, and most bacteria or
may be autotrophic like nitrifying bacteria. Accordingly they are called as Chemoheterotrophs

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(those derive energy from oxidation of organic compounds) and chemoautotrophs (those obtain
energy from oxidation of reduced inorganic compounds such as ammonia, nitrite, sulphide).
Source of Carbon: The source of carbon for synthesis of new cell could be organic matter (used
by heterotrophs) or carbon dioxide (used by autotrophs).
Nutrient and growth factor requirement: The principal inorganic nutrients required by
microorganisms are N, S, P, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Na, Cl, etc. Some of the nutrients are required in
trace amount (very small amount) such as, Zn, Mn, Mo, Se, Co, Ni, Cu, etc. In addition to
inorganic nutrients, organic nutrients may also be required by some organisms and they are
known as growth factors. These are compounds needed by an organism as precursors or
constituents of organic cell material that cannot be synthesized from other carbon sources.
Requirements of these nutrients differ from organism to organism. For aerobic processes
generally minimum COD:N:P ratio of 100:10:1-5 is maintained. In case of anaerobic treatment
minimum COD:N:P ratio of 350:5:1 is considered essential. The nutrient requirement is lower
for anaerobic process due to lower growth rate of microorganisms as compared to aerobic
process. While treating sewage external macro (N, P, K, S) and micro (trace metals) nutrients
addition is not necessary; however incase of industrial effluent treatment, external addition of
these may be required depending upon the characteristics of the wastewater.
18.4 Types of Microbial Metabolism

Aerobic microorganisms: When molecular oxygen is used as terminal electron acceptor in
respiratory metabolism it is referred as aerobic respiration. The organisms that exist only when
there is molecular oxygen supply are called as obligately aerobic.
Anoxic microorganisms: For some respiratory microorganisms oxidized inorganic compounds
such as sulphate, nitrate and nitrite can function as electron acceptors in absence of molecular
oxygen; these are called as anoxic microorganisms.
Obligately anaerobic: These are the microorganisms those generate energy by fermentation and
can exist in absence of oxygen.
Facultative anaerobes: These microorganisms have ability to grow in absence or presence of
oxygen. These can be divided in two types: (a) True facultative anaerobes: those can shift from
fermentative to aerobic respiratory metabolism, depending on oxygen available or not; (b)

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Aerotolerant anaerobes: these follow strictly fermentative metabolism and are insensitive if
oxygen is present in the system.
18.5 Types of Biological Reactors

Depending upon availability of oxygen or other terminal electron acceptor the biological reactors
are classified as aerobic, anaerobic, anoxic or facultative process. Depending on how the
bacteria are growing in the reactors they can be classified as (a) suspended growth process:
where bacteria are grown in suspension in the reactor without providing any media support such
as activated sludge process, and (b) attached growth process: where microorganism growth
occurs as a biofilm formed on the media surface provided in the reactor such as trickling filters.
This media could be made from rocks or synthetic plastic media offering very high surface area
per unit volume. The media could be stationary in the reactor, as in trickling filter, which is
called as fixed film reactor or it could be moving media as used in moving bed bioreactor
(MBBR). Hybrid reactors are becoming popular these days which employ both suspended
growth as well as attached growth in the reactor to improve biomass retention and substrate
removal kinetics such as submerged aerobic filters (SAF).

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Questions
1. Why aerobic processes produce more sludge as compared to anaerobic process?
2. With the help of figure explain how the rate of metabolism and hence the growth phase
will vary with changes in food to microorganisms ratio in case of continuously feed
biological reactor.
3. Explain nutritional requirements for bacterial metabolism.
4. Describe the types of microbial metabolism used in wastewater treatment.

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Module 19 : Aerobic Secondary Treatment Of Wastewater
Lecture 24 : Aerobic Secondary Treatment Of Wastewater

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19.1 Activated Sludge Process
Conventional biological treatment of wastewater under aerobic conditions includes activated

sludge process (ASP) and Trickling Filter. The ASP was developed in England in 1914. The
activated sludge process consists of an aeration tank, where organic matter is stabilized by the
action of bacteria under aeration and a secondary sedimentation tank (SST), where the biological
cell mass is separated from the effluent of aeration tank and the settle sludge is recycled partly to
the aeration tank and remaining is wasted (Figure 19.1). Recycling is necessary for activated
sludge process. The aeration conditions are achieved by the use of diffused or mechanical
aeration.
Diffusers are provided at the tank bottom, and mechanical aerators are provided at the surface of
water, either floating or on fixed support. Settled raw wastewater and the returned sludge enter
the head of the tank, and cross the tank following the spiral flow pattern, in case of diffused air
aeration, or get completely mixed in case of completely mixed reactor. The air supply may be
tapered along the length in case of plug flow aeration tank, to match the quantity of oxygen
demand. The effluent is settled in the settling tank and the sludge is returned at a desired rate.
Settled sewage
Aeration Tank
SST
Effluent
Return Sludge Excess sludge
Figure 19.1 Conventional Activated Sludge Process
Loading Rate: The organic matter loading rate applied to the reactor is quantified as kg of BOD
applied per unit volume of the reactor per day, called as volumetric loading rate, or kg of BOD
applied per day per unit mass of microorganisms present in the reactor (i.e. in the aeration tank),
called as organic loading rate or F/M. This can be calculated as stated below:
Volumetric loading = Q x BOD x 10-3/ Vol

Where, BOD = Influent BOD5 to aeration tank, mg/L
Q = Flow rate, m3/day

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Vol. = Volume of aeration Tank, m3
Organic Loading Rate, F/M = Q x BOD / (V x Xt)

Where, Xt = MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank, mg/L
The F/M ratio is the main factor controlling BOD removal. Lower F/M values will give higher
BOD removal. The F/M can be varied by varying MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank.
Solid Retention Time (SRT) or Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT): The performance of the
ASP in terms of organic matter removal depends on the duration for which the microbial mass is
retained in the system. The retention of the sludge depends on the settling rate of the sludge in
the SST. If sludge settles well in the SST proper recirculation of the sludge in aeration tank is
possible, this will help in maintaining desired SRT in the system. Otherwise, if the sludge has
poor settling properties, it will not settle in the SST and recirculation of the sludge will be
difficult and this may reduce the SRT in the system. The SRT can be estimated as stated below:
SRT = kg of MLVSS in aeration Tank

(kg of VSS wasted per day + kg of VSS lost in effluent per day)
Generally, the VSS lost in the effluent are neglected as this is very small amount as compared to
artificial wasting of sludge carried out from the sludge recycle line or from aeration tank.
Sludge Volume Index: The quantity of the return sludge is determined on volumetric basis. The
sludge volume index (SVI) is the volume of the sludge in mL for one gram of dry weight of
suspended solids (SS), measured after 30 minutes of settling. The SVI varies from 50 to 150
mL/ g of SS. Lower SVI indicates better settling of sludge.
Quantity of Return Sludge: Usually solid concentration of about 1500 to 3000 mg/L (MLVSS
80% of MLSS) is maintained for conventional ASP and 3000 to 6000 mg/L for completely
mixed ASP. Accordingly the quantity of return sludge is determined to maintain this
concentration. The sludge return ratio is usually 20 to 50%. The F/M ratio is kept as 0.2 to 0.4
for conventional ASP and 0.2 to 0.6 for completely mixed ASP.

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Sludge Bulking: The sludge which does not settle well in sedimentation tank is called as bulking
sludge. It may be due to either (a) the growth of filamentous microorganisms which do not allow
desirable compaction; or (b) due to the production of non-filamentous highly hydrated biomass.
There are many reasons for sludge bulking. The presence of toxic substances in influent,
lowering of temperature, insufficient aeration, and shock loading can also cause sludge bulking.
Proper supply of air and proper design to maintain endogenous growth phase of metabolism will
not produce bulking of sludge. The sludge bulking can be controlled by restoring proper air
supply, eliminating shock loading to the reactor, or by increasing temperature of the wastewater
or by small hypochlorite dosing to the return sludge line to avoid the growth of filamentous
hygroscopic microorganisms.
Mixing Conditions: The aeration tank can be of plug flow type or completely mixed type. In the
plug flow tank, the F/M and oxygen demand will be highest at the inlet end of the aeration tank
and it will then progressively decrease. In the completely mix system, the F/M and oxygen
demand will be uniform throughout the tank.
Flow Scheme: Sewage addition may be done at a single point at the inlet end of the tank or it
may be at several points along the aeration tank. The sludge return is carried out from the
underflow of the settling tank to the aeration tank. The sludge wastage can be done from return
sludge line or from aeration tank itself. Sludge wasting from the aeration tank will have better
control over the process, however higher sludge waste volume need to be handled in this case
due to lower concentration as compared to when wasting is done from underflow of SST. The
compressed air may be applied uniformly along the whole length of the tank or it may be tapered
from the head of the aeration tank to its end.
19.1.1 Aeration in ASP
Aeration units can be classified as:
1) Diffused Air Units

2) Mechanical Aeration Units
3) Combined Mechanical and diffused air units.

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19.1.1.1 Diffused air aeration

In diffused air aeration, compressed air is blown through diffusers. The tanks of these units are
generally in the form of narrow rectangular channels. The air diffusers are provided at the
bottom of tank. The air before passing through diffusers must be passed through air filter to
remove dirt. The required pressure is maintained by means of air compressors.
Figure 19.2. Typical air diffusers arrangement
Types of air diffusers

a) Jet diffusers: These diffusers give direct stream of air in the form of jet downward and
strike against a small bowl kept just below the nozzle of the jet. The air flashes over the
surface of the bowl and escapes in the form of fine bubbles.
b) Porous diffusers: Manufactured in the form of tubes and plates from grains of crushed
quartz, aluminum oxide or carbon fused to form a porous structure. These are tile shaped
or tubular shape. 10 to 20 % area of the tank is covered with porous tiles. The supply of
air is done through pipeline laid in the floor of the tank and is controlled by the valves.
Depending upon the size of the air bubbles these can be classified as fine or medium
bubble diffused-air aeration device.
In common practice, porous dome type air diffusers of 10 to 20 cm diameter are used. These are
directly fixed on the top of C.I. main pipes laid at the bottom of the aeration tanks. These are
cheap in initial as well as maintenance cost.
Air Supply: Normally air is supplied under pressure of 0.55 to 0.7 kg/cm2. The quantity of air
supplied varies from 1.25 to 9.50 m3/m3 of sewage depending on the strength of the sewage to be
treated and degree of treatment desired. The oxygen transfer capacity of the aerators depends on
the size of air bubbles, for fine bubble oxygen transfer capabilities of aeration device is 0.7 to 1.4
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kg O2/KW.h. For medium bubble it is 0.6 to 1.0 kg O2/KW.h, and for coarse bubble it is 0.3 to
0.9 kg O2/KW.h.
19.1.1.2 Mechanical Aeration Unit

The main objective of mechanical aeration is to bring every time new surface of wastewater in
contact with air. In diffuse aeration only 5 to 12% of the total quantity of the air compressed is
utilized for oxidation and rest of the air is provided for mixing. Hence, mechanical aeration was
developed. For this surface aerators either fixed or floating type can be used (Figure 19.3). The
rectangular aeration tanks are divided into square tank and each square section is provided with
one mixer. The impeller are so adjusted that when electric motors starts, they suck the sewage
from the centre, with or without tube support, and throw it in the form of a thin spray over the
surface of the wastewater. When the wastewater is sprayed in the air more surface area of
wastewater is brought in contact with the air and hence aeration will occur at accelerated rate.
Detention period of the aeration tank treating sewage is usually 5 to 8 hours. The volume of
aeration tank should be worked out considering the return sludge volume.
Figure 19.3 Typical arrangement of the surface aerator supported on conical bottom tube
19.1.2 Types of Activated Sludge Process

19.1.2.1 Conventional aeration
In conventional ASP the flow model in aeration tank is plug flow type. Both the influent
wastewater and recycled sludge enter at the head of the tank and are aerated for about 5 to 6
hours for sewage treatment (Figure 19.4). The influent and recycled sludge are mixed by the
action of the diffusers or mechanical aerators. Rate of aeration is constant throughout the length
of the tank. During the aeration period the adsorption, flocculation and oxidation of organic
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matter takes place. The F/M ratio of 0.2 to 0.4 kg BOD/kg VSS.d and volumetric loading rate of
0.3 to 0.6 kg BOD/m3.d is used for designing this type of ASP. Lower mixed liquor suspended
solids (MLSS) concentration is maintained in the aeration tank of the order of 1500 to 3000
mg/L and mean cell residence time of 5 to 15 days is maintained. The hydraulic retention time
(HRT) of 4 to 8 h is required for sewage treatment. Higher HRT may be required for treatment
of industrial wastewater having higher BOD concentration. The sludge recirculation ratio is
generally in the range of 0.25 to 0.5.
Influent
Sludge Aeration Tank

recirculation
SST
Effluent
Figure 19.4 Conventional activated sludge process

19.1.2.2 Tapered Aeration
In plug flow type aeration tank BOD load is maximum at the inlet and it reduces as wastewater
moves towards the effluent end. Hence, accordingly in tapered aeration maximum air is applied
at the beginning and it is reduced in steps towards end, hence it is called as tapered aeration
(Figure 19.5). By tapered aeration the efficiency of the aeration unit will be increased and it will
also result in overall economy. The F/M ratio and volumetric loading rate of 0.2 to 0.4 kg
BOD/kg VSS.d and 0.3 to 0.6 kg BOD/m3.d, respectively, are adopted in design. Other design
recommendation are mean cell residence time of 5 to 15 days, MLSS of 1500 to 3000 mg/L,
HRT of 4 to 8 h and sludge recirculation ratio of 0.25 to 0.5. Although, the design loading rates
are similar to conventional ASP, tapered aeration gives better performance.
Influent
Sludge
recirculation
SST Aeration Tank

Sludge
waste
Effluent

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Figure 19.5 Tapered aeration activated sludge process
19.1.2.3 Step aeration

If the sewage is added at more than one point along the aeration channel, the process is called as
step aeration (Figure 19.6). This will reduce the load on returned sludge. The aeration is uniform
throughout the tank. The F/M ratio and volumetric loading rate of 0.2 to 0.4 kg BOD/kg VSS.d
and 0.6 to 1.0 kg BOD/m3.d, respectively, are adopted in design. Other design recommendation
are mean cell residence time of 5 to 15 days, MLSS of 2000 to 3500 mg/L, HRT of 3 to 5 h and
sludge recirculation ratio of 0.25 to 0.75. In step aeration the design loading rates are slightly
higher than conventional ASP. Because of reduction of organic load on the return sludge it gives
better performance.
Influent
Sludge
recirculation
Aeration Tank
SST
Effluent
Figure 19.6 Step aeration activated sludge process
19.1.2.4 Completely mixed

In this type of aeration tank completely mixed flow regime is used. The wastewater is distributed
along with return sludge uniformly from one side of the tank and effluent is collected at other
end of the tank (Figure 19.7). The F/M ratio of 0.2 to 0.6 kg BOD/kg VSS.d and volumetric
loading of 0.8 to 2.0 kg BOD/m3.d is used for designing this type of ASP. Higher mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS) is maintained in the aeration tank of the order of 3000 to 6000 mg/L
and mean cell residence time of 5 to 15 days is maintained. The hydraulic retention time (HRT)
of 3 to 5 h is required for sewage treatment. Higher HRT may be required for treatment of

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industrial wastewater having higher BOD concentration. The sludge recirculation ratio is
generally in the range of 0.25 to 1.0. This type of ASP has better capability to handle fluctuations
in organic matter concentration and if for some time any toxic compound appears in the influent
in slight concentration the performance will not be seriously affected. Due to this property
completely mixed ASP is being preferred in the industries where fluctuation in wastewater
characteristics is common.
Aeration Tank
From
PST SST
Effluent
Recycled sludge Sludge waste
Figure 19.7 Complete mixed activated sludge process

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(Contd.)

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19.1.2.5 Contact Stabilization

It is developed to take advantage of the absorptive properties of activated sludge. The BOD
removal in ASP occurs in two phases, in the first phase absorption and second phase of
oxidation. The absorptive phase requires 30 to 40 minutes, and during this phase most of the
colloidal, finely divided suspended solids and dissolved organic matter get absorbed on the
activated sludge. Oxidation of organic matter then occurs. In contact stabilization these two
phases are separated out and they occur in two separate tanks (Figure 19.8). The settled
wastewater is mixed with re-aerated activated sludge and aerated in the contact tank for 30 to 90
min. During this period the organic matter is absorbed on the sludge flocs. The sludge with
absorbed organic matter is separated from the wastewater in the SST. A portion of the sludge is
wasted to maintain requisite MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank. The return sludge is
aerated before sending it to aeration tank for 3 to 6 h in sludge aeration tank, where the absorbed
organic matter is oxidized to produce energy and new cells.
The aeration volume requirement in this case is approximately 50% of the conventional ASP. It
is thus possible to enhance the capacity of the existing ASP by converting it to contact
stabilization. Minor change in piping and aeration will be required in this case. Contact
stabilization is effective for treatment of sewage; however, its use to the industrial wastewater
may be limited when the organic matter present in the wastewater is mostly in the dissolved
form. Existing treatment plant can be upgraded by changing the piping and providing partition in
the aeration tank. This modification will enhance the capacity of the existing plant. This is
effective for sewage treatment because of presence of organic matter in colloidal form in the
sewage. Contact stabilization may not be that effective for the treatment of wastewater when the
organic matter is present only in soluble form.
Influent
Aeration Tank SST
Effluent
Return sludge
aeration Tank
Excess sludge waste
Figure 19.8 Contact stabilization activated sludge process

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19.1.2.6 Extended Aeration

In extended aeration process, low organic loading rate (F/M) and long aeration time is used to
operate the process at endogenous respiration phase of the growth curve. Since, the cells undergo
endogenous respiration, the excess sludge generated in this process is low and the sludge can
directly be applied on the sand drying beds where aerobic digestion and dewatering of the sludge
occurs. The primary sedimentation can be eliminated when extended aeration process is used to
simplify the operation of sludge handling. This type of activated sludge process is suitable for
small capacity plant, such as package sewage treatment plant or industrial wastewater treatment
plant of small capacity of less than 3000 m3/day. This process simplifies the sludge treatment
and separate sludge thickening and digestion is not required. The aeration tank in this case is
generally completely mixed type.
Lower F/M ratio of 0.05 to 0.15 kg BOD/kg VSS.d and volumetric loading of 0.1 to 0.4 kg
BOD/m3.d is used for designing extended aeration ASP. Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
concentration of the order of 3000 to 6000 mg/L and mean cell residence time of 20 to 30 days is
maintained. Higher mean cell residence time is necessary to maintain endogenous growth phase
of microorganisms. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 18 to 36 h is required. The sludge
recirculation ratio is generally in the range of 0.75 to 1.5.
19.1.2.7 The Oxidation ditch

It is particular type of extended aeration process, where aeration tank is constructed in the ditch
shape (oval shape) as shown in the Figure 19.9. The aeration tank consists of a ring shaped
channel 1.0 to 1.5 m deep and of suitable width forming a trapezoidal or rectangular channel
cross-section. An aeration rotor, consisting of Kessener brush, is placed across the ditch to
provide aeration and wastewater circulation at velocity of about 0.3 to 0.6 m/s.
The oxidation ditch can be operated as intermittent with fill and draw cycles consisting of (a)
closing inlet valve and aerating the wastewater for duration equal to design detention time, (b)
stopping aeration and circulation device and allowing the sludge to settle down in the ditch itself,
(c) Opening the inlet and outlet valve allowing the incoming wastewater to displace the clarified

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effluent. In case of continuous operation, called as Carrousel process, it is operated as a flow

through system where wastewater is continuously admitted. The vertically mounted mechanical
aerators are used to provide oxygen supply and at the same time to provide sufficient horizontal
velocity for not allowing the cells to settle at the bottom of the ditch. Separate sedimentation tank
is used to settle the sludge and the settled sludge is re-circulated to maintain necessary MLVSS
in the oxidation ditch. The excess sludge generation in oxidation ditch is less than the
conventional ASP and can be directly applied to the sand-bed for drying.
Influent
SST
Effluent
Return sludge
Sludge waste
Figure 19.9 Oxidation ditch
19.1.2.8 Sequencing batch reactor (SBR)
A sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is used in small package plants and also for centralized
treatment of sewage. The SBR system consists of a single completely mixed reactor in which all
the steps of the activated sludge process occurs (Figure 19.10). The reactor basin is filled within
a short duration and then aerated for a certain period of time. After the aeration cycle is
complete, the cells are allowed to settle for a duration of 0.5 h and effluent is decanted from the
top of the unit which takes about 0.5 h. Decanting of supernatant is carried out by either fixed or
floating decanter mechanism. When the decanting cycle is complete, the reactor is again filled
with raw sewage and the process is repeated. An idle step occurs between the decant and the fill
phases. The time of idle step varies based on the influent flow rate and the operating strategy.
During this phase, a small amount of activated sludge is wasted from the bottom of the SBR
basin. A large equalization basin is required in this process, since the influent flow must be
contained while the reactor is in the aerating cycle.

5|Page
Substrate
added Aeration
Airon/off Airoff Airoff Airoff/on
Effluent
Sludge
wasted
Step1:Fill Step2:Reaction Step3:Settle Step4:Decant Step5:Idle
Figure 19.10 Operation cycles of sequencing batch reactor
This process is popular because entire process uses one reactor basin. In areas where there is a
limited amount of space, treatment takes place in a single basin instead of multiple basins,
allowing for a smaller footprint. In the effluent low total-suspended-solid values of less than 10
mg/L can be achieved consistently through the use of effective decanters that eliminate the need
for a separate clarifier. The treatment cycle can be adjusted to undergo aerobic, anaerobic and
anoxic conditions in order to achieve biological nutrient removal, including nitrification,
denitrification and some phosphorus removal.
19.1.3 Limitations of ASP
For treatment of wastewater with high organic matter concentration, say if the resulting COD
concentration in the aeration tank after dilution is in few thousands mg/L, then it will produce
biomass of about 50% of the COD concentration. With original biomass concentration plus the
generated biomass, the total biomass concentration in the system will be higher. This may pose
the difficulty of operating ASP such as uniform aerating the system at such high biomass
concentration, and settling and recirculation of the sludge. Hence, this process is not
recommended for first stage treatment of high concentrated organic wastewaters.
19.1.4 Kinetics of the Bacterial Growth in Activated Sludge Process
During oxidation of organic matter in ASP following reaction occurs
COHNS + O2 + nutrients CO2 + NH3 + C5H7O2N + Other products

(organic matter) (bacteria) (new cell)

6|Page
Under endogenous respiration the reaction is
C5H7O2N + 5 O2 5CO2 + 2H2O + NH3 + energy

(cell) (bacteria)
113 160
The above equation for endogenous respiration tells that for 1 unit mass of cell 160/113 = 1.42
times oxygen is required.
The biomass is the matter of interest rather than the number of organisms for the mixed cultures
in the activated sludge process. The rate of biomass increase during the log growth phase is
directly proportional to the initial biomass concentration, which is represented by the following
first order equation
(1)
Where = growth rate of biomass (g/m3.d)
X = biomass concentration (g/m3)

= specific growth rate constant (d-1). It is the mass of the cells produced per
unit mass of the cells present per unit time
If the biomass concentration is Xo, at time t = 0, then integrating Eq. (1),
(2)
The exponential growth rate of the bacteria (Eq. 2) occurs as long as there is no change in the
biomass composition or environmental condition.
Monod (1949) showed experimentally that the biomass growth rate is a function of biomass
concentration and limiting nutrient concentration. The Monods equation for biomass growth rate
is expressed as
(3)


7|Page
Where S = limiting substrate concentration (g/m3)

m = maximum biomass growth rate (d-1)
Ks = half saturation constant, i.e. substrate concentration at one half maximum
growth rate (concentration of S when = m/2, g/m3)
Eq. (3) assumes only the growth of the microorganisms. However, there is simultaneous die-off
of microorganisms. Therefore, an endogenous decay is used to take account of die-off. Hence,
Eq. (1) becomes

(4)

Where kd = endogenous decay rate (d-1). The kd value is in the range of 0.04 to 0.075 per
day, typically 0.06 per day.
If all the substrate (organic food, S) could be converted to biomass, then the substrate utilization
rate is
(5)
However, all the substrates cannot be converted to biomass because of catabolic reaction i.e.,
energy generation from oxidation of biomass is must for supporting anabolic reaction (biomass
synthesis) in the conversion process. Therefore, a yield coefficient (Y < 1) is introduced such that
the substrate utilization rate is higher than the biomass growth rate.
(6)
(7)

Where Y = yield coefficient i.e., fraction of substrate converted to biomass, (g/m3 of

biomass) / (g/m3 of substrate). The value of Y typically varies from 0.4 to 0.8
mg VSS/mg BOD (0.25 to 0.4 mg VSS/mg COD) in aerobic systems.

1|Page

(Contd.)

2|Page
19.1.5 Process Analysis of Completely Mixed Reactor with Sludge Recycle
Kinetic models, which have been proposed to describe the activated sludge process, have been
developed on the basis of steady-state conditions within the treatment system. The completely
mixed reactor with sludge recycle is considered in the following discussion as a model for
activated sludge process. The schematic flow diagram shown in Figure 19.11 includes the
nomenclature used in the following mass balance equations.
Aeration tank Secondary clarifier
Wastewater Effluent
From primary
clarifier influent Q0 + QR (Q0 - Qw)
S, X S, Xe
Q0, S0, X0 V, S, X
QR, S, XR
Return Sludge Sludge
Waste
QW, S, XR
Figure 19.11 Typical flow scheme for a completely mixed activated sludge system
The mass balance equations used to develop the kinetic models is based on the following
assumptions:
The biomass concentration in the influent is negligible.
There is complete mixing in the aeration tank.
The substrate concentration in the influent wastewater remains constant.
Waste stabilization occurs only in the aeration tank. All reactions take place in the
aeration basin so that the substrate in the aeration basin is of the same concentration as
the substrate in the secondary clarifier and in the effluent.
There is no microbial degradation of organic matter and no biomass growth in the
secondary clarifier.
Steady state conditions prevail throughout the system.
The volume used for calculation of mean cell residence time includes volume of the
aeration tank only.

3|Page
Biomass mass balance
A mass balance for the microorganisms in the completely mixed reactor (Figure 19.11) can be
written as follows:
Net rate of change in Rate at which Rate at which

biomass inside the (8)
= biomass enters in - biomass leaves (8)
system boundary the system the system
The above mass balance statement can be simplified to
Accumulation = Inflow of Net growth Outflow of (9)

+ of biomass - biomass
biomass
It is assumed that steady state condition prevails in the system; hence accumulation of biomass in
the system will be zero. Therefore:
Influent Biomass Effluent Wasted (10)

+ = + (10)
biomass production biomass biomass
(11)
where Q0 = Influent flow rate (m3/d)

X0 = Influent biomass concentration (g/m3)
V = Volume of the aeration basin (m3)
QW = Flow rate of waste sludge (m3/d)
Xe = Effluent biomass concentration (g/m3)
XR = Biomass concentration in the return sludge (g/m3)
It is assumed that the biomass concentration in the influent wastewater and in the effluent from
the clarifier is negligible, i.e., X0 = Xe = 0. Therefore, Eq. 11 becomes
(12)
12
Substituting Eq. 4 in Eq. 12,

4|Page

(13)

(14)

If rg is net growth of microorganisms, then from equation 13, rg = Qw XR/V
Or we can write Qw XR/V.X = rg /X (15)
Also, rg = -Y.rsu kd.X (16)
Where, rsu is the substrate utilization rate, mass/unit volume.time
Substituting in Eq. 15.
Qw XR/V.X = -Y.rsu/X kd (17)
The left hand side of the equation is the reciprocal of the mean cell residence time c
Therefore, 1/c = -(Y.rsu/X) kd (18)
Now, rsu = - Q(So S)/V = (So S)/ (19)
where = hydraulic retention time (d)
So = Influent substrate concentration

S = Effluent substrate concentration
From Eq. 19 and Eq. 18
1/c = [Y(So S)/.X] - kd (20)
Solving for X and substituting = V/Q

. .
V= (21)
.
Equation 21 is used for calculating volume of the aeration tank when the kinetic coefficients are
known.

5|Page
Substrate mass balance
A mass balance for the substrate in the completely mixed reactor (Figure 19.11) using the control
volume of the aeration basin and the clarifier can be written as follows:
Net rate of change in Rate at which Rate at which

substrate inside the substrate enters substrate leaves (22)
= -
system boundary in the system the system
Considering steady state condition prevailing in the system, the above mass balance for the
substrate can be simplified to
Inflow of Consumption Outflow of Wasted

- = (23)
(23)
substrate of substrate substrate + substrate
d

d
(24)
Where, S0 = substrate concentration in the influent (g/m3)
Substituting Eq. 7 in Eq. 24
(25)

Rearranging Eq. 25, we get
(26)

Rearranging after combining with Eq. 14
.
S (27)

Where K = /Y i.e., it is maximum rate of substrate utilization per unit mass of microorganism.
Hydraulic retention time (HRT)
The hydraulic retention time is calculated as

6|Page
(28)
The usual practice is to keep the detention period between 5 to 8 hours while treating sewage.
The volume of aeration tank is also decided by considering the return sludge, which is about 25
to 50% of the wastewater volume.
Mean cell residence time (MCRT)
The mean cell residence time (MCRT) of microorganisms in the system is the length of time the
microorganisms stay in the process. This is also called the solids retention time (SRT) or the
sludge age. This is expressed as
total biomass in the aeration basinbiomass wasted per unit time d
(29)

As the value of Xe is negligible, Eq. 29 reduces to
(30)

The SRT is higher than the HRT as a fraction of the sludge is recycled back to the aeration basin.
m3/kg of BOD5)

1|Page

(Contd.)

2|Page
The F/M ratio
The food to microorganism (F/M) ratio is one of the significant design and operational
parameters of activated sludge systems. A balance between substrate consumption and biomass
generation helps in achieving system equilibrium. The F/M ratio is responsible for the
decomposition of organic matter. The type of activated sludge system can be defined by its F/M
ratio as below:
Extended aeration, 0.05 < F/M < 0.15
Conventional activated sludge system, 0.2 < F/M < 0.4
Completely mixed, 0.2 < F/M < 0.6
High rate, 0.4 < F/M < 1.5
The F/M ratio, kg BOD5/kg MLVSS.d, is determined as follows:
/ /
(31)
/

(32)

Substituting Eq. 21 into Eq. 26
(33)

Excess sludge wasting
The excess sludge remaining in the secondary clarifier after being recycled to the aeration basin
has to be wasted to maintain a steady level of MLSS in the system. The excess sludge quantity
increases with increase in F/M ratio and decreases with increase in temperature. The excess
sludge wasting can be accomplished either from the sludge wasting line or directly from the
aeration basin as mixed liquor. Although sludge wasting from sludge return line is conventional,
it is more desirable to waste the excess sludge from the aeration basin for better plant control.
Sludge wasting from aeration basin is also beneficial for subsequent sludge thickening
operations, as higher solid concentrations can be achieved when dilute mixed liquor is thickened
rather than the concentrated sludge.

3|Page
The excess sludge generation under steady state may be estimated from Eq. 29 or from following
equation:
10 (34)
Where, Px = net waste activated sludge produced each day, kg/d
Yobs = Observed sludge yield = Y/(1 + kd.c)
Sludge recycling
The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is controlled by the sludge recirculation rate and
the sludge settleability and thickening in the secondary clarifier. The recirculation ratio is
estimated as stated below considering the mass of microorganisms entering aeration tank and
leaving the aeration tank:
(35)

Where, QR is recycle rate, Q is the flow rate of wastewater, X is MLVSS in aeration tank, and XR
is VSS concentration in return sludge. The sludge setteleability is determined by sludge volume
index (SVI). If it is assumed that sedimentation of suspended solids in laboratory is similar to
that in the secondary clarifier, then XR = (VSS/SS ratio)106/SVI. Values of SVI between 50 and
150 mL/g indicate good settling of the suspended solids. The XR value may not be taken as more
than 10000 g/m3 unless separate thickeners are provided to concentrate the settled solids or
secondary clarifier is designed to have a higher value.
Oxygen requirement
Oxygen is used as an electron acceptor in the energy metabolism of the aerobic heterotrophic
microorganisms present in the activated sludge process. Oxygen is required in the activated
sludge process for oxidation of the influent organic matter along with cell growth and
endogenous respiration of the microorganisms. The aeration equipments must be capable of
maintaining a dissolved oxygen level of about 2 mg/L in the aeration basin while providing
thorough mixing of the solid and liquid phase.

4|Page
The oxygen requirement for an activated sludge system can be estimated by knowing the
ultimate BOD of the wastewater and the amount of biomass wasted from the system each day
(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). If all the substrate removed by the microorganisms is totally oxidized
for energy purpose, then the total oxygen requirement is calculated as:

Total O requirement (35)
Where f = ratio of BOD5 to ultimate BOD
But, all the substrate oxidized is not used for energy. A portion of the substrate is utilized for
synthesis of new biomass. As it is assumed that the system is under steady state condition, there
is no accumulation of biomass and the amount of biomass produced is equal to the amount of
biomass wasted. Therefore, the equivalent amount of substrate synthesized to new biomass is not
oxidized in the system and exerts no oxygen demand. The oxygen requirement for oxidizing 1
unit of biomass = 1.42 units. The oxygen requirement for oxidation of biomass produced as a
result of substrate utilization is required to be subtracted from the theoretical oxygen requirement
given by Eq. 35 to get the actual oxygen requirement.

Total O requirement g/d - 1.42 QW XR (36)
The above equations (Eq. 36) do not account for nitrification oxygen requirements. The
carbonaceous oxygen requirement is only considered in these equations. When nitrification has
to be considered, the oxygen requirement will be:

Total O requirement g/d - 1.42 QW XR + 4.57 Q(No N)
Where, No is the influent TKN concentration, mg/L, N is the effluent TKN concentration, mg/L
and 4.57 is the conversion factor for amount of oxygen required for complete oxidation of TKN.
The air supply in aeration tank must be adequate to:

Satisfy the BOD of the wastewater
Satisfy the endogenous respiration of the microorganisms
Provide adequate mixing (15 to 30 KW/103 m3) to keep biomass in suspension.

5|Page
Maintain minimum DO of 1 to 2 mg/L throughout the aeration tank.
Typical air requirement for conventional ASP is 30 to 55 m3/kg of BOD removed. For fine air
bubble diffusers it is 24 to 36 m3/kg of BOD removed. For extended aeration ASP the air
requirement is higher of the order of 75 to 115 m3/kg of BOD removed. To meet the peak
demand the safety factor of 2 should be used while designing aeration equipment.
Example:1
Design a complete mixed activated sludge process aeration tank for treatment of 4 MLD sewage
having BOD concentration of 180 mg/L. The effluent should have soluble BOD of 20 mg/L or
less. Consider the following:
MLVSS/MLSS = 0.8
Return sludge SS concentration = 10000 mg/L
MLVSS in aeration tank = 3500 mg/L
Mean cell residence time adopted in design is 10 days
Solution
a) Treatment efficiency based on soluble BOD
= (180 20)*100/180 = 88.89%
b) Calculation of reactor volume, Q = 4 MLD = 4000 m3/d, Y = 0.5 mg/mg, kd = 0.06 per day
. .
V=
.
Therefore,
.
V=
.
= 571.43 m3
c) Calculate HRT
= V/Q = 571.43 * 24 / 4000 = 3.43 h (within 3 to 5 h)
d) Check for F/M

.
= 4000 * 180/(571.43 * 3500) = 0.36 kg BOD/kg VSS.d (within 0.2 0.6)


6|Page
e) Check for volumetric loading

= Q . So /V = 4000 * 180 * 10-3/571.43 = 1.26 kg BOD/m3.d (within 0.8 to 2.0)
f) Quantity of sludge waste

Yobs = Y/(1 + kd . c) = 0.5/(1 + 0.06*10) = 0.3125 mg/mg
Therefore, mass of volatile waste activated sludge
10 = 0.3125 * 4000 (180 20) * 10-3
= 200 kg VSS/day
Therefore, mass of sludge based on total SS = 200/0.8 = 250 kg SS/d
g) Sludge waste volume based on mean cell residence time

= 571.43 * 3500 / (Qw * 10000*0.8) = 10 days

Hence, Qw = 25.0 m3/d (when wasting is done from the recycled line of SST)
h) Estimation of recirculation ratio
3500 (Q + QR) = 8000 QR
Therefore, QR/Q = 0.78
i) Estimation of air requirement

Total O requirement g/d - 1.42 QW XR
kg of oxygen required = [(4000(180 20) * 10-3)/0.68] - 1.42 * 25 * 8000 * 10-3
= 657.17 Kg O2/d
j) Volume of air required, considering air contain 23% oxygen by weight and density of air 1.201
kg/m3
= 657.17/(1.201 * 0.23) = 2379.1 m3/d
Considering oxygen transfer efficiency of 8%, the air required = 2379.1/0.08 = 29738.34 m3/d
= 20.65 m3/min
Considering safety factor of 2, the air requirement is = 2 x 20.65 = 41.30 m3/min

7|Page
k) Check for air volume

Air requirement per unit volume = 29738.34/ 4000 = 7.44 m3/m3
(Within the limit of 3.75 to 15 m3/m3)
Air requirement per kg of BOD5 = 29738.34/ [(180-20) * 4000 * 10-3] = 46.46 m3/kg of
BOD5 (within the limit of 30 to 55 m3/kg of BOD5)

1|P a g e
Lecture 28 : Aerobic Secondary Treatment Of Wastewater (Contd.)
2|P a g e
19.2 Trickling Filter
A trickling filter is a fixed film attached growth aerobic process used for removal of organic
matter from the wastewater. The surface of the bed is covered with the biofilm and as the
wastewater trickles over this media surface, organic matter from the wastewater comes in
contact with the aerobic bacteria and oxidation of organic matter occurs. In the past rock was
used as a bed material with size ranging from 25 mm to 100 mm. Now plastic media which
offers higher surface area per unit volume is used. The media is randomly packed in the
reactor and the wastewater is applied on the top through rotary arm which trickles down over
the filter media surface (Figure 19.12). Hence, this reactor is known as trickling filter. Since,
the wastewater is applied through the rotary arm from the top of the reactor the biofilm grown
on the media surface receives wastewater intermittently. As the wastewater trickles down
leaving the wet biofilm, the biofilm is exposed to the air voids present in the media, and thus
oxygen from the air, after getting dissolved in the water adhering on biofilm, is made
available to aerobic bacteria grown in the biofilm by diffusion through the biofilm. The end
product CO2 diffuses out of the biofilm into the flowing liquid. Treated wastewater is
collected from the bottom of the bed through an under-drainage system and is settled in the
final settling tank.
RotaryDistributor
Filtermedia Filtermedia
underdrainageSystem
feedpipe
effluentchannel
Figure 19.12 Trickling Filter
The biological film or slime forms on the surface of the filter media after application of
wastewater. Organic matter is adsorbed on the slime layer and it is degraded by the aerobic
microorganisms present in the slime. As the thickness of the slime layer increases the
condition near the surface of the media becomes anaerobic because of limitations of
availability of oxygen. At this stage the microbes loose their ability to cling to the surface of
3|P a g e
the media and the slime layer gets detached and washed out along with flowing liquid. This
phenomenon is called as sloughing. Soon after the sloughing the new slime layer formation
starts. Hence secondary sedimentation tank (SST) is provided to settle this washed out
biomass. SST can be circular or rectangular tanks designed such that the overflow rate at
peak flow should not exceed 50 m3/m2.d.
Diameter of the trickling filter depends on the mechanical equipments used for spraying the
wastewater. Diameter more than 12 m for single filter unit is common. Rotary arm rotates as
a result of jet action as the wastewater exit the distributor to get sprayed horizontally on the
filter bed; hence, external power is not required for rotation of the arm. However, for
trickling filter of small diameter (less than 6 m) power driven rotary arm may be provided. A
number of commercial packing media are available. These include vertical-flow random
packed and cross flow media made of rock, polygrid, plastic media or asbestos sheets. In
order to avoid filter plugging, a maximum specific surface area of 100 m2/m3 is
recommended for carbonaceous wastewater treatment and up to 300 m2/m3 for nitrification,
because of slow growth rate of nitrifiers. Overall performance of the trickling filter depends
upon the hydraulic and organic loading rate, wastewater pH, operating temperature and
availability of air through natural draft within the pores, and mean time of contact of
wastewater with biofilm, etc.
Mean time of contact of liquid with the filter surface is related to the filter depth, hydraulic
loading rate and nature of filter packing. This contact time can be estimated as (Eckenfelder,
2000):
T = C.D/Qn (37)
Where T = mean detention time, D = depth of filter bed, Q is the hydraulic loading m3/m2.d,
C and n are constant related to specific surface area and configuration of the packing. Mean
retention time increases considerably (up to 4 times) with formation of biofilm as compared
to new filter media.
Based on hydraulic and organic loadings, the trickling filters may be classified as (1) Low
rate trickling filter (Figure 19.13a) and (2) High rate trickling filter (Figure 19.13b).
Recirculation is employed in high rate filters to improve efficiency. The recirculation helps
in providing seeding to the filter bed and also dilutes the strong wastewater. Dilution is the
major objective behind the recirculation.
4|P a g e
FromPST
TF SST Effluent
Sludge
(a)
Effluentreturn
PST TF SST
Effluent
To digester
Sludgereturn
(b)
Figure 19.13 (a) Low rate trickling filter and (b) High rate trickling filter
Super rate trickling filter: It is also called as Roughing filter or Biotower. Plastic media is
used in this filter. Since the power required in Bio-filter per unit of BOD removal is less as
compared to ASP, these are becoming popular these days. They are used ahead of the
existing trickling filter or ASP and are generally constructed above ground. The diameter of
the biotower can vary from 3 m to 70 m. The walls of the biotower can be made from RCC or
when modular plastic media is used the walls can be made from the plastic, since there is no
hydrostatic pressure on the walls. Air blower may be provided in addition to natural air draft
in biotower to enhance oxygen resources of the system to handle higher organic loading rates.
19.2.1 Additional Information on Trickling Filter
Sludge retention: The sludge is retained in the trickling filter for very long time as compared
to ASP and typically the mean cell residence time (c) of 100 days or more can be achieved.
Estimation of actual biomass present in the reactor is difficult hence exact measurement of c
is not possible. Excess sludge generation in this process is expected to be lower due to longer
retention time of biomass supporting endogenous decay. The sludge generation is 60 to 70%
lower than that of ASP treating same wastewater. The sludge generation in high rate trickling
filter is more than low rate trickling filter.
Air supply: Air is supplied in low rate and high rate trickling filter through natural draft. In
trickling filter when wastewater temperature is less than ambient temperature there will be
downward flow of air; whereas, when the wastewater temperature is more than ambient
5|P a g e
temperature there will be upward flow of air. To allow air circulation, the under-drainage
system should be designed to flow not more than half full.
Details of the rotary arm: It rotates with the speed of 0.5 to 2 revolutions per minute. The
peripheral speed for two arm system will be 0.5 to 4 m/min. The arm length could be as low
as 3 m to as high as 35 m depending on the diameter of the filter. This rotary arm delivers the
wastewater 15 cm above the filter bed. The velocity of wastewater moving through arm
should be more than 0.3 m/s to prevent deposition of solids. Number of ports, generally of
equal diameter, are provided on this arm to deliver wastewater in horizontal direction.
Minimum 2 arms are provided, whereas they could be 4 in numbers. Design guidelines for
the trickling filters are provided in the Table 19.1.
Table 19.1 Design values for trickling filters
Parameter Low rate High rate Super rate

trickling filter trickling filter roughing filter
Hydraulic loading, m3/m2.d 1-4 10 - 40 40 200
Volumetric loading, kg BOD/m3.d 0.11 0.37 0.37 to 1.85 1.0 6.0
Depth, m 1.5 3.0 1.0 2.0 4 12
Recirculation ratio 0 1-4 1-4
Power requirement, kW/103 m3 2-4 6 - 10 10 20
Dosing intervals Less than 5 min. 15 to 60 seconds Continuous
Sloughing Intermittent Continuous Continuous
Effluent quality Fully nitrified Nitrified only at Nitrified only
low loading at low loading
1|P a g e

(Contd.)
2|P a g e
19.2.2 Design of Trickling Filters
Organic loading rate and recirculation ratio are main consideration in design of trickling
filter. The early performance equations for trickling filter were empirical as proposed by
National Research Council (1946), Rankine (1955) and based on biochemical kinetics Velz
(1948).
Rankines formula
For single stage filters: the BOD of influent to the filter (including recirculation) shall not
exceed three times the BOD required for settled effluent. Hence referring to the Figure 19.13
and using following notations, we have
13
S2 + R1(S4) = 3 (1 + R1)S4 (38)
Or S4 = S2/(3 + 2R1) (39)
where, S2 = BOD of settled influent, S4 = BOD of TF effluent after SST, R1 = Recirculation

ratio, and if E = efficiency, then
E = (1 + R1)/(1.5 + R1) (40)
Value of recirculation is given by
R = (Q1 Q)/Q (41)
Where Q1 is total flow including recirculation and Q is sewage flow.
For second stage filter: The BOD of the wastewater applied to the second stage filter
including recirculation shall not exceed two times the effluent BOD. Therefore,
S4 + R2(S6) = 2 (1 + R2)S6 (42)
Or S6 = S4 / (R2 + 2) and efficiency = (1 + R2)/(2 + R2) (43)
Where S4 = BOD of influent to second stage filter, S6 = BOD of TF effluent after SST, R2 =
Recirculation ratio.
Eckenfelder (1970) has developed performance equation based on the specific rate of
substrate removal for a pseudo-first-order reaction.
3|P a g e
- = K.S (44)

Where = Specific rate of substrate utilization,

= rate of substrate utilization,
K = rate constant,

S = Substrate concentration,
Rearranging the above equation (44) for integration,
t
= -K X (45)
o
X = Average cell mass concentration,
So = Substrate concentration applied for filter bed
St = Substrate concentration after contact time, t
Integrating the equation
t . .
= (46)
o
X is proportional to surface area of the media (As) i.e.,
X As m (47)
Where, As is the specific area of the packing media
The mean contact time t for a filter is given by Howland (1950) (Reynolds & Richard,
1996).
.
t= (48)
Where t = mean contact time
D = Depth of filter bed
QL = Surface loading
C and n = constant
4|P a g e
Substituting equation 46 & 47 in equation 48

m
s
t
= (49)
o
(Elimination of constant C as it is taken into account in K)
m = experimental constant
The value of n depends on flow characteristics through packing and usually about 0.5 to
0.67. For specific wastewater and filter media equation 49 may be simplified by combining
m
s to give
(50)
K= 0.01 to 0.1 for various wastewater and media
For Surfpac, Dow chemical (89 m2/m3), K = 0.088 and n = 0.5 (Reynolds & Richard, 1996)
When D- feet, QL = gal/(min-ft2 ). Actual K values can be determined from the pilot
performance. With temperature variation the value of K can be converted as below:
KT = K20 x 1.035 (T-20) (51)
KT = rate constant at temperature T
K20 = rate constant at 20C
T= temperature, C
One of the most common kinetic equations for filter performance while treating municipal
wastewater was developed by Eckenfelder, 1961 as
t
= 0.67 (52)
o
.
St = BOD5 of effluent, mg/L
So = BOD5 of influent, mg/L
C = constant = 2.5 for FPS unit and 5.358 for SI units
D = filter depth, ft (or m)
QL = unit loading rate MG/acre-day (m3/m2-d)
5|P a g e
The above equation is obtained from second order kinetics equation,
= KS2 (53)
Integrating
t
= (54)
o 0. . .
0.67
Substituting, t =C and combining constant So, K, X & C for the same wastewater
Q0.5
L
treatment under steady state performance results, the equation becomes:
t
0.67 (55)
o
.
Example: 2
Design low rate trickling filter for secondary treatment of sewage generated from 10000
persons with rate of water supply 170 LPCD. The BOD5 after primary treatment is 110 mg/L
and BOD5 of final effluent should be 20 mg/L. Consider C=5.358.
Solution
t
= 0.67
o
.
Provide depth D = 1.5 m
Average sewage flow = 10000 x 170 x 0.80 x 10-3 = 1360 m3/d
Now, = . 0.67
. .
.
0.182(1+ )=1
Q0.5
L
0.5
QL = 1.562
QL = 2.441 m3/m2-d where, QL = flow/area
Plan area = = 557.35 m2

.
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Hence, Diameter of trickling filter = 26.64 m
Example: 3
Design high rate trickling filter for the data given above except effluent BOD5 = 40 mg/l
since polishing treatment is provided after high rate trickling filter. Consider recirculation
ratio of 2 and filter depth of 1.8 m.
2Q, BOD = 40 mg/L
Q, BOD = 110 mg/L

TF SST
BOD in the effluent,

Q x 110 + 2Q x 40 = (1 + 2) Q.S0
S0 = 63.33 mg/L
= . 0.67
. . .
QL = 186 m3/m2-d
Wastewater flow is 1360 m3/d
Recycle low = 2720 m3/d
and, total flow = 4080 m3/d
Area of Trickling Filter = = 21.94 m2
Diameter = 5.285 m
Example: 4
Design a single stage Biotower (super rate trickling filter) for the following data:
Average wastewater flow = 500 m3/d,
Influent BOD = 160 mg/L
BOD removal in primary treatment = 30%,
Effluent BOD required = 20 mg/L
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Filter depth = 5.0 m; Recycle ratio R/Q = 2

Pilot plant studies using synthetic packing have shown a removal rate constant K = 2.26 at
200 C, and n = 0.5 (Reynolds & Richard, 1996). The winter wastewater temperature = 150 C.
Provide minimum two filters in parallel.
Solution:
0.5
=
Now, K15 = K20 1.035(T-20)
= 2.26 x 1.035(-5)
= 1.903 per day
BOD5 in incoming wastewater to Biotower = 160 (1-0.30) = 112 mg/L
Recycle flow = 2Q and BOD = 20 mg/L
Therefore, 112 (Q) + 2Q x 20 = 3Q. S0
Hence, S0 = 50.67 mg/L
Substituting values in the equation
. .
0.5

.
Solving we get, QL = 104.8 m3 /m2.d
Wastewater flow = 500 m3/d
Hydraulic load on filter = 500 + 2 x 500
= 1500 m3/d
Area required = 1500/104.8 =14.313 m2
Hence, diameter required for each Biotower when two are provided in parallel = 3.02 m
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(Contd.)
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19.3 Ponds System for Treatment of Wastewater
It is a shallow body of water contained in an earthen basin, open to sun and air. Longer time
of retention from few days to weeks is provided in the pond. The purification of wastewater
occurs due to symbiotic relationship of bacteria and algae. The ponds are classified according
to the nature of the biological activity which takes place within the pond as aerobic,
facultative and anaerobic. These are cheaper to construct and operate in warm climate as
compared to conventional treatment system and hence they are considered as low cost
wastewater treatment systems. However, they require higher land area as compared to
conventional treatment system.
19.3.1 Classification of Ponds
Aerobic Ponds: In aerobic pond the microbial population similar to ASP exists along with
algae. The aerobic population release CO2, which is taken up by the algae for their growth.
Algae in turn release O2, which helps in maintaining the aerobic condition in the pond. Very
shallow depth of aerobic pond (0.15 to 0.45 m) is used for the treatment of wastewater for
removal of nitrogen by algae growth. For general wastewater treatment depth of 0.5 to 1.2 m
may be used. The solar radiation should penetrate to the entire depth of the pond to support
photosynthesis to keep entire pond content aerobic. When shallow ponds (0.5 m deep) are
used for tertiary treatment of wastewater, they are very lightly loaded and such ponds are
called as maturation pond. These maturation ponds may release oxygen in atmosphere
during day time.
Facultative stabilization Ponds: Most of the ponds exist in facultative nature. Three zones
exist in this type of ponds (Figure 19.14). The top zone is an aerobic zone in which the algal
photosynthesis and aerobic biodegradation takes place. In the bottom zone, the organic
matter present in wastewater and cells generated in aerobic zone settle down and undergo
anaerobic decomposition. The intermediate zone is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic. The
decomposition of organic waste in this zone is carried out by facultative bacteria. The
nuisance associated with the anaerobic reaction is eliminated due to the presence of top
aerobic zone. Maintenance of an aerobic condition at top layer is important for proper
functioning of facultative stabilization pond, and it depends on solar radiation, wastewater
characteristics, BOD loading and temperature. Performance of these ponds is comparable
with conventional wastewater treatment.
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CO 2 O2 andothergases
Newcells Algae Aerobiczone
O2 CO 2 +NH 3 +Otherproduct Treatedwater

Wastewater
Bacteria Algaeandbacteria
Newcells
Suspended Facultativezone
DeadCells
solids
Settledsludgezone
Bacteria Anaerobiczone
OrganicmatterCH 4 +CO 2 +NH 3 +Otherproduct
Figure 19.14 Facultative stabilization pond
Anaerobic pond: In anaerobic pond, the entire depth is under anaerobic condition except an
extremely shallow top layer. Normally these ponds are used in series followed by facultative
or aerobic pond for complete treatment. The depth of these ponds is in the range of 2.5 to 6
m. They are generally used for the treatment of high strength industrial wastewaters and
sometimes for municipal wastewater and sludges. Depending upon the strength of the
wastewater, longer retention time up to 50 days is maintained in the anaerobic ponds.
Anaerobic lagoons are covered these days by polyethylene sheet for biogas recovery and
eliminating smell problem and green house gas emission in atmosphere.
Fish pond: It can be part of maturation pond or altogether separate pond, in which fish are
reared. Sometimes, fishes are also reared in the end compartment of primary pond.
Aquatic plant ponds: These are secondary ponds in which aquatic plants e.g. hyacinths,
duckweeds, etc. are allowed to grow either for their ability to remove heavy metals and other
substances from wastewaters, or to give further treatment to wastewaters and produce new
plant biomass. This recovered biomass can be used for biodiesel, bioethanol, combustible gas
recovery as fuel or many other chemicals can be recovered using these plants as feed stock.
High-rate algal ponds: The high rate algal pond (HRAP) is potentially an effective
disinfection mechanism within the requirements of sustainability. In addition to disinfection,
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nutrient removal mechanisms are also active in the HRAP, specifically those involved in the
removal of phosphate. These ponds are not designed for optimum purification efficiency but
for maximum algal production. The algae are harvested for a variety of uses, principally high
quality algal protein. The ponds are shallow lagoons 2050 cm deep, with a retention period
of 13 days. The whole pond is kept aerobic by maintaining a high algal concentration and
using some form of mechanical mixing. Mixing is normally carried out for short periods at
night to prevent the formation of a sludge layer. Mixing may be required for short periods
during the day to prevent a rise in pH in the surface water due to photosynthesis. The pond is
commissioned in the same way as a facultative pond except that continuous loading should
not be permitted until an algal bloom has developed. Loading depends on solar radiation, and
the average loading throughout the year could be 100 to 200 kg BOD ha1d1. Strong organic
sewage inhibits the photosynthetic action due to high ammonia concentrations, which results
in the pond becoming anaerobic. High rate algal ponds are designed to promote the symbiosis
between the microalgae and aerobic bacteria, each utilizing the major metabolic products of
the other. Microalgae grow profusely releasing oxygen from water by photosynthesis. This
oxygen is immediately available to bacteria to oxidize most of the soluble and biodegradable
organic matter remaining from the facultative pond. HRAPs are shallower than facultative
ponds and operate at shorter hydraulic retentions times (HRTs). At the rapid growth of algae,
the pH can raise to above 9 since at peak algal activity. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions react
to provide more carbon dioxide for the algae, leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions. A pH above
9 for 24 hours ensures a 100% killing of E. coli and presumably most pathogenic bacteria.
Primary and secondary ponds: Ponds receiving untreated wastewaters are referred as raw or
primary waste stabilization ponds. Those receiving primary treated or biologically treated
wastewaters for further treatment are called as secondary waste stabilization ponds.
Maturation pond is the secondary pond receiving already treated wastewater either from the
ponds or other biological wastewater treatment process, like UASB reactor or ASP. The
detention time of 5 to 7 days is provided in these ponds, with the main purpose of achieving
natural bacterial die-off to desired levels. In warm climate they often constitute an
economical alternative for chlorination. They are lightly loaded in terms of organic loading
and the oxygen generated by photosynthesis may be more than the oxygen demand.
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19.3.2 Typical Flow Chart of Pond Based Treatment Plant
The typical treatment flow sheets for different types of ponds in use are illustrated in the
Figure 19.15. The ponds can be used in series or in parallel. Chlorination of the treated
effluent is optional. The primary treatment after screen can be combined in the ponds along
with secondary treatment. In all the flowcharts of the ponds in the Figure 19.15, screens are
provided ahead of the first pond.
Facultative
Pond
Sewage Restrictedirrigation
Dischargetoriveror
Anaerobic Facultative Contacttank
usedforunrestricted
Sewage Pond Pond (disinfection)
irrigation
Maturation
Pondwith Contact Dischargetoriveror
Sewage Anaerobic Facultative fishpondor tank usedforunrestricted
Pond Pond separate (optional)
fishpondin
irrigation
parallel
Figure 19.15 Flowcharts of the waste stabilization ponds

19.3.3 Factors Affecting Pond Ecosystem
The principal abiotic components of ponds ecosystem are oxygen, carbon dioxide, water,
light and nutrients; while the biotic components are algae, bacteria, protozoa, and variety of
other organisms. Various factors affect the pond design, such as (Arceivala and Asolekar,
2007):
Wastewater characteristics and fluctuation,

Environmental factors such as solar radiation, sky clearance, temperature, and their
variation,
Algal growth pattern and their diurnal and seasonal variation,
Bacterial growth pattern and decay rates,
Hydraulic transport pattern,
Evaporation and seepage,
Solids settlement, liquefaction, gasification, upward diffusion, sludge accumulation,
Gas transfer at interface.
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19.3.4 Design Guidelines for Oxidation Pond
1. Depth of Pond: It should be within 1 m to 1.5 m. The ponds are designed with such a
shallow depth to provide proper penetration of light, thus allowing growth of aquatic
plants and production oxygen. When these ponds are used for sewage treatment the
primary objective is organic matter removal and a depth of 1 m to 1.2 m is used.
Shallow ponds experience higher temperature variation than deeper ponds. So, an
optimum pond depth is necessary.
2. Surface area of Pond: Sufficient surface area must be provided so that oxygen yields
from the pond is greater than the ultimate BOD load applied. NEERI gives
photosynthetic oxygen yield for different latitude in India:
Latitude (0N) Yield of photosynthetic O2 (kg/ha.day)
16 275
20 250
24 225
28 200
32 175
Individual pond area should not be greater than 0.5 ha. If any system requires more
area then it is desirable to have more than one pond. 25 % more area is provided than
that calculated to account for embankments.
3. Substrate removal rate: Substrate removal rate Kp varies from 0.13 to 0.20 per day at
25 0C and 0.10 to 0.15 at 20 0C. For other temperature it can be calculated as:
Kp (ToC) = Kp (20oC)(1.035)(T-20) (56)
The size of the pond will be half when plug flow pattern is maintained rather than
completely mixed conditions. This can be achieved by providing ponds in series.
4. Detention time (T): It should be adequate enough for the bacteria to stabilize the
applied BOD load to a desirable degree.
5. Sulphide production: Sulphide production in oxidation ponds can be calculated from
the following empirical relationship (Arceivala and Asolekar, 2007):
S2- (mg/l) = (0.0001058 * BOD5 0.001655 * T + 0.0553) * SO42-
Where, BOD5 is in kg/ha.days,
T = detention time in days,
SO42- in mg/l.
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Sulphide ion concentration should not be greater than 4 mg/L. At concentrations

higher than this algal growth is inhibited.
6. Coliform removal: To use the pond effluent for irrigation Coliform concentration
should be less than 1000/100 ml. Coliform removal follows the first order rate
equation (Arceivala and Asolekar, 2007):
dN/dt = Kb.N, (57)
where, N = Number of organisms at any given time, t
Kb = Death rate per unit time (1 to 1.2 per day at 200C)
7. Sludge accumulation: Sludge accumulation occurs in the pond at the rate 0.05 to 0.08
m3/capita/year. Sludge accumulation causes decrease in efficiency of the ponds, so
they require cleaning every 7 to 10 year.
8. Pretreatment: Medium screens and grit removal devices should be provided before
the ponds.
9. Inlet pipe with the bell mouth at its end discharging near the centre of the pond is
provided.
10. The overflow arrangement is box structure with multiple valve draw-off lines to
permit operation with seasonal variations in depth.
11. If the soil is pervious it should be sealed to prohibit seepage.
Example: 5
Design an Oxidation Pond with efficiency 85 % for a wastewater stream of 2 MLD with a
BOD of 200 mg/L and the effluent coming out of the pond should have a BOD less than 30
mg/L. Temperature of the influent wastewater is 300C and the oxidation pond is located at a
place having latitude 220N.
Solution
At 220N, oxygen production by photosynthesis = 235 kg/hectare.day,

And Kp = 0.23/day.
The oxidation pond is designed for plug flow conditions.
For plug flow conditions, dispersion number, D/UL = 0.2
Kpt (for efficiency = 85%, D/UL = 0.2) = 2.5 (Arceivala and Asolekar, 2007)
Therefore, detention time, t = Kpt/Kp = 2.5/0.23 = 10.87 days.
Now, wastewater flow = 2 MLD = 2000 m3/day
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Therefore, pond volume = detention time * flow = 2000 * 10.87 = 21739.14 m3

Maximum BOD load that can be applied on the pond = 235/0.85 = 276.47 kg/day
Influent ultimate BOD = (1/0.68) * 200* 2 = 588.2 kg/ha.day
Therefore, minimum pond area required = 588.2/276.47 = 2.13 ha
Gross land area required = 1.25 * 2.13 = 2.66 ha
Minimum pond depth = (Pond Volume)/(Pond area) = [21739.14/(2.13*10000) =
= 1.02 m
Provide length = 225 m, breadth = 118.2 m, free board = 1m,
Therefore depth of the pond = 2.02 m
To maintain plug flow conditions the pond is divided into 3 cells along length with
each cell length = 75 m.
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19.3.5 Design of Facultative Stabilization Pond

In design the oxygen resources of the pond are equated to the applied organic loading. The
principal source of oxygen is photosynthesis and that is dependent on solar energy. The solar
energy again is related to geographical, meteorological and astronomical phenomenon, and
varies principally with time in year and the altitude of the place. The yield of photosynthetic
oxygen for different latitude is given earlier. Yield of photosynthetic oxygen may be
calculated directly if the amount of solar energy in Cal/m2.day and the efficiency of
conversion of light energy to fix energy in the form of algal cells are known.
In design of facultative ponds part of the organic matter is considered to undergo anaerobic
decomposition and the photosynthetic oxygen yield is equated to the remaining organic
matter to support aerobic oxidation. The organic loading in kg of BOD per hectare per day
applied on pond can be estimated using (Rao and Dutta, 2007):
Lo = 10(d/t) BODu (58)
where, Lo = Organic loading in kg/ha.day
d = depth of pond in m 14
t = detention time in days
BODu = ultimate soluble BOD, mg/L
(Loading = ((BOD*Q)/A), now A=V/d, therefore loading = BOD*Q/(V/d), hence loading =

BOD.d/t)
The organic loading may be modified for elevations above mean sea level by dividing by
factor (1 + 0.003 EL). Where, EL is elevation of pond site above MSL in hundred meters. For
every 10% decrease in the sky clearance factor below 75%, the pond area may be increased
by 3% (CPHEEO, 1993).
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Example: 6
Design facultative stabilization pond to treat a domestic sewage of 2 MLD, located at a place
where the latitude is 20 oN and 500 m above mean sea level. The five day 20 oC BOD of the
sewage is 200 mg/L. Suitable other data may be assumed for Indian conditions.
Solution
BOD5 = BODu(1 e-k.t)
Therfore, BODu = BOD5 / (1 e-k.t)
Assuming k = 0.23 per day
Ultimate BOD = 200 / (1 e-5 x 0.23) = 293 mg/L
At 20 oN, the yield of photosynthetic oxygen = 250 kg/ha.day.
Since the place is 500 m above MSL, the oxygen yield = 250/(1 + 0.003x5) = 246.3 kg/ha.d
Now organic loading can be calculated as
Lo = 10 (d/t) BODu = 10 (d/t) x 293
Assuming 50% of this load is non settleable, and it undergoes aerobic decomposition in the
top layer.
The oxygen requirement = 10 (d/t) x 293 x 0.5
Equating this to photosynthetic oxygen yield of 246.3 kg/ha.day and solving
d/t = 0.168
Provide d = 1.5 m, hence t = 1.5/0.168 = 8.922 days
Now, Volume = flow x detention time = depth x surface area
Therefore, Area required = 2 x 103 x 8.922 /1.5 = 11900 m2 (~1.19 Ha.)
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Figure 19.16 Sectional elevation of facultative waste stabilization pond
19.4 Aerated Lagoon
Aerated lagoons are one of the aerobic suspended growth processes. An aerated lagoon is a
basin in which wastewater is treated either on a flow through basis or with solids recycle.
Oxygen is usually supplied by means of surface aerators on floats or on fixed platforms or
diffused air aeration units instead of photosynthetic oxygen yield as in case of oxidation
pond. The action of the aerators and that of the rising air bubbles from the diffuser are used
to keep the contents of the basin in suspension. They are constructed with depth varying from
2 to 5 m.
The contents of an aerobic lagoon are mixed completely. Depending on detention time, the
effluent contains about 1/3 to 1/2 the value of the incoming BOD in the form of cell tissue.
Before the effluent can be discharged, the solids must be removed by settling. If the solids
are returned to the lagoon, there is no difference between this and modified ASP.
Influent Floatingaerators
SST
Sludgerecycling(optional)
Sludge
waste
Figure 19.17 Aerobic lagoon
5|P a g e
The mean cell retention time should be selected to assume, 1) that the suspended
microorganisms will easily flocculate by sedimentation and 2) that the adequate safety factor
is provided when compared to mean cell residence time of washout. The oxygen requirement
is as per the activated sludge process. In general, the amount of oxygen required has been
found to vary from 0.7 to 1.4 times the amount of BOD5 removed.
Aerated lagoons have the advantages such as ease of operation and maintenance, equalization
of wastewater, and a high capacity of heat dissipation when required. The disadvantages of
aerated lagoons are (Barnhart, 1972) large area requirement, difficulty in process
modification, high effluent suspended solids concentration, and sensitivity of process
efficiency to variation in ambient air temperature.
Aerobic lagoons: In aerobic lagoons, power levels are great enough to maintain all the solids
in the lagoons in suspension and also to provide dissolved oxygen throughout the liquid
volume. Aerobic lagoons are operated with high F/M ratio and short MCRT. These systems
achieve little organic solids stabilization but convert the soluble organic material into cellular
organic material. Based on the solid handling manner, the aerobic lagoons can be classified
into (i) aerobic flow through with partial mixing, and (ii) Aerobic lagoon with solid recycle
and nominal complete mixing (Arceivala, 1998).
Aerobic flow through with partial mixing: This type of aerobic lagoons operate with
sufficient energy input to meet the oxygen requirement, but the energy input is insufficient to
keep all the biomass in suspension. The HRT and SRT are the same in this type of lagoon.
The effluent from this lagoon is settled in an external sedimentation facility to remove the
solid prior to discharge.
Aerobic lagoons with solid recycle: This type of lagoons are same as the extended aeration
activated sludge process with the exception that the aeration is carried out in an earthen basin
instead of a reinforced concrete reactor basin and have longer HRT than the extended
aeration process. The oxygen requirement in this type of lagoon is higher than the aerobic
flow through lagoons to keep all the biomass in suspension. The analysis of this type of
lagoons is same as the activated sludge process.
19.5 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR)
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Moving bed biofilm reactor was developed by Norwegian company, Kaldnes

Miljoteknologies. This is mainly attached growth process where media is not stationary and
it moves freely in the reactor to improve substrate removal kinetics. Small cylindrical shaped
polyethylene carrier elements (sp. density 0.96 g/cm3) are added in aerated or non-aerated
basins to support biofilm growth. Cylinders of 10 mm and 7 mm thick with a cross inside
are popularly used.
Figure 19.18 Typical polyethylene media used in MBBR
The biofilm carriers are retained in the reactor by the use of a perforated plate (5 x 25 mm
slots) at the tank outlet. Thus, this media having larger size cannot escape the reactor along
with the effluent. Air agitation or mixers are used to continuously circulate the packing and
to keep it moving so as to establish optimum contact with substrate present in wastewater and
bacteria attached to the media. Packing may fill 25 to 50% of tank volume, with specific
surface area of about 200 to 500 m2 /m3 of bulk packing volume. This arrangement offers
advantage that no return sludge is required and since the media is moving, there is no chance
of blocking the media which may require back washing. A final clarifier is used to settle
sloughed solids. Another advantage is use of more efficient fine bubble aeration equipment
is not required, which would require periodic drainage of aeration tank and removal of
packing for cleaning of diffusers.
Influent Effluent Influent Effluent
Screen
Mixer Screen
Air
(a) (b)
Figure 19.19 Typical reactors used with suspended packing materials a) Aerobic b)
Anaerobic/Anoxic with internal mixer.
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MBBR are finding increasing application for post treatment of anaerobically treated
industrial effluents and also as a secondary treatment system for treatment of sewage. These
reactors can be used for removal of organic matter and also for nitrification and
denitrification. Single stage MBBR may meet the effluent standards for treatment of
primarily treated sewage. Whereas, to achieve nitrification and denitrification along with
organic matter removal multistage MBBR is used with intermediate settler or settler provided
at the end of all the reactors. As per the need the first few MBBRs will be anoxic to achieve
carbonaceous organic matter removal and denitrification and these will be followed by
aerobic MBBR mainly for nitrification and remaining organic matter removal.
Typical design parameters used for MBBR are stated below:
Detention time, h 35
Biofilm area, m2 /m3 200 250
BOD loading, kg/m3.d 1.0 2.0
Secondary clarifier hydraulic loading rate, m3 /m2.d 12 20
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Questions
1. Why aerobic treatment systems produce more sludge than anaerobic treatment
systems?
2. Define SVI. Calculate SVI of the sludge for the laboratory test results furnished
below:
Sludge settled volume (SSV) after 30 min. settling = 280 mL
MLVSS in aeration tank = 3500 mg/L, and SS/VSS = 0.8
3. Why recycling of the sludge is necessary in activated sludge process?
4. Describe different types of activated sludge process used.
5. Differentiate between completely mixed activated sludge process and extended
aeration activated sludge process.
6. Using microbial growth kinetics, derive expression for determination of reactor
volume for complete mixed activated sludge process with sludge recycling.
7. Calculate oxygen required per day for treatment of 500 m3/d wastewater containing
300 mg of BOD /L and TKN of 30 mg/L in activated sludge process. The effluent
should have BOD of 20 mg/L and TKN of 3 mg/L. Consider Y = 0.5 mg VSS/mg
BOD, mean cell residence time = 10 days and kd = 0.06 per day.
8. Estimate recirculation ratio for ASP when the MLVSS concentration in the aeration
tank is 4000 mg/L and the return sludge concentration is 9000 mg of SS/L. Consider
VSS/SS = 0.8.
9. An activated sludge process is to be used for secondary treatment of 10000 m3/d of
wastewater. The BOD of settled wastewater after primary treatment is 150 mg/L and
it is desirable to have not more than 10 mg/L of soluble BOD in the effluent.
Consider Y = 0.5; Kd = 0.05 per day; MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank =
3000 mg/L and underflow concentration from the clarifier 10,000 mg/L of SS.
VSS/SS = 0.80. Determine i) the volume of aeration tank, ii) sludge to be wasted per
day (mass and volume), iii) the recycle ratio, and iv) Volumetric loading and F/M.
10. What is sludge bulking? How it can be controlled?
11. Describe sequencing batch reactor.
12. Describe the working of moving bed biofilm reactor. What advantages this reactor
will offer?
13. Describe different types of trickling filter used in wastewater treatment.
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14. Design a biotower for treatment of wastewater generated from the housing scheme
having population of 5000 persons with rate of water supply 180 LPCD. Removal rate
constant for synthetic packing media K = 2.26 at 200 C.
15. Classify the ponds used for wastewater treatment.
16. Describe high rate algal pond.
17. Design facultative stabilization pond to treat a domestic sewage of 5 MLD, located at
a place where the latitude is 22 oN and 300 m above mean sea level. The five day 20
o
C BOD of the sewage is 150 mg/L. Suitable other data may be assumed for Indian
conditions.
Answers:
Q. 2: SVI = 100 mL/g of SS
Q. 7: Oxygen required = 205.452 kg O2/day
Q. 8: Recirculation ratio of for ASP = 0.714.
Q. 9: i) The volume of aeration tank = 1560 m3; ii) sludge to be wasted per day (mass and
volume) = Sludge to be wasted per day = 577.5 Kg SS/day, sludge waste volume = 46.8
m3/d; iii) the recycle ratio = 0.6; and iv) Volumetric loading = 0.96 Kg BOD/ m3.day and
F/M = 0.32 kg BOD/kg VSS.d.
Q. 14: For biotower depth of 5.0 m, area required = 10.09 m2, hence diameter = 3.58 m
Q. 17: For depth of 1.5 m, area of pond = 2.36 hectare.
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Module 20 : Secondary Sedimentation
Lecture 32 : Secondary Sedimentation
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The secondary sedimentation facility is provided after the biological reactor to facilitate
the sedimentation of the cells produced during biological oxidation of organic matter. If
these cells produced are not removed, complete treatment will not be achieved as these
cells will represent about 30 to 60% of the organic matter present in untreated wastewater
in aerobic treatment. Depending on the type of reactor used fraction of these settled cells
is returned back to the reactor and remaining cells are wasted as excess sludge for further
treatment.
20.1 Analysis of hindered settling (Type 3)
In systems that contain high concentration of suspended solids, both hindered (zone)
settling (type 3) and compression settling usually occur in addition to discrete and
flocculent settling. The settling phenomenon that occurs when a concentrated suspension,
initially of uniform concentration throughout, is placed in cylinder as shown in Figure
20.1.
Figure 20.1 Schematic diagram of settling regions for ASP
Due to high concentration of particles, the liquid tends to move up through the interstices
of contacting particles. As a result, the particles settle as a zone or blanket, maintaining
the same relative position with respect to each other. This is known as hindered settling.
As the solids settle as a zone, a relatively clear layer of water is produced above the
particles in the settling region. The rate of settling in the hindered settling region is a
function of concentration of solids and their characteristics.
As settling continues, a compressed layer of particles begins to form at the bottom of the
cylinder in the compression settling region. Thus in hindered settling region a gradation in
solid concentration exists from interface of settling region to that found in the compression
settling region. Due to variability of nature of solids and concentration, settling test is
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necessary to determine the settling characteristics. Two different approaches can be used
for conducting the laboratory test.
1. Single (batch) settling test, or
2. Solid flux method (based on series of tests at different suspended solids
concentration).
20.2 Area Requirement Based on Single Batch Test Result
The final overflow rate selected for design of sedimentation tank is based on the
following:
Area needed for clarification,
Area needed for thickening,
The rate of sludge withdrawal.
Since the area needed for the free settling region is less than the area required for
thickening, the rate of free settling is rarely the controlling factor. In case of activated
sludge process where light, fluffy floc particles may be present, it is conceivable that the
free or flocculent settling velocity of these particles could control the design.
For a column of height = Ho, and uniform solid concentration = Co, the position of
interface as the time elapses is given in Figure 20.2. The rate at which interface subsides
is equal to slope of the curve at that point in time.
The area required for thickening

Qtu
A= (1)
Ho 15
Where, A = Area required for sludge thickening, m2

Q = Flow rate in the tank, m3/sec
Ho = Initial height of interface in column, m
tu = Time to reach desired underflow concentration, sec.
The critical concentration controlling the sludge handling capability of the tank occurs at a
height H2 (Figure 20.2), where concentration is C2 (C2 is determined by extending tangent
and bisecting angle of intersection).
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Figure 20.2 Analysis of the single batch test result
The time tu can be determined as follows (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003):
a. Construct a horizontal line at the depth Hu that corresponds to the depth at

which the solids are at the desired underflow concentration, Cu.
The value of Hu can be determined as:
o. o
Hu = (2)
u
b. Construct a tangent to a settling curve at point C2.

c. Construct a vertical line from intersection of tangent and horizontal line from
Hu. This vertical line will determine tu.
With this value of tu the area required for thickening is computed using relation,
Qtu
A=
Ho
The area required for clarification is then determined. The larger of the two areas is the
controlling value. Although Cu in settling test will occur at longer time, due to
continuous withdrawal from the bottom of tank this time may not reach in settling tank,
hence tu is worked out from tangent.
Example: 1
Calculate the size of SST for ASP. In a settling cylinder of 2.0 m height the settling test
was performed, and the settling curve as shown in Figure 20.3 was obtained for an
activated sludge with initial solids concentration, Co = 4300 mg/L. Determine the area to
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yield a thickened sludge concentration Cu of 20 g/L with an inflow of 500 m3/day. In

addition, determine the solids loading in kg/m2.day and the overflow rate in m3/m2.day.
Figure 20.3 Results of the batch settling test
Solution:
1. The area required for thickening,

o. o
Hu =
u
.
= = 0.43 m
2. Draw a horizontal line at height Hu =0.43 m

3. Construct a tangent to the settling curve at C2, the midpoint of the region between
hindered and compression settling. The intersection of the tangent at C2 and
horizontal line is at tu = 172 min.
Hence, the required area
Qtu
A= = x = 29.86 m2
Ho .
4. This area should be adequate for clarification also.
a. Determine subsidence velocity v from the beginning of the settling
portion of the curve, (considering velocity of particles present at the
interface).
. .
v= x 60 = 0.91 m/h
b. Determine overflow rate:
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The overflow rate is proportional to the liquid volume above the critical
sludge zone (sludge is drained from bottom).
. .
Q= 500 (m3/day) x = 392.5 m3/day
.
c. Determine area required for clarification:

The area required is obtained by dividing overflow rate by settling velocity.
.
A= = x = 17.97 m2
.
5. The controlling requirement is the thickening area of 29.86 m2 because it exceeds
the area required for clarification.
6. Determine the solids loading:
3
/
Solids loading (kg/day) = = 2150 kg/day
/
2150 /
Solids loading rate = 2 = 72 kg/ m2 .day
.
7. Determine hydraulic loading rate:
.
Hydraulic loading rate = = 13.15 m3/m2.day
.
20.3 Design of secondary sedimentation tank
The design guidelines for secondary sedimentation tank for different biological processes
as recommended by CPHEEO manual (1993) is presented in the Table 20.1.
Table 20.1 Design parameters for SST
Parameter Overflow rate, Solid loading rate, Depth, m Detention

m3/m2.d kg/m2.d time, h
Average Peak Average Peak
SST for TF 15 - 25 40 - 50 70 - 120 190 2.5 3.5 1.5 2.0
SST for ASP 15 - 25 40 - 50 70 - 140 210 3.5 4.5 1.5 2.0
SST for extended 8 - 15 25 - 35 25 - 120 170 3.5 4.5 1.5 2.0
aeration ASP
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Weir loading rate for the secondary sedimentation tank is kept less than or equal to 185
m3/m.d. Other guidelines for the dimensions of the tank are similar to as described earlier
in primary sedimentation.
Example: 2
Design secondary sedimentation tank for treatment of 10 MLD effluent coming from
conventional ASP. The MLSS in aeration tank is 3000 mg/L and peak flow factor is 2.0
Solution
Adopt surface loading rate of 20 m3/m2.d at average flow.
Therefore surface area required = 10000/20 = 500 m2
Then surface overflow rate at peak flow = 20000/500 = 40 m3/m2.d (within 40 to 50)
Check for solid loading
At average flow solid loading rate = 10000 x 3/500 = 60 kg/m2.d
At peak flow solid loading rate = 20000 x 3/500 = 120 kg/m2.d (less than permissible)
Diameter of the tank for 500 m2 area = 25.24 m
Provide detention time of 2 h, hence volume = 10000*2/24 = 833.33 m3
Hence depth of the tank = 833.33/500 = 1.67 m
Provide depth of 2.0 m + 0.3 m for sludge accumulation and 0.4 m free board. Hence total
depth = 2.7 m
Check for weir loading
Weir loading = 10000/( * D) = 126.18 m3/m.d, hence safe.
8|P a g e
Questions
1. Describe different types of settling.
2. Explain hindered settling. How the area required for sedimentation is worked out
on the single batch test result?
3. Prepare notes on different types of settling occurring in treatment of wastewaters.
4. Explain the purpose of providing secondary sedimentation.
5. Design secondary sedimentation tank for the industrial effluent treatment plant
employing completely mixed ASP. The MLVSS in aeration tank is 3500 mg/L
and average annual wastewater flow rate is 500 m3/d. However in summer the
wastewater generation is 1.5 times the annual average. Consider MLVSS/MLSS =
0.8.
Answer:
Q. 5. Provide surface loading rate of 20 m3/m2.d at average flow. Diameter 5.64 m and
total depth = 2.7 m.
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Module 21 : Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Processes
Lecture 33 : Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Processes
21.1 Background
Anaerobic biological treatment is well understood and used frequently as anaerobic digesters
to treat complex organic solid wastes such as primary and secondary wastewater sludges.
However, it has not been used much in the past to treat low strength organic wastewaters
from industrial and domestic applications. Aerobic processes were preferred for treatment of
these wastewater streams because they are easy to operate and can tolerate process
fluctuations. In comparison, anaerobic reactors were assumed to be less stable under
fluctuations, more expensive to install and require long start-up time. This belief was due to
limited knowledge of the process and reactor design.
Now the technology advances have significantly reduced the historical weakness of anaerobic
treatment. With the work of Young and McCarty in the year 1969, application of anaerobic
process for the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewaters has gradually increased in
last three decades. Today the anaerobic treatment has emerged as a practical and economical
alternative to aerobic treatment due to significant advantages over aerobic treatment.
21.2 Anaerobic Degradation of Organic matter

The factors that determine the removal efficiency of biodegradable organic matter are:
1. The nature and composition of the organic matter to be removed
2. Suitability of environmental factors
3. Sludge retention time in the reactor
4. The intensity of mixing, hence contact between bacterial biomass and organic matter.
5. Specific loading of organic matter with respect to bacterial sludge mass, and retention
time.
Factors (1) and (2) are basically dependent on wastewater characteristics, whereas (3) to (5)
are related to the type and design of the treatment system. The transformation of complex
macromolecules of organic matter present in wastewater into biogas requires several groups
of microorganisms. The reaction sequence of the anaerobic digestion of complex
macromolecules is presented in Figure 21.1 [Gujer and Zehnder, 1983]. Different steps are
necessary for the anaerobic digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Four different
phases can be distinguished in the overall conversion process of organic matter to biogas as
1) Hydrolysis, 2) Acidogenesis, 3) Acetogenesis, and 4) Methanogenesis.
3 | Page
Suspended organic matter, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
Hydrolysis
Amino acids, sugars Fatty acids
Acidogenesis
Intermediate products,
propionate, butyrate
Acetogenesis
Hydrogen
Acetate
Methanogenesis
Methane
Figure 21.1 Reaction Sequences for the Anaerobic Digestion of Complex Organic Matter
21.3 Overview of Anaerobic Degradation Process

The anaerobic biological conversion of organic waste to methane is a complex process
involving a number of microbial populations linked by their individual substrate and product
specificities. The overall conversion process may be described to involve direct and indirect
symbiotic association between different groups of bacteria. The product of one bacterium is
often the substrate for others and hence, a balance between the bacterial numbers and the
substrate concentrations must be maintained. The biological conversion of organic matter
occurs in three steps. The first step in the process involves transformation of higher-
molecular-mass compounds into compounds suitable for use as a source of energy and cell
carbon (hydrolysis). The second step (acidogenesis) involves the bacterial conversion of the
compounds resulting from the first step into identifiable lower-molecular-mass intermediate
compounds. Lower chain volatile fatty acids produced during acidogenesis are utilized by a
group of bacteria (acetogens) to produce acetate. The third step (methanogenesis) involves
the bacterial conversion of the intermediate compounds into simpler end products, such as
methane and carbon dioxide. Several nomenclatures have been proposed for these three
steps. Speece and McCarty (1962) called the first and the second steps the constant BOD
phase and the third step, the reducing BOD phase, because only the methane formation in the
third step brings about the reduction of BOD or COD through the whole process.
According to trophic requirements the bacteria involved can be conveniently divided into
three groups as follows.
Hydrolytic bacteria - acidogens: These bacteria hydrolyze the substrate (macromolecule)
into short-chain organic acids and other small molecules, which can be taken up and
converted into soluble short-chain organic molecules, e.g., carbohydrates are converted into
low-chain fatty acids, alcohols, hydrogen and carbon dioxide under anaerobic condition.
Strict anaerobes are composed most part of this group of bacteria. The generation time of
these bacteria is 2 to 3 hours. The principle intermediate compounds resulting from
conversion of the substrate during acid fermentation are acetate (CH3COOH), propionate
(CH3CH2COOH), butyrate (CH3CH2CH2COOH), hydrogen gas (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
lactate (CH3CHOHCOOH), formate (HCOOH), ethanol (CH3CH2OH), valeric acid
(CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH), isovaleric acid ((CH3)2CHCH2COOH), and caproic acid
(CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH). The distribution of final product depends on the species of
acidogenic bacteria and on the environmental conditions such as pH and temperature.
Obligate Hydrogen Producing Acetogens (OHPA): This group converts compound formed
in the first stage into acetic acid and hydrogen. Low hydrogen pressure favours these
reactions [Harper and Pohland, 1986].
e.g. Propionate CH3CH2COOH + 2H2O CH3COOH + CO2 + 3H2
Go = 76.1 KJ/mole
Butyrate CH3CH2CH2COOH + 2H2O 2CH3COOH + 2H2
Go = 48.1 KJ/mole
From the viewpoint of the thermodynamics, a negative value of free energy change is
necessary for any reaction to proceed without input of external energy. This theory apparently
suggests that hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria cannot obtain energy for growth from
these reactions. However, the value of free energy change in the actual environment
surrounding the bacteria, G', is different from that of Go' and depends on the
concentrations of substrates and products as follows [Harper and Pohland,1986]:
[P1].[P2]....
G' = Go' + RTA ln ------------------ ....(1)
[S1].[S2]....
Where,
G' = free energy change at pH = 7 (kJ/mol),
Go' = standard free energy change at pH = 7 (kJ/mol),
R = gas constant = 0.082 L.atm/mol.oK,
TA = temperature (oK),
[P1].[P2]... = product concentration (mol/L or atm), and
5 | Page
[S1].[S2]... = substrate concentration (mol/L or atm).

Only low partial pressure of hydrogen can give negative values of G' in above equations,
because substrate concentration cannot be so high and acetate concentration is not so low in
anaerobic reactors. This shows that extremely low partial pressure of hydrogen is essential for
hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria although they themselves produce hydrogen.
Experimentally it was found that the hydrogen partial pressure higher than 5 x 10-3 atm
ceased the degradation of propionate by hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria [Hanaki et
al., 1985]. Based on thermodynamics associated with this reactions Harper and Pohland
[1985] indicated that propionic acid oxidation to acetate becomes favourable only at
hydrogen partial pressure below 10-4 atm, while, butyric acid oxidation becomes favourable
at 10-3 atm H2 or below.
Hydrogen utilizing methanogenic bacteria can serve such a thermodynamically favourable

conditions for hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria in anaerobic reactors, thus, the activity
of hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria depends on the existence of methanogenic
bacteria. Hydrogen utilizing methanogens receive hydrogen as a substrate from hydrogen
producing acetogenic bacteria. The interrelationship between these two groups of bacteria is
called interspecies hydrogen transfer, which also exists between acidogenic and
methanogenic bacteria. Acidogenic bacteria produce more hydrogen and acetate than
propionate or lactate and obtain more energy under low hydrogen partial pressure which is
kept by methanogenic bacteria. The interspecies hydrogen transfer is favourable but not
essential for acidogenic bacteria, while, it is indispensable for hydrogen producing acetogenic
bacteria.
Methanogenic bacteria - methanogens: These bacteria produce methane. The doubling

time of these bacteria is 2 - 10 days. These are further divided into two groups as:
a) Hydrogen utilisers (lithotrophs)
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O convert ADP to ATP
b) Acetic acid users (acetotrophs)
CH3COOH CH4 + CO2 produce 0.25 mole of ATP
The methane producing bacteria are strict anaerobes which are extremely sensitive to changes
in temperature and pH. These bacteria are active in two temperature zones, namely, in the
mesophilic range (30oC - 35oC) and in the thermophilic range (50oC - 60oC). However,
anaerobic processes have been operated at 15oC successfully when sufficient residence time
for these bacteria was provided.
The majority of methanogens in anaerobic wastewater treatment and natural anaerobic

environment utilize hydrogen and single carbon compounds as substrates for methane
production. In addition there are two known genera of methanogens which can utilize the
two-carbon compound, acetic acid. These include species of Methanosarcina and
Methanothrix (Methanosaeta). The Methanothrix species are unable to use hydrogen in
combination with CO2 and these are non-hydrogen-oxidizing acetotrophs (NHOA). In
contrast, Methanosarcina can utilize H2/CO2 as well as acetate, carbon monoxide, methanol,
and methylamines as growth substrates. Due to their ability to use both H2/CO2 and acetate,
these bacteria are classified as Hydrogen Oxidizing Acetotrophs (HOA). Hydrogen-
Oxidizing Methanogens (HOM) do not cleave acetate, but utilize H2/CO2 and formate as
substrates [Harper and Pohland, 1986]. The HOA are unique in their capability to utilize
multiple (one and/or two carbon) substrates. This ability affords a higher potential for
survival when competing with sulfur reducing bacteria (SRB) and nitrate reducing bacteria
(NRB) for hydrogen and acetate. At hydrogen partial pressure >10-4 atm, HOA use H2/CO2
in favour of acetate, whereas acetate cleavage by NHOA is unaffected by hydrogen.
NHOA have a much higher affinity for acetate than the HOA. NHOA may outcompete HOA
at acetate concentrations below 50 mg/L, while above 250 mg/L acetate, the HOA are more
competitive [Speece et al., 1983]. As a result of this comparative kinetics Methanothrix
(NHOA) may be found in reactors with lower organic loading. Methanosarcina are more
predominant in low retention time reactors such as in the lower reaches of plug flow
anaerobic filters and in two phase reactor system.
Oxidation of reduced organic products to bicarbonate and acetate also occurs due to NRB and
SRB. Higher organic waste conversion rates may be available through SRB than through
methanogenesis. Moreover, SRB and NRB are not limited to one-and two-carbon substrates,
as are methanogens. However, from process engineering perspective, such an approach has
disadvantages, including the loss of energy available from methane and the production of
hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. Since, sulphide and ammonia are much more soluble than
methane, their dissolved components can contribute significantly to effluent COD [Harper
7 | Page
and Pohland, 1986]. However, this approach may hold possibilities for reducing propionic
acid and hydrogen, as well as acetic acid in a stressed reactor, in order to more rapidly
reestablish the equilibrium with the existing hydrogen removal system.
21.4 Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
Development of anaerobic process technology is dependent on a better understanding of the

factors that are associated with the stability of the biological processes involved. Process
instability is usually indicated by a rapid increase in the concentration of volatile acids in the
first stage of the reaction. Low pH with a concurrent reduction in methane gas production
indicates the methanogenesis more susceptible to upset. Acclimatization of the microbes to a
substrate may take 3 to 8 weeks. Sufficiently acclimated bacteria show greater stability
towards stress-inducing events such as hydraulic overloads, fluctuations in temperature,
volatile acid and ammonia concentrations, etc. Several environmental factors can affect
anaerobic digestion such as specific growth rate, decay rate, gas production, substrate
utilization, etc. The environmental factors of primary importance are discussed below.
21.4.1 pH, Acidity and Alkalinity

Methanogenic microorganisms are susceptible to the minute changes in the pH values.
Optimum pH range of 6.6 7.6 is considered favourable for the methane producing bacteria,
which cannot tolerate the fluctuations. The non-methanogenic bacteria do not exhibit such
strong sensitivity for environmental conditions and are able to function in a range of pH form
5 8.5. The pH maintained inside the reactor, due to the process results from the interaction
of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate buffering system and volatile acids-ammonia formed by
the process. It is necessary to prevent the accumulation of acids to a level, which may
become inhibitory to the methanogenic bacteria. For this, it is important that there should be
sufficient buffering capacity present in the reactor, which may prevent the reactor from
souring. Although, the carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and calcium are required to be
added to the digesters to provide buffering action, lime (Calcium hydroxide) is most
commonly used for this purpose. Only the unionized volatile acids in the concentration range
of 30 - 60 mg/L are toxic.
21.4.2 Temperature
As in all biological processes, anaerobic processes are affected by temperature. The higher
the temperature, higher is the microbial activity until an optimum temperature is reached. A
further increase of the temperature beyond its optimum value results in steep decrease in
activity. Anaerobic process can take place over a wide range of temperatures (4 600C).
Once as effective temperature is established, small fluctuations can result in a process upset.
Although most of the sludge digester are operated in the mesophilic range (30 400C),
methanogenesis can occur at temperatures as low as 12 to 150C. The effect of increasing
temperature on biochemical reaction rate in the range of 4 250C is profound.
The optimum temperature for growth of anaerobic microorganisms is 350C or greater.

Although anaerobic digesters have been reported to operate at substantially lower
temperatures, such as 200C, anaerobic growth under these temperature conditions is slow
requiring prolonged start-up time and difficulties in operation. In situations where reactors
operating temperature is low, start-up will be benefited if initiated at approximately 350C. At
temperature of less than 250C, the digestion rate decreases sharply and conventional
anaerobic reactors in operation at ambient temperatures in cooler climates may require
detention times of as much as 12 weeks for the treatment of sewage sludges.
The majority of industrial digester systems operate in the mesophilic range of 30 400C. It is
probable that increase in microbial reaction rates at the elevated temperatures of thermophilic
processes (50 600C), and hence decrease in SRT may prove advantageous under some
circumstances. However, lack of stability in thermophilic municipal waste treatment can
occur. Thermophilic digestion is most practical where wastewater stream to be treated is
discharged at an extremely high temperature and the digester is present on site.
In psycrophilic, mesophilic, or thermophilic ranges, uniformity of temperature over the entire

vessel contents is of paramount importance to anaerobic digestion. Temperature change of
even a few degrees can result in a marked upset in microbial metabolism and rapid alterations
in reactions in the reactor and may necessitate several days for the recovery. A consistent
temperature throughout the system can be provided by adequate mixing of the reactor by
paddle, gas sparging, or flow over heat exchangers.
9 | Page
21.4.3 Nutrients
Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes are often used for industrial waste with only minor
amount of nutrients present. This might result in nutrient deficiency, unless additional
nutrients are supplemented. Often the COD/N ratio and COD/N/P ratio is used to described
the nutrient requirements. Optimum N/P ratio can be considered to be 7. The theoretical
minimum COD/N ratio is considered to be 350/7. A value around 400/7 is considered
reasonable for high rate anaerobic processes (operated in SLR of 0.8 1.2 kg COD /kg
VSS.d). For low rate processes (<0.5 kg COD /kg VSS.d) the COD/N-ratio has been
observed to be increased dramatically to values of 1000/7 or more [Van den Berg and Lentz,
1980].
Other than nitrogen and phosphorous, trace metals also are essential for anaerobic processes.
The presence of trace metals such as molybdenum, selenium, tungsten and nickel is probably
necessary for the activity of several enzyme systems. When these trace elements are not
present in the wastewater, addition of nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum can increase methane
production and allow greater volumes of wastewater to be effectively treated by decreasing
the reactor residence time.
21.4.4 Inhibitory Substances

Inhibition of the anaerobic digestion process can be mediated to varying degrees by toxic
materials present in the system. These substances may be components of the influent
wastewater or byproducts of the metabolic activities in the digester. Inhibitory toxic
compounds include sulphides, consequential in the processing of waste from sources such as
molasses fermentation, petroleum refining and tanning industries. Volatile acid and other
microbial products can accumulate and inhibit reactor-buffering capacity. Inhibition may
also arise as the consequence of the increased levels of ammonia, alkali, and the alkaline
earth metals, and heavy metals in the system.
Volatile Acids Inhibition: Anaerobic reactor instability is generally evident by a marked and
rapid increase in volatile fatty acids concentrations; this is frequently indicative of the failure
of the methanogenic population due to other environmental disruptions such as shock
loadings, nutrient depletion or infiltration of inhibitory substances. Acetate has been
described as the least toxic of the volatile acids, while propionate has often been implicated
as a major effecter of digester failure.
The inhibition by the volatile acids at acidic pH values can be attributed to the existence of
unionized VFAs in significant quantities in the system. The undissociated nature of these
acids allow them to penetrate the bacterial cell membrane more efficiently than their ionized
counterparts, and once assimilated, induce an intracellular decrease in pH and hence a
decrease in microbial metabolic rate. The resulting VFA concentration in the reactor should
be maintained below 500 mg/L at any point of time and preferably below 200 mg/L for
optimum performance.
Ammonia Nitrogen Inhibition: Although ammonia is an important buffer in anaerobic

processes, high ammonia concentration can be a major cause of operational failure. In reactor
system that has not previously been acclimated to high ammonia loadings, shock loadings of
high ammonia concentration generally caused rapid production of VFAs such that the
buffering capacity of the system may not be able to compensate for the decrease in pH.
Further depression of alkalinity and reduction of pH may result in reactor failure. Inhibition
is indicated by a decrease in gas production and an increase in volatile acid formation.
Sulphide Inhibition: The sulphate and other oxidized compounds of sulphur are easily
reduced to sulphide under the conditions prevalent in anaerobic digesters. Sulphur-containing
amino acids of protein can also undergo degradation to sulphide. These compounds are of
significance when anaerobic treatment is considered for industrial processes which tend to
produce large quantities of sulphides in their waste stream. These sulphides formed by the
activity of reactor microorganisms may be soluble or insoluble, depending upon their
associated cations. When the salts formed are insoluble, they have negligible effects on
digestion. Iron addition, for example can suppress sulphide inhibition by removing S2- ion
from solution by precipitation.
Desulfovibrio and other sulphate-reducing genera form sulphides from sulphates and some of
the fermentative microorganisms utilize the sulphur containing amino acids to produce
sulphides. Sulphide concentration in excess of 200 mg/L in a digester at 35 0C, with
continuous feeding and mixing, produced severe inhibitory effects including the complete
cessation of gas production [Parkin and Speece, 1983]. All the heavy metals, with the
exception of chromium, form insoluble sulphide salts and thus can be removed from solution
by sulphide present in the system by precipitation. Free sulphide can also be eliminated as
hydrogen sulphide by vigorous gas production.
11 | P a g e
Heavy Metals Inhibition: The most common agents of inhibition and failure of sewage
sludge digesters are identified to be contaminating heavy metals. Heavy metals in the soluble
state are in general regarded to be of more significance to reactor toxicity than are insoluble
forms. Anaerobic digestion also reduces the valence states of some heavy metals. Both
copper and iron may be reduced from the trivalent to divalent state. This reduces the quantity
of the precipitating agent, such as sulphide, necessary for the removal of the metal ion from
solution. The heavy metals can be removed from anaerobic systems by adsorption. Those
digesters, such as the CSTR configuration; which are tolerant to the wastes containing high
levels of suspended solids are effective in metal removal, provided sufficient adsorption sites
are present. The metals like copper, chromium, nickel, lead can induce toxicity in the reactor
when present in higher concentration, and acceptable concentration in the wastewater to be
treated differs from metal to metal.
21.5 Merits of Anaerobic Decomposition Process

It has been recognized that the anaerobic treatment is in many ways ideal for wastewater
treatment and has several merits mentioned as below:
A high degree of waste stabilization;
A low production of excess biological sludge and this sludge can be directly dried on
sludge drying bed without further treatment due to better dewatering ability;
Low nutrient requirements, hence anaerobic treatment is attractive for the treatment of
wastewater where external nutrient addition is required;
No oxygen requirement, hence saving in power required for supply of oxygen in aerobic
methods;
Production of valuable byproduct, methane gas;
Organic loading on the system is not limited to oxygen supply hence higher loading rate
as compared to aerobic processes can be applied.
Less land required as compared to many aerobic process.
Non-feed conditions for few months do not affect adversely to the system and this makes
it attractive option for seasonal industrial wastewater treatment.
Quantity of biological solids produced in the anaerobic systems per unit weight of organic
material is much less than that in aerobic systems. This is a major advantage of the anaerobic
process as the quantity of sludge for ultimate disposal is reduced. This is a result of
conversion of volatile solids present, to the high energy level end products such as methane,
carbon dioxide and water. Methane has a definite economic value as a fuel, and it is used as
a source of energy for both heat and power in many installations.
Another major advantage is the loading potential. Aerobic processes are restricted in
maximum organic loading rate by the inability to transfer oxygen at the rate sufficient to
satisfy the oxygen demand of the systems. Such limitation in organic loading rate is not there
for anaerobic processes. The stabilized sludge from anaerobic process may be free from
strong or foul odours and can be used for land application as ultimate disposal because the
digested sludge contains sufficient nutrients required for plants. Pathogens are also destroyed
to a high degree during the thermophilic anaerobic process. Due to large retention time and
consequent low growth rate, the cell yield is also extremely low; thus, most of the carbon in
the waste is available for methanogenesis and under normal circumstances the yield of
methane would, on an average, be 0.33 0.36 m3 per kg COD utilized at 35oC and
atmospheric pressure.
However, anaerobic treatment processes are not largely being implemented, because of many
factors. Anaerobic microorganisms, especially methanogens have slow growth rate. At lower
HRTs, the possibility of washout of biomass is more prominent due to higher upflow
velocity. This makes it difficult to maintain the effective number of useful microorganisms
in the system. To maintain the population of anaerobes, large reactor volume or higher HRTs
with low upflow velocity is required. This may ultimately provide longer SRTs more than 40
days for high rate systems. Thus, provision of larger reactor volume or higher HRTs
ultimately leads to higher capital cost. Low synthesis / reaction rate hence, long start-up
periods and difficulty in recovery from upset conditions are some of the notable
disadvantages. Special attention is therefore required towards controlling the factors that
affect process adversely; importantly among them being environmental factors such as,
temperature, pH, and concentration of toxic substances. Hence, skill supervision is required
for operating anaerobic reactor at optimal performance.
1 | Page
(Contd.)

2 | Page
21.6 Anaerobic Waste Treatment Processes

Advantage of anaerobic waste treatment systems as means for recovery of non-conventional
energy is increasingly being recognized worldwide. Anaerobic decomposition is a
biologically mediated process, indigenous to nature, and capable of being simulated for
treating wastes emanating from municipal, agricultural, and industrial activities. Anaerobic
digestion as applied in treatment of sewage sludge and other organic wastes, represents the
controlled application of a process. Although, anaerobic digesters have traditionally been
used for many decades in the stabilization of sewage sludge, their successful and economic
employment for the treatment of liquid wastes is only a recent phenomenon, arising from the
development of new reactor designs. These concepts have led to development of various
reactors, which are capable of retaining a much higher biomass concentration than traditional
digesters. Making the sludge retention independent of the influent retention time makes this
possible. The technological approaches to allow this condition of independent sludge
retention time can be divided in to the following:
Attachment of biomass on the media (filters, fluidized systems, and RBC configurations);
Non-attached biomass concept as suspended growth process (sludge blanket reactors and
contact process with sludge recycling).
It is difficult to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each system in relation to other
concepts, as generalizations are not usually valuable in practice. Considerations such as,
purification rates, loading rates, investment cost, energy balance, space requirements,
operational costs, and specific long term experience with certain wastewaters are all
important, but they will be valued differently from industry to industry. Various anaerobic
reactor types in practice are summarized in Table 21.1.
Table 21.1 Basic Types of Reactors used in Anaerobic Process
Type of reactor Synonyms Abbreviations

Attached Biomass
Fixed Bed Fixed film, filter, submerged filter, SMAR (Submerged anaerobic
/stationary fixed bed reactor)/ ANFIL (upflow
anaerobic filter), AUF (Anaerobic
upflow filter), ADSR (Anaerobic
downflow stationary bed reactor),
AF (anaerobic filter), DSFF
(downflow stationary fixed film
reactor)

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Moving Bed Rotting discs, Rotating biological AnRBC, RBC

contactor,
Expanded bed Anaerobic attached film expanded AAFEB
bed
Fluidized bed Anaerobic Fluidized bed reactor, FBBR / IFCR (Immobilized
Carrier-assisted contact process fluidized cells reactor)/ CASBER
(Carrier-assisted sludge bed
reactor)
Non-attached Biomass
Recycled flocks, Contact process, Upflow anaerobic UASB, USB
Sludge blanket, sludge blanket reactor (UASB),
Digester Upflow sludge blanket (USB),
Clarigester type
(Reference: Henze and Harremoes, 1983)
In suspended growth systems microbial cultures are freely suspended in the reactors.
Microorganisms are suspended in the wastewater, as a single cell or as their agglomerates.
Various reactor types developed on the principles of suspended growth are discussed
hereunder. The anaerobic contact process essentially involves two phases. A contact phase,
where the raw waste is intimately mixed with a previously developed and available anaerobic
sludge culture in the reactor; and a separation phase, where the active sludge particles are
separated from the treated liquor and recycled to the contact unit. In this process, raw
wastewater is mixed with recycled sludge solids and then digested in a digestion chamber.
After digestion, the mixture is separated in a clarifier (or vacuum flotation unit), and the
supernatant is discharged as effluent. Settled sludge is then recycled to seed the incoming
waste.

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The loading rates permissible in an anaerobic waste treatment process are primarily dictated
by the sludge retention in an anaerobic reactor. The maintenance of high Sludge Retention
Time (SRT) has been the major problem in the practical application of the process, especially
for waste with Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) below about 3000 mg/L. Obviously, a
waste treatment process for low-strength wastes is an economical one if large volume of
waste can be forced through the system in a relatively short time period. For this purpose
process are required in which the biomass retention time can be controlled independently of
the wastewater flow rate. Conventional anaerobic treatment processes of the flow-through
type are therefore inadequate to treat low-strength wastes.
Advances in the understanding of how anaerobic system function, improved understanding of

mixing and mass transfer, and anaerobic reactor design, has led to the evolution of a new
generation of high-rate anaerobic processes e.g. Anaerobic Filters (AF), Anaerobic expanded
/ Fluidized bed rectors, Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor, etc. These
systems have been schematically presented in Figure 21.2 and Figure 21.3.
Figure 21.2 Typical reactor configurations used in anaerobic wastewater treatment
One common feature offered by all the high-rate processes is their ability to provide high
SRT in relation to hydraulic retention time (HRT). High biomass concentration is maintained
in a reactor with relatively low treatment time. In anaerobic filter and expanded / fluidized
beds, this is accomplished by development of bio-film on support surface. In UASB systems,

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this is accomplished by the development of granules or flocs that have extremely good
settling properties. Among the other improved high rate anaerobic treatment methods, UASB
has secured an important place.
21.6.1 Anaerobic Filter Systems

The anaerobic filter (AF) and more recent variation of the filter process, the downflow
stationary fixed film (DSFF) reactor, are packed with a fixed support media. In the DSFF
reactor, the biomass is present as a biofilm attached to the support media. In the anaerobic
filter, most of the biomass is present as suspended and/or entrapped biomass in the interstitial
pore volume of the support media. The other major difference between these reactors is the
direction of liquid flow through the packing. In the AF, the feed enters at bottom of the
reactor. In the DSFF reactor, influent is applied in downward direction from the top of the
rector. Both reactors can be used to treat either diluted or concentrated soluble wastewaters.
Because of the relatively large clearance between the channels in the vertically oriented
media used, the DSFF reactor is able to treat wastewater with relatively high suspended
solids while the AF cannot.
Because the bacteria are retained on the media and not washed off in the effluent, mean cell
residence times of the order of 100 days can be obtained. Large values of c can be achieved
with short hydraulic retention times, so the anaerobic filters can be used for the treatment of
low-strength wastewater at ambient temperature. In the AF, most of the biological activity is
due to the biomass in suspension (entrapped) rather than to the attached biofilm. The media
with a high capacity to entrap and prevent washout of the biomass from the reactor is more
important than the specific surface area (surface area to volume ratio) of the media. The
biofilm thickness of 1 to 3 mm has been observed in fixed-bed reactor.
In the DSFF reactor systems, virtually all of the active biomass is attached to the support
media. Different types of support media such as needle punched polyester (NPP) and red
drain tile clay, PVC or glass can be used. For NPP, this attachment is probably associated
with its surface roughness. The leaching of minerals from the clay could potentially
stimulate bacterial activity and adhesion to this media support.
Selection of proper inoculum source is important to obtain rapid reactor start-up and
minimize the time required for the initial biofilm establishment. Usually a bacterial flora

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adapted to the target wastewater should be used. In general, the volume of inoculum used
should at least 10% (v/v) to obtained good result. During the start-up period the initial
specific load applied should be maintained at levels less than 0.3 kg COD /kg VSS.d and
HRT greater than 1 day should be maintained to prevent wash out of the inoculated biomass.
Typical organic loading rates generally between 1.0 and 10 kg COD /m3.d can be applied
with 75 85 % removal efficiency. The hydraulic retention time is generally kept in the
range of 18 to 24 h, but lower HRT values can also give fairly good removal efficiency
depending on the type of organic matter present in the wastewater.
21.6.2 Expanded Bed Process

In the expanded bed process, the wastewater to be treated is pumped upward through a bed of
appropriate medium (e.g. sand, coal, expanded aggregate, plastic media) on which a
biological growth has been developed. Effluent is recycled to dilute the incoming wastewater
and to provide an adequate flow to maintain the bed in an expanded condition. Biomass
concentrations exceeding 15,000 to 40,000 mg/L can be developed. Since more biomass can
be maintained, the expanded bed process can also be used for the treatment of low strength
wastewater, such as municipal sewage, at very short hydraulic retention times. Organic
loading in the range of 5 to 10 kg COD / m3.d can be applied with COD removal efficiency of
80 to 85 %. The hydraulic retention time generally will be in the range of 5 to 10 hours.
21.6.3 Anaerobic Contact Process

The essential feature of the anaerobic contact process is that the washout of the active
anaerobic bacterial mass from the reactor is controlled by a sludge separation and recycles
system. The major problem in the practical application of the contact process has always been
the separation (and concentration) of the sludge from the effluent solution. For this purpose
several methods have been used or were recommended for use, e.g. plain sedimentation,
settling combined with chemical flocculation, with vacuum degasification, floatation and
centrifugation. A basic idea underlying the contact process is that it is considered necessary
to thoroughly mix the digester contents e.g., by gas recirculation, sludge recirculation, or
continuous or intermittent mechanical agitation. This is generally used for concentrated
wastewater treatment such as distillery wastewater.
21.6.4 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor

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It is somewhat modified version of the contact process, based on an upward movement of the
liquid waste through a dense blanket of anaerobic sludge. No inert medium is provided in
these systems. The biomass growth takes place on the fine sludge particles, which then
develop as sludge granules of high specific gravity.
The reactor can be divided in three parts (Figure 21.3), sludge bed, sludge blanket and three
phase separator (gas-liquid-solid, GLS separator) provided at the top of the reactor. The
sludge bed consists of high concentration of active anaerobic bacteria (40 100 g/L) and it
occupies about 40 to 60% of reactor volume. Majority of organic matter degradation (> 95%)
takes place in this zone. The sludge consists of biologically formed granules or thick
flocculent sludge. Treatment occurs as the wastewater comes in contact with the granules
and/or thick flocculent sludge. The gases produced causes internal mixing in the reactor.
Some of the gas produced within the sludge bed gets attached to the biological granules. The
free gas and the particles with the attached gas rise to the top of the reactor. On the top of
sludge bed and below GLS separator, thin concentration of sludge is maintained, which is
called as sludge blanket. This zone occupies 15 to 25% of reactor volume. Maintaining
sludge blanket zone is important to dilute and further treat the wastewater stream that has
bypassed the sludge bed portion following the rising biogas. The GLS separator occupies
about 20 to 30% of the reactor volume. The particles that raise to the liquid surface strike the
bottom of the degassing baffles, which causes the attached gas bubbles to be released. The
degassed granules typically drop back to the surface of the sludge bed. The free gas and gas
released from the granules is captured in the gas collection domes located at the top of the
reactor. Liquid containing some residual solids and biological granules passes into a settling
chamber, where the residual solids are separated from the liquid. The separated solids fall
back through the baffle system to the top of the sludge blanket.

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Figure 21.3 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor

The granular biomass from the existing UASB reactor can be used as inoculum material to
start-up new UASB reactor. When such material is not available, non-granular material such
as anaerobic digested sludge, waste activated sludge and cow dung manure can be used as
inoculum. Granular sludge can be developed using non-granular material for inoculation.
Although, there are reports of wastewaters containing high-suspended solids being

successfully treated in UASB reactors without primary sedimentation, the separation of
suspended solids is still suggested, especially for reactors having non-granular configuration.
Pretreatment such as sedimentation, neutralization of wastewater is normally desirable in
treating waste in UASB reactor. Organic loading in the range of 1-20 kg COD /m3.d can be
applied with removal efficiency of 75 to 85 % and HRT of 4 to 24 h.
21.6.5 Modification of the Anaerobic Process

The efficient removal of organic matter from sewage can be accomplished by using
conventional UASB reactor at mesophilic temperature i.e. temperature exceeding about 20
o
C. For suitability of anaerobic process for wastewater treatment at lower temperature and for
low strength wastewater some modification in reactor is necessary. It is possible to give
treatment at lower temperature and at low strength with certain modification in conventional

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UASB reactor. The modification like Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) reactor and
UASB hybrid reactors are discussed below.
21.6.5.1 The EGSB reactor

The sludge present inside the UASB reactor can be either flocculent or granular form. The
sludge in granular form (size 1 5 mm) exhibits distinct advantages over flocculent sludge
form. The granular form of sludge offers maximum microorganism to space ratio due to high
density, it has high settling velocity, high methanogenic activity, and excellent mechanical
strength. The granular sludge form develops mainly on soluble type of wastewaters. The
formation of the granules is mainly dependent on operating conditions inside rector and the
characteristics of the wastewater to be treated [Ghangrekar et.al., 1996]. So far, granulation
has not been reported in any of the existing full-scale UASB reactor treating sewage.
Granulation of biomass is reported in the laboratory scale and pilot scale UASB reactor when
appropriate mixing conditions are maintained in the reactor [Bhunia and Ghangrekar, 2010].
In all cases, although flocculent sludge configuration is reported while treating raw sewage,
excellent BOD and TSS removal efficiencies can be achieved.
In EGSB reactor very high upflow velocity is maintained to keep sludge bed biomass in
expanded form. It was reported that, the EGSB reactor was efficient in removal of the soluble
organic matter even at low temperature [Handel and Lettinga, 1994]. This can be attributed
to the intensive contact between the incoming organic matter and sludge granules as a result
of high upflow velocity (6-12 m/h), against less than 1 m/h in conventional UASB reactor.
The EGSB reactors are useful for treatment of wastewater, particularly at low temperature
and relatively low strength wastewater, when the production rate of biogas and consequently
the mixing intensity induced by it are relatively low. Under these conditions the higher
kinetic energy content of the influent and extended height of the expanded granular bed
contribute to better performance compared with conventional UASB reactors. The EGSB
reactor is inadequate for removal of particulate organic matter due to high upflow liquid
velocity used.
21.6.5.2 UASB hybrid reactor

In this reactor instead of GLS separator a filter or plate settler is provided at the top of UASB
reactor. Improved reactor performance can be obtained with this modification with improved
sludge retention in the reactor. This reactor is taller than the UASB reactor.

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21.6.5.3 Anaerobic baffle reactor

This reactor consists of 3 to 5 chambers and wastewater is allowed to flow upward direction
in each compartment or upflow and downflow mode in alternate compartments. This reactor
can give reliable treatment efficiency particularly for the treatment of low strength
wastewater containing particulate organic matter.
21.7 Application of UASB Reactor for Wastewater Treatment
21.7.1 Suitable Wastewater Characteristics
Granulation of biomass is indicative of successful operation of UASB reactor. Although,

acceptable efficiency from the reactor can be obtained when sludge is in flocculent form,
existence of granulation sludge configuration offers distinct advantages. The composition of
wastewater plays an important role in granulation process. Substrates that support granulation
are carbohydrates or proteins mainly in soluble, and possibly in colloidal form. Industrial
wastewaters from sugar industry, breweries, apple juice, yeast factory, and grape wine satisfy
this criterion and give granulation in UASB reactor.
For wastewater containing mainly proteins, granulation proceeds satisfactory; but problems
may arise from foaming and protein precipitation under conditions of overloading or low pH
less than 6.0 [Souza, 1986]. More importantly, they release ammonia upon degradation,
which may exert an inhibition effect on microbial activities. High SS concentration in
influent can adversely affect granulation and performance of the reactor. The influent SS
concentration shall be less than 1 g/L and SS to COD ratio shall be less than 0.5 for
successful operation of the reactor [Souza, 1986].
For wastewater that contains substrates, which do not yield hydrogen in the fermentation
process (short chain fatty acids), granulation will not takes place. No granulation in the
UASB reactor was reported for acetate only as substrate. For the waste where H2 generated
is preferentially utilized by other organisms such as sulphate reducers, granulation is limited
because of reduced amount of H2 available to the hydrogenotrophic methanogens e.g., paper
pulping waste. However, the granular yield does not reduce to zero even when SO4
supplementation is in excess [Russo and Dold, 1989].

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Typical industries where UASB reactors are reported to be most successful for wastewater
treatment are beet sugar, cane sugar, starch, breweries, dairy, tannery, food processing
industries and paper and pulp. This process is also proved to be feasible for the treatment of
domestic wastewater. The feasibility of this process has already been proved for this
wastewater in wide COD range, from 500 to above 10,000 mg/L. The treatment is feasible
under both mesophilic and thermophilic conditions but temperature above 15 0C is essential
for proper treatment [Bogte et. al., 1993]. When wastewater is mostly in biodegradable form
and COD is in the range of 1000 to 5000 mg/L, efficiency of COD removal of 85 to 90% can
easily be achieved, with short HRT of 6 to 12 h. When the wastewater is complex, or COD is
lower or higher than the above mentioned range, COD removal efficiency of 60 to 80 % can
still be achieved. Once, the proper start-up of the reactor is achieved with generation of good
quality of granular sludge, having good settling characteristics and activity, very high
Organic Loading Rates (OLR) greater than 20 kg COD/m3.d can be applied.
21.7.2 Modes of Operation
UASB reactor is successful for industries listed earlier, where the wastewater coming out of
the industry is being continuously treated. It is also successful for wastewater treatment when
mode of operation is intermittent. For example, in the case of dairy wastewater treatment, the
wastewater is generated only for few hours a day, and not continuously. The process is
reported to perform well even under such intermittent mode of operation. Also, this has been
experienced that [Ghangrekar, 1997] the intermittent operation is useful during initial days of
operation to overcome problem of sludge buoying due to poor quality of inoculum used. In
case where excessive volatile acids production occurs in UASB reactor, reducing pH lower
than 6.5, intermittent mode of operation could be resorted to reduce volatile acids
concentration and increase pH in the reactor.
UASB reactor is also applicable for the treatment of wastewater from the industries, which
are seasonal in origin, like food processing industries. Once, the primary start-up of the
reactor is over, with development of good quality of granular sludge, the shutdown of the
reactor is possible when the season is over. The reactor put into operation in new season takes
very less time (1 to 2 weeks) for this secondary start-up, to restore its COD removal
efficiency [Ghangrekar, 1997]. For short duration of shut down less than a month reactor can
capture its original COD removal efficiency within a week.

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21.7.3 Treatment Flow Sheet

The typical flow chart required for UASB type wastewater treatment plant is as follows:
1. Screening,
2. Grit removal (Optional),
3. Skimming Tank,
4. Pumping,
5. UASB reactor,
6. Gas collection system,
7. Post-treatment such as aerobic processes or settling tank, depending on the disposal
mode of effluent, and
8. Sludge drying beds.
The provision of screens and grit chamber is necessary for the treatment of municipal
wastewater as required in conventional wastewater treatment plants. For certain industrial
wastewaters provision of screens and grit chamber may not be necessary. When the
wastewater contains floating matter such as, oil, grease, soap, pieces of cork and wood,
vegetable debris and fruit skins, it is advantageous to have a skimming tank to remove these
materials. The presence of oil and grease, if gets adsorbed on the sludge surface, can hinder
transport of metabolites and mass transfer, ultimately causing reduction in process efficiency.
This may be accomplished in a separate tank or can be combined with primary sedimentation
when wastewater also has high suspended solids of inorganic origin.
After the primary treatment, it is required to provide pumping unit to pump the wastewater in
upward direction in UASB reactor. Location at which topography of the site suits for
utilization of gravity head, choosing appropriate site for UASB reactor may not require
pumping. The separate gas collection system can be provided if the gas produced is desired
to use for combustion or power generation. Generally, the production of gas in UASB
reactor is in the range of 0.25 to 0.35 m3 CH4/kg COD removed. The utilization of biogas for
power generation is economical for larger treatment plants.
21.7.4 Post Treatment

The UASB reactor is an efficient process for removal of organic material and suspended

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solids from sewage or industrial effluents. Particularly, this process is more attractive for
treatment of sewage in warm climate. However, the UASB reactor can hardly remove
macronutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous), and pathogenic microorganisms are only
partially removed. Hence, depending on the final disposal of the effluent quality, post-
treatment may be required for removal of suspended solids, organic matter, nutrients, and
pathogens present in the raw wastewaters.
After UASB reactor, some form of post treatment is generally desirable depending upon
source of effluent discharge. UASB reactor can hardly remove any nitrogen from the
wastewater. Hence, effluent from UASB reactor is suitable for irrigation purposes. UASB
reactor when followed by post treatment such as aeration and/or sedimentation could
conveniently achieve irrigation standards. The aeration can be obtained to the effluent
flowing through a channel to an irrigation area. Where, the treatment efficiency is adequate
to meet the discharge standards, further treatment such as, aeration is only necessary to
destroy anaerobicity. In such cases simple cascade type aerator can serve the purpose. In
some cases where treatment efficiency is meeting the discharge standards for organic matter
but the effluent is high in suspended solids, the use of secondary settling tank becomes
essential.
When stricter effluent standards have to be met (as for river discharge) some better form of
post-treatment may become necessary. The use of aerobic biological treatment is generally
preferred for this polishing treatment. The aerobic process such as, biotowers, conventional
activated sludge process, or extended aeration can be employed as a second stage treatment.
Where the effluent from UASB reactor is expected to be high in nutrient such as nitrogen and
phosphorous, the post treatment need to be designed for removal of these nutrients to meet
discharge standards for surface water. Shallow oxidation ponds can also be used after UASB
reactor for complete treatment of wastewater.

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(Contd.)

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21.8 Design Procedure for UASB Reactor

The UASB reactor can be designed as circular or rectangular. Modular design can be
preferred when the volume of reactor exceeds about 400 m3. It is necessary to select proper
range of operating parameters for design, such as OLR, SLR, superficial liquid upflow velocity
(referred as liquid upflow velocity), and HRT. The literature recommendations for all these
parameters and design procedure to account these recommendations are given below.
21.8.1 Organic Concentration and Loading

For COD concentration in the range 2 to 5 g/L, the performance of the reactor depends upon
the loading rate and is independent of influent substrate concentration. For COD
concentration greater than 5 g/L, it is recommended to dilute the wastewater to about 2 g
COD/ L during primary start-up of the reactor. Once, the primary start-up of the reactor is
over with granulation of sludge, loading rates can be increased in steps to bring the actual
COD concentration of the wastewater. The loading above 1 - 2 kg COD/ m3.d is essential for
proper functioning of the reactor. For primary start-up the optimal loading rates for getting
high COD removal efficiency (about 90%) within short start-up time, coupled with generation
of good quality granular sludge, are OLR between 2.0 and 3.6 kg COD/ m3.d and SLR between
0.15 and 0.25 kg COD/ kg VSS.d (Ghangrekar et al., 1996). The OLR to be used for design of
UASB reactor for different temperature is provided by Lettinga and Hulshoff (1991). In
general, for temperature between 15 and 350C, the reactor can be designed for loading
between 1.5 to 18 kg COD/ m3.d. Lower OLR should be preferred for low temperature and
higher OLR can be adopted for high temperature.
For sewage treatment, the design of reactor at higher loading rate is not possible due to
limitations of upflow velocity, and maximum loading of about 2 to 3 kg COD/m3.d can be
adopted for design. Similarly, for high strength wastewater, such as distillery, satisfying
minimum velocity criteria and maximum HRT limit is difficult. Therefore, categorization of
wastewater based on COD concentration is necessary for generalizing the design procedure
of UASB reactor to meet the recommended operating conditions to the maximum extent.
Thus, the COD concentration of the wastewater is suitably divided in four categories. It has
been proposed to adopt loading conditions as recommended in the Table 21.2, for design of
UASB reactor depending on the average COD concentration of the raw wastewater. These
loading rates recommended are suitable for temperature about 30oC. For higher temperature,

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the loading rates can be slightly increased and for low temperature these design loading rates
can be reduced.
Table 21.2 Recommended loading range for design of UASB reactor based on COD
concentration at average flow
Category of COD OLR, SLR, HRT, Liquid Expected

wastewater concentration, Kg COD/ Kg COD/ Hours Upflow Efficiency,
mg/L m3.d kg VSS.d Velocity, m/h %
Low strength Up to 750 1.0 - 3.0 0.1 - 0.3 6 18 0.25 0.7 70 75
Medium strength 750 3000 2.0 5.0 0.2 0.5 6 24 0.25 0.7 80 90
High strength 3000 10,000 5.0 10.0 0.2 0.6 6 24 0.15 0.7 75 85
Very high strength > 10,000 5.0 15.0 0.2 1.0 > 24 --- 65 75
(Source: Ghangrekar et al., 2003)
21.8.2 Reactor Volume

Based on the higher suitable value of OLR, for given COD concentration, the volume of
reactor required is to be worked out as:
Volume = (Flow Rate x COD concentration) / OLR ... (2)
For the suitable SLR values for that COD range (Table 21.2), the volume of sludge required
can be worked out considering the average concentration of VSS between 25 and 35 g/L for
medium and high strength wastewater, and 15 to 25 g/L for low strength wastewater. This
volume of sludge should be less than 50% of the reactor volume, worked out based on OLR,
to avoid overloading of the reactor with respect to SLR. If the volume is not meeting the
requirements, the OLR can be reduced to increase the volume. The volume of the reactor is
thus, finalized to meet both the requirements. For this volume, the HRT should not be
allowed to be less than 6 h for any type of wastewater and generally, it should be less than 18
h to reduce volume and hence, cost of the reactor. For very high strength of the wastewater,
COD greater than 10,000 mg/L, it may not be possible to meet this requirement, hence, under
such situation the HRT may be allowed to exceed even 24 h and as high as 200 h.
21.8.3 Superficial Liquid Upflow Velocity

Higher upflow velocities, favors better selective process for the sludge and improve mixing in
the reactor. However, at very high upflow velocity, greater than 1.0 to 1.5 m/h, the inoculum
may get washed out during start-up or during normal operation granules may get
disintegrated, and the resulting fragments can easily wash out of the reactor. The maximum

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liquid upflow velocity allowed in design should not exceed 1.2 1.5 m/h. Upflow velocities
as 0.25 to 0.8 m/h are favorable for granule growth and accumulation, during normal
operation of the reactor and maximum upflow velocity up to 1.5 m/h at peak flow conditions
for short duration can be used in design.
21.8.4 Reactor Height and Area

The reactor should be as tall as possible to reduce plan area and to reduce cost of land, GLS
device, and influent distribution arrangement. The height should be sufficient to provide enough
sludge bed height to avoid channelling and to keep liquid upflow velocity within maximum
permissible limits. In order to minimise channelling the minimum height of the sludge bed
should be about 1.5 to 2.5 m. For this reason, the minimum height of the reactor should be
restricted to 4.0 m, to conveniently accommodate sludge bed, sludge blanket and GLS separator.
The maximum height of the reactor can be about 8 m. The height of the reactor adopted in
practice is usually between 4.5 and 8 m and 6 m is the typical height used for UASB reactors.
16
While designing, initially suitable height of the reactor (about 6m) can be chosen, and
superficial liquid upflow velocity is to be worked out as height/ HRT. It is recommended to
adopt upflow velocity of 0.7 m/h at average flow and 1.0 m/h to 1.2 m/h at peak flow.
Accordingly, if the upflow velocity exceeds the maximum limits height of the reactor can be
reduced in steps up to minimum of 4 to 4.5 m. If this is not possible in the applicable range
of height, HRT shall be modified and fresh reactor volume and OLR shall be worked out. For
low strength wastewater, the maximum liquid upflow velocity becomes limiting and for very
high strength wastewater very low velocity (less than 0.1 m/h) is required while designing the
UASB reactor. Under certain situations, the revised OLR may be less than the initial OLR
recommended. It is advisable to allow lowering of OLR in such situations to control upflow
velocity in the reactor for proper performance of the reactor.
After these iterations for volume and height, the plan area can be worked out and suitable
dimensions of the reactor can be adopted. Generally, the maximum diameter or side length of
single reactor should be kept less than 20 m. Before finalizing the dimensions of the reactors,
it is necessary to consider the dimensions required for GLS separator, because to
accommodate the GLS separator meeting all requirements, it may be necessary to alter height
and plan area of the reactor.
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21.8.5 Gas-Liquid-Solid (GLS) Separator

In order to achieve highest possible sludge hold-up under operational conditions, it is
necessary to equip the UASB reactor with a GLS separator device. The main objective of
this design is to facilitate the sludge return without help of any external energy and control
device. The guidelines for shapes and design of GLS separator are given by Lettinga and
Hulshoff (1991). The GLS should be designed to meet the requirements such as, provision of
enough gas-water interface inside the gas dome, sufficient settling area outside the dome to
control surface overflow rate; and sufficient aperture opening at bottom to avoid turbulence
due to high inlet velocity of liquid in the settler, and to allow proper return of solid back to
the reactor. Due attention has to be paid to the geometry of the unit and its hydraulics, to
ensure proper working of the GLS separator.
Design of GLS separator: The shape of the GLS device considered in design is presented in
Figure 21.4. The gas-water interface inside the dome is considered at the depth h from top
of the dome. In the beginning, the height of GLS separator can be considered as 25% of the
total reactor height. For estimating initially the number of domes required the angle of dome
with horizontal can be assumed as 45o, and base width of dome (Wb) can be calculated as
2(h+h)/ tan . The h is to be calculated as (Wt/2) tan , and initially the top width (Wt) can
be considered as 0.2 to 0.3 m. The number of domes required for given diameter (or width for
rectangular reactor) can be calculated by dividing width or diameter by WB, and rounding this
number. Where, WB=Wb+Wa, and Wa can be considered as 0.2 m initially. After deciding
the number of domes, the flow rate shared by each dome, is to be estimated in proportion to
the base area of each dome, including aperture width, to the total area of the reactor.
Aperture width at bottom of gas dome: The area of aperture (Ap) required can be computed
based on the maximum inlet velocity of liquid to be allowed. This area can be estimated as
flow rate per dome for rectangular reactor (or central dome in case of circular) divided by
maximum velocity to be allowed. The maximum inlet velocity of 3 m/h is safe for medium
and high strength wastewater and for low strength wastewater lower inlet velocity should be
preferred. The width of aperture (Wa) is to be calculated as aperture area divided by length
(or in case of circular reactor by diameter) of the reactor. It is recommended to use minimum

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aperture width of 0.2 m and if the width required is greater than 0.5 m, then increase the
number of dome by one and repeat earlier steps till it is less than 0.5 m.
Figure 21.4. Details of the Gas-Liquid-Solid (GLS) Separator
Width at gas-water interface: The gas production expected in the reactor can be estimated
based on the OLR selected for the design and expected COD removal efficiency in the range
70 to 90 percent. The methane production can be estimated as 0.35 m3 /kg COD removed at
ambient temperature and methane content of 70% in biogas. From this gas production the
biogas collection per dome is to be worked out in proportion with percentage of area covered
by the dome. The biogas loading at gas-water interface can be calculated as gas collection
per dome divided by product of top width of gas collector (Wt) and length of the gas collector
dome. The loading of biogas at gas-water interface should be kept less than 80 m3 gas/ m2.d
(about 3 m/h) (Ghangrekar et al., 2003). Initially the top width can be assumed as 0.3 m and
for this width if the biogas loading is less than 3.0 m/h then adopt 0.3 m as top width. If the
biogas loading is greater than 3.0 m/h, calculate the top width required. Generally, top width
of 0.3 to 0.7 m can be adopted in design with maximum of 1.0 m. When even with maximum
top width, if biogas loading is greater than 3.0 m/h reduce the height of GLS separation
device to 20% and repeat the earlier steps of GLS separator design, with fresh number of
domes. Even with reduction in height of GLS separator if these checks are not satisfying,
provide additional layer of gas collector dome. When two or more layer of gas collectors are
used the height of each layer can be 15 to 20% of the overall reactor height, with minimum
height of each layer as 1.2 m and maximum up to 1.5 to 2.0 m. The fresh biogas collection
per dome is to be worked out and further steps are repeated until all design conditions are
satisfied.

7 | Page
Check for Surface overflow rate: The width of the water surface (Ws) available for settling
of solids for each gas dome, at top of the reactor, can be calculated as difference of base
width of dome (WB = Wb + Wa) and Wt. The corresponding surface overflow rate is
calculated as hydraulic flow rate per dome divided by product of length (or diameter) and
Ws. It is recommended that the surface overflow rate for effective settling of solids back to
the reactor should be less than 20 m3/m2.d at average flow and should be less than 36 m3/m2.d
under peak flow conditions. If the calculated surface overflow rate is meeting these criteria
the design of the GLS separator is final. When it is exceeding the limits recommended, it is
advisable to reduce the height of the reactor, thus, for same volume of the reactor more plan
area will be available. When the height of the reactor is reduced all earlier steps for design of
GLS separator should be repeated to satisfy all design criterions. The minimum height of the
reactor should be restricted to 4.0 m (preferably 4.5 m). Once, all the design criteria are
satisfied the angle of inclination of the gas collector dome with horizontal () can be
calculated as = tan-1[ 2h/ (Wb Wt)].
Baffle of sufficient overlap (0.1 to 0.2 m) should be provided below the gas collector in order
to avoid entry of biogas in the settling compartment. The diameter of the gas exhaust pipes
should be sufficient to guarantee easy removal of the biogas from the gas collection cap,
particularly in case of foaming. Generally, lower reactor height is required for UASB reactor
treating sewage. Under certain situation, particularly for very low strength of wastewater,
even with reduction of height to the minimum may not meet all design requirements. In such
cases the OLR adopted for design can be reduced to provide greater volume of the reactor
and hence more plan area to meet the entire design criterion.
21.8.6 Effluent Collection System

The effluent has to leave the UASB reactor via number of launders distributed over entire
area discharging to main launder provided at periphery of the reactor. The effluent launders
can be designed in such a way that the weir loading (m3/m.d) should not exceed the design
criteria of secondary settling tank (i.e.185 m3/m.d). The width of the launders may be
minimum 0.20 m to facilitate maintenance. The depth of the launder can be worked out as
open channel flow. Additional depth of 0.10 to 0.15 m shall be provided to facilitate free
flow. On both sides of the launders V notches shall be used. When effluent launders are

8 | Page
provided with scum baffles, the V notches will be protected from clogging as the baffles
retain the floating materials. A scum layer may form at the top of reactor and sludge
accumulation can occur in the launder hence, periodical cleaning of launders and removal of
scum should be carried out.
21.8.7 Design of Feed Inlet System

It is important to establish optimum contact between the sludge available inside the reactor
and wastewater admitted, and to avoid channeling of the wastewater through sludge bed.
Hence, proper design of inlet distribution system is necessary. Depending on topography,
pumping arrangement, and likelihood blocking of inlet pipes, one could provide either (i)
gravity feed from top (preferred for wastewater with high suspended fraction), or (ii) pumped
feed from bottom through manifold and laterals (preferred in case of soluble industrial
wastewaters). The rough guidelines for the number of feed inlet points required in UASB
reactor is presented by Lettinga and Hulshoff (1991) for different concentration of the sludge
inside the reactor and applicable loading rates. In general, the area to be served by each feed
inlet point should be between 1 and 3 m2. Lower area per inlet point (1 m2) is to be adopted
for reactor designed for OLR of about 1 kg COD/m3.d, and higher area (2 to 3 m2) per inlet
point can be provided to the reactor designed for OLR greater than 2 kg COD/m3.d. Apart
from the number of feed inlet points, the minimum and maximum outflow velocity through
the nozzles should also be given due consideration while designing. This outflow velocity
through nozzles can be kept between 0.5 and 4.0 m/s. The equation of condition for
maximum power transfer through nozzle can be used for working out nozzle or inlet pipes
diameter. The clogging of the nozzles may represent serious problem resulting in uneven
distribution of the wastewater over reactor bottom, particularly when treating partially soluble
wastewater. Hence, arrangements should be made for cleaning or flushing the inlet system.
21.8.8 Other Requirements

It is necessary to keep provision for removal of excess sludge from the reactor. Although, the
excess sludge is wasted from about middle height of the reactor, it is also necessary to make
arrangement at bottom of the reactor. In addition, 5 to 6 numbers of valves should be
provided over reactor height to facilitate sampling of the sludge. For treating high strength

9 | Page
wastewater it is recommended to apply effluent recycle, in order to dilute COD concentration

and to improve contact between sludge and wastewater. For treating wastewater with COD
concentration greater than 4 - 5 g/L, it is recommended to apply dilution during start-up, for
proper granulation of sludge inside UASB reactor. Auxiliary equipment has to be installed
for addition of essential nutrients, and alkalinity for control of pH of the influent. The other
equipments to be provided are for measurement of pH, temperature, influent flow rate, and
gas production rate.
Example: 1
Design an UASB reactor for treatment of 4 MLD sewage having BOD of 200 mg/L and COD
of 500 mg/L. The average minimum temperature of wastewater in winter is about 20 oC and
maximum temperature in summer is 35 oC. The wastewater contains 80 mg/L sulphate.
Solution
Reactor Volume (V)
Range for HRT is 6 to 18 h
V = Q x HRT
Provide HRT of 8 h
V = 4 x 103 x x8
= 1333.33 m3
Check for OLR
Range for OLR = 1 to 3 kg COD/ m3.day

flow per reactor X COD
OLR =
volume of each reactor

=
.
= 1.5 kg COD/ m3.day
Check for SLR
Range for SLR = 0.1 to 0.3 kg COD/kg VSS/day

10 | P a g e
flow per reactor X COD

SLR =
volume of sludge x VSS in reactor
Volume occupied by sludge bed should be about 50% of reactor volume
Assume VSS in reactor sludge = 25 g/l

SLR =
. .
= 0.12 kg COD/kg VSS.day
Check for MCRT
Range for MCRT = 40 - 100 days

mass of inoculum sludge
MCRT =
mass of sludge wasted per day
Assume sludge in effluent to be 100 mg/L

. .
=

= 41.67 days
Height of the reactor
Let us provide height of the reactor H = 4.5 m.
Check for upflow velocity
Upflow velocity = H/HRT = 4.5/8 = 0.562 m/h (less than 0.7 m/h)
Area of the reactor

volume of reactor
A=
height of reactor
1333.33
= = 296.296 m2
4.5
Provide length of the reactor L = 19 m, hence width B = 15.6 m
Design of GLS separator
Height of dome = 0.25 x ht. of reactor
= 0.25 x 4.5
= 1.125 m
Provide 1.20 m height of the dome and 0.3 m free board above the water surface for gas
collection.
11 | P a g e
Provide max liquid velocity at aperture i.e. inlet of the settler = 3 m/h
4000
Area of opening at inlet of settler =
3 x 24
= 55.56 m2
Area of opening
Total width of opening required =
width of reactor
55.56
= = 3.56 m
15.6
Provide width of each gap = 0.4 m

3.56
No of gaps = = 8.9 say 9, provide 9 number of domes which will make 8 openings in the
0.4
middle of the domes and two opening along the side wall.
Width of each aperture opening will be 0.395 m and along the wall it will be 0.198 m.
Hence provide deflector beam of 0.59 m below the aperture opening and 0.3 m base width
Provide 0.3 m width at top of the dome
Total width of base of domes = length width of each gap x no. of gaps top width x no. of
domes
= 19 0.395 x 9 0.3 x 9
= 12.745 m
12.745
Width of base of each dome = = 1.416 m
9
1.2
Angle of inclination = tan-1 ( ) = 64.980
0.71 0.15
Gas production
Methane production in litres = 1.28 x T (0K) per kg of COD removed
= 1.28 x (273+30) per kg of COD removed
= 387.84 L per kg of COD removed
Let the COD removal efficiency of the system be 75%.
Hence, kg of COD removed = flow per reactor x COD x 0.75

12 | P a g e
3 -3
= 4 x 10 x 500 x 10 x 0.75 day
= 1500 kg/day
The total COD removed in the reactor = 1500 kg/day
But not all the organic matter present in the influent is carbonaceous. The influent also
consists of sulphates which are reduced to sulphides and consume about 0.67 kg of COD per
kg of sulphate
SO42- S2-
Assuming sulphate removal of 80%, the total sulphate reduction
= 0.8 x 4000 x 80 x 10-3
= 256 kg/day
COD consumed in sulphate reduction = 256 x 0.67 = 171.52 kg/day
Hence COD available for methane production = 1500 171.52 = 1328.48 kg/day
Also some portion of biogas will remain in soluble form in the reactor effluent due to high
partial pressure of biogas inside the reactor. Typically about 16 mg/L of methane will be lost
along with the effluent.
Methane that can be collected = 1328.48 x 0.38 4000 x 16 x 10-3 = 440.822 m3/day
Also gas collection efficiency of the domes will be about 85 to 90%, hence actually methane
collected at 85% efficiency will be = 374.69 m3/day
Check for biogas loading at gas-water interface

. .
Total biogas produced assuming methane content to be 70% = = 721 m3/day.
.
Max gas loading rate = 3 m3/m2/h

Area required =

= 10 m2

Total top width =


13 | P a g e
= = 0.64 m. Hence, the width required for each dome = 0.07 m which is less
.
than 0.3 m provided.
Check for surface overflow rate (SOR)

Width available in the settling compartment i.e. outside the domes
= (19 0.3*9) = 16.3
Hence, SOR = 4000/(16.3*15.6) = 15.73 m3/m2.d (Less than 20 m3/m2.d )

14 | P a g e
Questions
1. Explain the reaction sequence involved in the anaerobic treatment of wastewater.
2. Describe different types of bacteria and their role in anaerobic degradation of organic
matter to final end product.
3. Discuss the factors that can affect the anaerobic reactor performance adversely.
4. Describe advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic treatment of liquid waste.
5. Describe different types of reactors used for anaerobic treatment of wastewaters.
6. What is high rate anaerobic process? Name different high rate anaerobic reactors.
7. Explain different types of filters used in anaerobic treatment.
8. With the help of schematic explain UASB reactor and its working.
9. What is GLS separator? What are the design guidelines for GLS separator?
10. Describe advantages of sludge granulation in UASB reactor.
11. Why post treatment is necessary for anaerobic reactor effluents? What post treatment
you will recommend after treatment of sewage in UASB reactor?
12. Describe organic loading rates used for design of UASB reactor. How reactor height
is important for proper functioning of UASB reactor?
13. Design a UASB reactor for treatment of 2 MLD of sewage having COD of 500 mg/L
and BOD of 250 mg/L. Make suitable assumptions for the design.
Answer
Q. 13.
Assume HRT = 8 hr
Volume required = 666.67 m3; provide 2 reactors of height of 5.6 m and L x W = 10 x 6 m.

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Module 22 : Sludge Management
Lecture 36 : Sludge Management

2|Page
22.1 Introduction
In the context of wastewater treatment residual is used to refer sludge. The term sludge refers
to the solids that are settled and separated during wastewater treatment. It is necessary to treat
properly or dispose the sludge generated during the various stages of wastewater treatment like
primary sedimentation, secondary sedimentation and sludge generated from advanced (tertiary)
treatment, if any. The quantity of sludge generated depends upon the degree of treatment or
quality of treated effluent required i.e., higher the degree of wastewater treatment, the larger the
quantity of sludge to be treated and handled. Because of strict rules and regulations involving the
handling and disposal of sludge, it has become necessary to reduce the volume of sludge in order
to reduce the operating costs (approximately 50% of the plant cost) of treatment plants. Hence a
properly designed and efficiently operated sludge processing and disposal system is essential to
the overall success of the wastewater treatment plant. The sludge generated during the
wastewater treatment can be classified into three categories:
Primary Sludge: Sludge settled in primary settling tanks comes under this category which
contains 3% to 7% solids out of which approximately 60% to 80% are organic. Primary sludge
solids are usually gray in color, slimy, fairly coarse, and with highly obnoxious odors. This
sludge is difficult to dewater without treatment, hence digestion is necessary. This type of sludge
can be digested readily by aerobic or anaerobic bacteria under favorable operating conditions.
Secondary Sludge: This type of sludge from secondary settling tanks has commonly a brownish,
flocculent appearance and an earthy odor. It consists mainly of microorganism containing 75% to
90% organic fraction and remaining inert materials. The organic matter may be assumed to have
a specific gravity of 1.01 to 1.05, depending on its source, whereas the inorganic particles have
high a specific gravity of about 2.5.
Tertiary Sludge: The nature of sludge from the tertiary (advanced) treatment process depends on
the unit process followed like membrane processes or chemical methods, etc. Chemical sludge
from phosphorus removal is difficult to handle and treat. Tertiary sludge from biological
nitrification and denitrification is similar to waste activated sludge.

3|Page
The sludge is generated in the wastewater treatment plant in the form of already present
settleable solids, when settled in the PST, and in the form of biological cell mass, generated in
the biological secondary treatment that settled in SST. The water content of the sludge is very
high, and solids constitute very small part of it. Therefore before final disposal further treatment
is required for this sludge to reduce water content and oxygen demand. Sludge is stabilized to (i)
reduce pathogens, (ii) eliminate odours, (iii) inhibit, reduce, or eliminate the potential for
decomposition, and (iv) improve dewatering characteristics of the sludge to reduce volume for
disposal. There are four means to eliminate this nuisance condition through stabilization. They
are (1) biological reduction of volatile solids, (2) chemical oxidation of volatile solids, (3)
addition of chemicals to make conditions not suitable for bacterial growth, (4) application of heat
to disinfect or sterile the sludge.
Disposal of the sludge presents problems due to (i) the solids present are mostly organic and
undergo decomposition, and (ii) volume of the sludge is many times than the solids constituents.
Hence, further treatment is required for reducing volume of the sludge, stabilizing organic matter
present in the sludge, and improving its filtration ability for easy dewatering. The reduction in
volume of the sludge can be achieved by thickening, dewatering and drying; and stabilization of
organic matter can be obtained by employing digestion (aerobic or anaerobic), incineration,
composting, heat treatment, chlorine oxidation or lime stabilization. The flow sheet for
biological sludge treatment is presented in the Figure 22.1.
Thickener Anaerobic or Chemical Sludge

Sludge from
aerobic conditioning Drying
digestion (optional) Beds Ultimate
PST + ASP disposal
Supernatant to
PST Underflow
to PST
Figure 22.1 Flow sheet for biological sludge treatment
Organic sludge originates from various sources such as PST, SST of ASP, SST of TF, etc. PST
and SST sludge usually have 65% -75% volatile solids while sludge from TF of SST will have
45 to 70% volatile solids. The dry solids content of primary and secondary sludge after
thickening is about 4 to 6% and specific gravity of 1.01. The separation of water is difficult from

4|Page
undigested sludge. Fuel value of undigested sludge is about 6500 to 8000 BTU/lb (15100 to
18600 KJ/kg of dry solids). After digestion sludge have volatile solids of about 32 to 48%, dry
solids of 8 to 13%, and specific gravity of 1.03 to 1.05 and fuel value is about 8100 to 9300
KJ/kg of dry solids. Digested sludge is easy to dewater. Approximately 99.8 % of coliform are
destroyed from sewage sludge. Generally PST and SST sludge is thickened before digestion to
reduce volume of sludge. Sludge treatment is an important aspect of wastewater treatment and
account for 40 to 45 % of the capital and operating costs.
22.2 Sludge Thickening
Sludge thickening or dewatering is adopted for reducing the volume of sludge and increasing the
solid contents. This will help in following:
(i) increasing the loading on the digester, requiring lesser digester volume,
(ii) increase feed solids concentration to vacuum filters,
(iii) economize transport and handling cost of sludge within the plant and final disposal,
(iv) minimize land required and handling cost for final disposal of the digested sludge on
land, and
(v) save fuel if incineration is practiced.
In sludge thickeners, greater amount of water is removed from the sludge than what could obtain
from sedimentation tank. This reduces overall volume of the sludge considerably. The thickening
of the sludge can be achieved either by gravity thickening, application of air floatation or by
centrifugation.
22.2.1 Gravity thickening
Gravity thickening is accomplished in a tank similar in design to a sedimentation tank. This is

most commonly used for concentrating the sludge for achieving saving in the digester volume
and sludge handing cost. This is used for primary sludge and for combine primary and secondary
sludge, and it is not suitable for ASP sludge alone. When the ASP sludge is more than 40%
(weight ratio) of the total combined sludge, gravity thickening is not effective and other methods
of thickening have to be considered.

5|Page
Gravity thickeners can be operated either as continuous flow or fill and draw type, with or
without chemical addition. The thickened sludge is withdrawn from the bottom of the tank and
pumped to the digester. The supernatant is returned to the PST. Use of slow stirring improves
efficiency. Continuous feed tanks are circular in shape with central feeding and overflow at the
periphery. The side water depth is kept about 3.0 m. Due to relatively high concentration of the
solids, as compared to PST or SST, the settling in thickeners will follow hindered settling in the
beginning and compaction at later stage. Concentration of the underflow solids is governed by
the depth of sludge blanket up to 1 m beyond which there is very little influence of the blanket.
Thickeners are designed for hydraulic loading of 20 to 25 m3/m2.d. Loading rates lesser than 12
m3/m2.d are likely to give very high solids concentration, which may require dilution with plant
effluent for transporting. The underflow solid concentration will increase with increase in
detention time, and detention time of about 24 h will produce maximum compaction. During
peak condition, lesser detention time is allowed to keep the sludge blanket sufficiently below the
overflow weirs to prevent excessive solids carryover. The surface loading rates for various types
of sludges are given in the Table 22.1.
Table 22.1 Surface loading rates and solid concentration typically achieved in thickeners
Type of sludge Solid surface loading Thickened sludge solids

2
(kg/m .day) concentration, % (g/L)
Separate sludge
Primary 90 140 5 10 (50 to 100)
Activated 25 30 2.5 3.0 (25 to 30)
Trickling filter 40 45 7 9 (70 to 90)
Combined sludge
Primary + Activated 30 50 4 8 (40 to 80)
Primary + Trickling filter 50 60 7 9 (70 to 90)

6|Page
Figure 22.2 Schematic diagram of a gravity thickening unit
22.2.2 Air floatation
By applying air under pressure or vacuum the thickening of the sludge can be achieved. This is
normally preferred for ASP sludge. This requires additional equipment, power for operation,
skilled supervision for operation and maintenance, hence it is costly. However, better removal of
oil and grease, solids, and odour control are the advantages offered by this method. Addition of
alum, polyelectrolytes can increase the efficiency of the flotation unit. Alum will increase the
sludge but polyelectrolyte will not increase the solids concentration but improves solids capture
from 90 to 98%. The floatation units can be of two types (i) pressure type and (ii) vacuum type.
Pressure type floatation unit: In pressure type floatation unit, a portion of the subnatant is
pressurized from 3 to 5 kg/cm2 and then saturated with air in the pressure tank. The effluent from
the pressure tank is mixed with influent sludge immediately before it is released into flotation
tank (Figure 22.3). Once the pressure is released, excess dissolve air rises up in the form of
extremely small air bubbles, attaching themselves to the sludge particles. This imparts buoyancy
to the sludge particles and forms sludge blanket at the top, which is skimmed off, while the
unrecycled subnatant is returned to the wastewater treatment plant. Dissolved air floatation
(DAF) offers significant advantages in thickening light sludge such as activated sludge.
Typical design data of a DAF unit is given below:
1) Air pressure required: 280-550 kPa
2) Retention tank pressure: 3-5 kg/cm2
3) Solid loading rate: 10-20 kg solid/(m2.d)

7|Page
DAF thickening produces about 4% solids with a solids recovery of 85%. The sludge volume
index, SVI, is also an important factor for DAF operation.
Thickenedsludge
Freshsludge
Floatationunit
Air
Pressurereleasevalve
Contacttank Pressurepump
Figure 22.3 Working of pressure type air floatation unit
Vacuum type floatation: The vacuum type floatation unit employs the addition of air to
saturation and applying vacuum to the unit to release the air bubbles which float the solids to the
surface. The solids concentrated at the surface are skimmed off.
22.2.3 Centrifugation
Thickening by centrifugation is used only when the land available is limited and sludge
characteristics will not permit adoption of other methods. This will require high maintenance and
operational cost. A centrifuge acts both ways to thicken and to dewater sludge. The centrifuge
process separates liquid and solid by the influence of centrifugal force which is typically 50 to
300 times that of gravity.
22.3 Anaerobic Sludge Digestion
22.3.1 Process Fundamental
In anaerobic digestion process the organic material, in mixture of primary settled sludge and
biological sludge from secondary clarifier, is converted to CH4 and CO2 under anaerobic
conditions. This is carried out in an air tight reactor in absence of oxygen. Sludge is introduced
continuously or intermittently and retained in the reactor for varying periods of time. Two basic
processes involved in anaerobic digestion are liquifaction and gasification. The stabilized sludge

8|Page
which is withdrawn continuously or intermittently from the process, is non putrescible, and its
pathogen content is also greatly reduced.
Anaerobic digestion is defined as being biological oxidation of degradable organic sludge by

microbes under anaerobic condition. It occurs in absence of oxygen and organic matter acts as
food source for microorganisms. Most microbes used in this digestion are obligate anaerobes or
facultative type. This process is employed for treatment of the organic sludge.
During oxidation of organic matter anaerobically following reaction occurs

Organic matter CO2 + CH4+ new cell + energy for cells + Other products
(Anaerobic bacteria) (H2S, H2, N2 etc.)
Microbial action by anaerobic bacteria consists of three stages as 1) liquification of solids, 2)

digestion of soluble solids, 3) gas production. Organic acid forming heterotrophs use complex
organic substrate such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oils and their degradation products and
produce organic acids. The breakdown of three major organic matters is shown below:
Carbohydrates Simple sugars Alcohols, aldehydes Organic acids
Proteins Amino acids Organic acids + NH3
Fats and oils organic acids
Most of these organic acids forming bacteria are facultative anaerobes easily found in soil and
works in relatively wide pH range. Methane producing heterotrophs, obligately anaerobes, use
organic acids in narrow pH range of 6.7 to 7.4 to produced CO2 and CH4.
Organic acids CO2 + CH4 + H2S, H2, N2 etc. in traces

(55-75%) (35-45%)
The first group of microorganisms hydrolyzes the complex organic substances to soluble end
products and is called as hydrolytic bacteria. The second group of microorganisms called
acidogenic bacteria converts the product of first group of bacteria into simple end product
primarily VFA and alcohols. The third group called methanogenic bacteria converts the
produced acid by the second group into methane and carbon dioxide. The reactor content should

9|Page
be free from oxygen. Alkalinity present in the reactor should be sufficient for proper functioning
of the digester to maintain the pH between 6.5 to 8.0. Temperature has got tremendous effect in
the functioning of a digester. It has been established that two types of bacteria, mesophilic (20 to
40 oC) and thermophilic (45 to 65 oC) are responsible for biodegradation. Therefore, the digester
can be operated either at mesophilic or thermophilic temperature range. Places where the
temperature is less than 20 oC, the digesters are required to be heated externally to bring the
temperature to the mesophilic range.
22.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic digestion
Advantages
Methane recovered can be used as alternate fuel source.
Reduce production of landfill greenhouse gases when otherwise these untreated sludge is
disposed on landfill, which then broken down anaerobically to release methane into
atmosphere.
Reduction in volume of sludge and improving dewatering characteristics of the sludge
makes it easy to dry.
Reduces odour/ flies problem.
Low operating cost, since energy is not require to supply oxygen being anaerobic
process.
Disadvantages
Accumulation of heavy metal and recalcitrant contaminants in the sludge.
Narrow operating temperature control range.
When heating is to be provided safely handling is required with electrical grid based heat
management.
22.3.2 Types of anaerobic digesters

Two types of digesters are used in practice, standard rate or low rate and high rate digester
(Figure 22.4). In the standard rate digestion process, the contents of the digester are usually
unheated and unmixed. In this acidification, methane fermentation and sludge thickening takes
place in single tank. Standard or low rate digesters have intermittent mixing, intermittent sludge

10 | P a g e
feeding and intermittent sludge withdrawal (Figure 22.4). Detention time for this process vary
from 30 to 60 days. When sludge is not being mixed, the digester contents undergo thermal
stratification. About 50% of the capacity of the digester remains unutilized due to the
stratification and lack of mixing. Hence, longer detention time is required for complete
stabilization of the sludge, which results in large capacity requirement for the digester.
Suggested digestion period for different temperature for low rate digesters are given below:
Temperature, oC 10 16 21 27 32 38
Digestion period, days 75 56 42 30 25 24
(a) Conventional Standard rate digester (b) High rate digester, continuous flow stirred tank,
single stage process
Figure 22.4 Anaerobic digesters
In high rate digestion process, the contents of the digester are heated and completely mixed.
Continuous or intermittent sludge feeding and withdrawal is practiced in these digesters. The
required detention time is 15 days or less. Two stage digestion is also practiced where two tanks
are provided. The first tank is provided for acidification and second for methane formation and
thickening and supernatant formation. In single stage digester mixing is stopped and the contents
are allowed to stratify before digested sludge and supernatant are withdrawn.
The digestion tanks are circular and diameter ranges between 6 and 45 m. The depth of water
ranges between 7.5 and 14 m. The minimum slope of the tank floor is 1 vertical to 4 horizontal

11 | P a g e
the solid loading used for design is 0.5 to 1.6 kg VSS/m3.d. The design criteria for the digesters
are given in the Table 22.2. Generally digesters are operated at mesophilic temperature (35 0C
optimum) and in cold weather digester is heated to near optimum temperature. For thermophilic
operation digesters are heated at 55 0C.
Table 22.2 Design criteria for anaerobic digesters

Parameter Low rate digestion High rate digestion
(Intermittent mixing) (Heating and mixing)
Volatile solids loading, kg VSS/m3.d 0.6 1.6 2.4 6.4
Solid retention time, days 30 40 10 20
Hydraulic retention time 30 40 10 20
% Solids in feed sludge (dry basis) 2 to 5 4 to 6
% Solids in underflow (digested 4 to 8 4 to 6
sludge)
Gas production, m3/kg of VSS added 0.65 0.5
Diameter, m 6 45 6 45
Height, m 7 14 7 14
22.3.2.1 Low rate digesters
Conventional low rate digesters are single stage digesters and may have floating covers or fixed
cover. Most municipal plants have floating type covers. They are having diameter ranging from
4.5 m to 38 m. Side water depth (SWD) is generally 6 to 9 m and free board of 0.6 to 0.75 m is
provided. When fresh sludge is being added digested sludge is recycled along with that and
added at middle of digester. When sludge is added once every day no withdrawal of supernatant
and sludge is done. The digester sludge is withdrawn once every two weeks. During rainy days
when sludge cannot be applied on sludge drying beds it is not withdrawn from digester till
suitable weather conditions favors.
For fixed cover digester there is limit for accommodating fresh sludge and digested sludge and
also for biogas. During fresh sludge addition biogas will get compressed and maximum
allowable pressure inside is 0.203 m of water column. When sludge is withdrawn, biogas will
expand and pressure will be decreased with minimum allowable pressure of 76 mm of water

12 | P a g e
column. Fixed cover digesters will have more problems of grease floating and drying. They are
generally used for population less than 10000 persons. Recycled pump used to provide mixing
should have capacity to pump one tank volume in 30 min. In this way mixing is performed for 1
h every day. Generally low rate digesters (conventional) without mixing will face problem of
acidification.
22.3.2.2 High rate digesters
High rate digesters usually have fixed cover. Mixing is continuous hence entire digester volume
is active, which is only about 50% in case of conventional digesters. Due to mixing, better
contact between fresh sludge and active microbes occurs and hence, higher loading and less
retention time is provided in this. When fresh sludge is being added, the digested sludge may be
displaced to holding tank where supernatant is separated. Alternatively mixing is stopped,
stratification forms and sludge is withdrawn and fresh sludge added and mixing is restored.
Mixing system is separate than sludge recycling. This is achieved by recycling gas or impeller
mounted with a draft tube in the centre or impeller without draft tube. Gas mixing has advantage
as there are no mechanical parts involved in mixing. Figure 22.5 shows different types of mixing
systems in anaerobic digesters such as a) Gas recycle and draft tube, b) Gas recycle and gas
injection, c) Impeller and draft tube, and d) Impeller (Reynolds, 1996).
Figure 22.5 Types of mixing systems in anaerobic digesters

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22.3.2.3 Two stage digester
Generally this type of digester is provided when population served ranged from 30,000 to
50,000. In first stage, mainly liquefaction of organic solids, digestion of soluble organic
materials and gasification occurs. First stage is usually high rate digester with fixed cover and
continuous mixing is preferred (Figure 22.6). In second stage, some gasification occurs however
main use is supernatant separation, gas storage and digested sludge storage. This second stage is
usually conventional digester type with floating cover and it is provided with intermittent
mixing. Organic loading on first stage is much more than second stage.
Figure 22.6 Two stage digester
22.3.3 Operation of Digesters

Generally digesters are operated at temperature of 30 to 37 0C and optimum pH of 7 to 7.2. The
wide operating pH range could be 6.7 to 7.4. Lime may be added to control the pH. Drop in pH
inhibits methanogenesis and reduces methane production. The digester gas produced from the
process may be used for heating purpose. Heavy metals may inhibit digestion process so that it
must be eliminated at source. Supernatant liquor has BOD5 of about 2000 mg/L and SS of 1000
mg/L and it is recycled back to PST. Usually acidification will not occur if the dry solids added
or withdrawn daily do not exceed 3 to 5 % of the dry solids in the digester. The degree of the
digestion is measured by VSS reduction and amount of gas produced.
22.3.4 Digester Volume
For design consideration, total digester volume is a function of the fresh sludge added daily,
volume of digested sludge produced daily and for required digestion time, volume of storage of

14 | P a g e
digested sludge, gas storage, and volume of supernatant liquor. Volume of gas storage is
relatively small as compared to others. If the supernatant liquid is removed as it is produced, the
volume of remaining digesting sludge versus digestion time is parabolic function. The average
volume of digested sludge is the initial volume minus 2/3 of the difference between initial and
final volume (Fair et al. 1968).
Average volume of digested sludge Vavg = V1- (V1-V2) (1)
Where V1 and V2 = volume of fresh sludge added daily and volume of digested sludge produced
daily, respectively (m3/day).
The reduction in volume of sludge during digestion is mainly due to the release of water from the
sludge solids and partly due to destruction and conversion of solids to biogas.
Therefore, total volume of sludge in digesters
Vs = Vavg * td + V2 * ts (2)
Where, Vs = Total sludge volume, m3
V2 = volume of digested sludge, m3/d
Vavg = Average volume of digesting sludge, m3/d
td = time for required digestion, days
ts = time provided for sludge storage, days
The sludge volume normally occupies bottom half of the digester and supernatant and biogas
occupies top half, hence
Vt = 2 Vs (3)
Where, Vt = total digester volume, m3
The digesters can also be designed based on typical mean cell residence time and organic loading
rates (kg VSS/m3.day).
The mean cell residence time, c = (4)

Where, X = kg of dry solids in the digester and = kg of dry solids produced per day in the
digested sludge, which is equal to the sludge wasted per day.
The SRT in digester is equal to HRT because of no recycling. There is minimum c below which
digestion will not occur which depends on temperature.

15 | P a g e
Table 22.3 Suggested values of c at different temperature (McCarty, 1964).
Temperature, 0C c , days
18 11
24 8
30 6
35 4
40 4
Actual value of c used in design is 2.5 times higher since it is a critical parameter. Therefore,
volume of High rate digesters
V = Q* c = Q* H
Where, Q = Fresh sludge volume, m3/day
c = designed mean cell residence time, days
H = Hydraulic retention time, days
17
Example 1
A low rate digester is to be designed for waste sludge generated from activated sludge process
treating sewage generated from 25000 persons. The fresh sludge has 0.11 kg dry solids/capita-
day (VS = 70 % of ds). The dry solids (ds) is 5% of the sludge and specific gravity is 1.01.
During digestion 65% of VS are destroyed and fixed solids remained unchanged. The digested
sludge has 7% ds and a wet specific gravity is 1.03. Operating temperature of digester is 350C
and sludge storage time is 45 days. Determine the digester volume required. Assume digestion
time of 23 days.
Solution
From given data,

Solids in incoming sludge = 25000*0.11 = 2750 kg/day.
Volatile solids = 2750 * 0.7 = 1925 kg/day
Fixed solids = 2750 * 0.3 = 825 kg/day
VSS destroyed = 1925 *0.65 = 1251 kg/day
The digested sludge solids represent output.
Output = Input decrease due to reaction
VSS in digested sludge = 1925-1251 = 674 kg/day in digested sludge

16 | P a g e
Hence total solids in digested sludge = Volatile solids+ Fixed solids

= 674 + 825 = 1499 kg/day
Volume of digested sludge = = 20.79 m3/day
. .
Fresh sludge volume = = 54.46 m3/day

. .
Average volume of digesting sludge Vavg = V1- (2/3)(V1-V2)

= 54.46 - 0.67 (54.46 - 20.79) = 31.9 m3/day
Total volume of digested sludge in digestion = (31.9 * 23) + (20.79 * 45) = 1669.25 m3
Hence, volume of digester = 2 * 1669.25 = 3338.5 m3

1|Page
Module 22 : Sludge Management
Lecture 37 : Sludge Management

2|Page
22.4 Aerobic digestion
Aerobic digestion is affected by biosolids temperature, rate of biosolids oxidation, biosolids

loading rate, system oxygen requirements, biosolids age, and biosolids characteristics. The
process converts organic sludge solids to carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water by aerobic
bacteria with reduction of volatile solids, pathogens, and offensive order. It can be used to treat
only (i) waste activated sludge, (2) mixture of ASP sludge (or trickling filter sludge) and PST
sludge, and (iii) and waste sludge of ASP designed without PST. It is similar to ASP with HRT
of 10 to 12 days. The oxygen requirement in aerobic digestion for the complete oxidation of the
BOD is about 2 kg/kg of cells. To ensure proper operation, the contents of the aerobic digestion
should be well mixed. During this extended aeration, the microorganisms enter a phase (the
endogenous stage) where materials previously stored by the cell oxidize, reducing the
biologically degradable organic matter. During this endogenous stage, food supplies to microbial
life are depleted to the point where the microorganisms begin to consume their own protoplasm,
oxidizing it to carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia. As the digestion process continues, the
ammonia is further converted to nitrates. Eventually, the oxygen uptake rate levels off and the
biosolids matter is reduced to inorganic matter and relatively stable volatile solids.
In a conventional aerobic digester, concentration of influent VSS must not be more than 3% for
retention times of 15 to 20 days. In the batch basis, the digester is filled with raw sludge and
aerated for 2 to 3 weeks, then stopped. The supernatant is decanted and the settled solids are
removed. For the semi batch basis, raw sludge is added every couple of days; the supernatant is
decanted periodically, and the settled solids are held in the digester for a long time before being
removed.
22.5 Sludge Conditioning
Sludge is conditioned to improve its dewatering characteristics. Two methods are commonly
used for sludge conditioning (i) addition of chemicals and (ii) heat treatment. Chemical
conditioning results in coagulation of the solids and release of the absorbed water. Conditioning
is used in advance of vacuum filtration and centrifugation. Chemicals used include ferric

3|Page
chloride, lime, alum and organic polymers. The chemical dosage required is determined in the
laboratory test. The sludge which is difficult to dewater requires higher dose.
Heat Treatment of sludge is both stabilization and a conditioning process. This involves heating
of sludge for short period (30 min) under pressure (1.0 to 1.4 MN/m2). The temperature is kept
in the range of 140 to 200 oC. The treatment coagulates solids, breaks down the gel structure and
reduces the water affinity of sludge solids. As a result the sludge is sterilized, deodorized, and is
dewatered readily on vacuum filter or filter presses, without addition of chemicals. The heat
treatment process is most applicable to biological sludges that may be difficult to stabilize or
condition by other means. The high capital costs of equipment generally limit its use in the large
plants.
22.6 Sludge Dewatering
The digestion of the primary or mixed sludge will bring down the water content to about 90%;
however, treatment is necessary to reduce the water content further. When digested sludge is
applied on the sludge drying beds, the water content of the sludge can be reduced to around 70%.
Presence of excess oil and grease will interfere with this process. Sludge drying beds require
large land area (nearly 40% of the total area required for sewage treatment plant), hence at the
places where land is not available other alternatives such as, mechanical dewatering on vacuum
filters, filter press or centrifuge followed by heat drying or incineration could be used after
sludge conditioning. In India, most of the parts of the country there is favourable climate for
open sludge drying, hence sludge drying beds are preferred as an economical way and easy to
manage.
22.6.1 Sludge Drying Beds
This is used where land available is adequate and the dried sludge is used for soil conditioning.
The sludge is applied on the bed of sand, which is supported on gravel. Major portion of the
liquid drains off in the first few hours after which drying occur due to evaporation. Sludge cake
shrinks, producing cracks which further accelerate evaporation from the sludge surface. In dry
region generally the sludge will get dried within two weeks. The drying period will depend on
sunshine, rainfall, wind velocity, and relative humidity, apart from sludge characteristics. Under

4|Page
adverse weather condition, it may take up to four weeks. The sludge drying beds should be
located at least 100 m away from houses to avoid smelling problem.
22.6.2 Design Criteria for Sludge Drying Beds
Area of beds: It depends on the volume of the sludge to be dried, cycle time required to retain
sludge for dewatering, drying and removal of dried sludge, and making the sand bed ready for
next application. Cycle time for dewatering and drying depends on the applied depth of the
sludge. The cycle time depends on the climatic conditions, temperature, humidity, dry or wet
weather, wind velocity, etc. and also depends on the sludge characteristics. The land requirement
can be substantial with the value of 0.1 to 0.25 m2/capita for anaerobically digested sludge under
unfavourable conditions (CPHEEO, 1993). Generally the cycle time is up to 2 weeks for warmer
climate and 3 to 6 weeks in unfavorable conditions.
The specifications for preparation of sludge drying beds are as follows:

Underdrains: It is made from the open joined vitrified clay pipe or tiles of at least 10 cm
diameter. Pipe should not be laid more than 6 m apart from each other. Arrangement should be
made to return the drained water to primary sedimentation tank.
Gravel: Gravel covers the under-drainage system. Graded gravel is placed around the under
drains in layers up to 30 cm, with minimum of 15 cm above under drains (Figure 22.7). At least
top 3 cm layer of gravel is of 3 to 6 mm size.
Sand: Sand of effective size 0.5 to 0.75 mm and uniformity coefficient not greater than 4 is used.
The depth of the sand may vary from 20 to 30 cm.
Figure 22.7 Sectional elevation of sludge drying beds

5|Page
Dimensions: Sludge drying beds are commonly 6 to 8 m wide and 30 m long. With the bed slope
of 0.5% the length should not exceed 30 m for single sludge application point. For longer length
of sludge bed multiple sludge entry should be used to reduce the length of wet sludge travel.
Free board of at least 0.4 m is used.
Sludge Inlet: Pipe of minimum 20 cm diameter should be used for sludge inlet pipe. This pipe
should discharge sludge at minimum height of 0.3 m above the sand bed. Splash plates should
be provided at discharge points to spread the sludge uniformly over the bed and prevent erosion
of the sand bed.
Removal of Sludge: Dried sludge cake is removed by shovel or forks when the moisture content
is less than 70%. When the moisture content is less than 40% the sludge is suitable for grinding.
Some sand always clings to the bottom of the sludge cake. When the depth of the bed will get
reduced to 10 cm due this loss, fresh sand of desired specification is added to match the original
depth. After removal of the dried sludge the sand bed is prepared by leveling for next cycle of
sludge application.
Example: 2
Design a sludge drying bed for drying the digested sludge volume of 229 m3/day. Consider the
dewatering, drying and sludge removal cycle of 10 days.
Solution
Provide the sand depth of 0.3 m and depth of sludge application as 0.3 m.
Total area required for the bed = 229 x 10 / 0.3 = 7633 m2
Provide each bed of width 8.0 m and length of 30 m,
Therefore number of beds required = 7633/(8*30) = 31.8
Hence provide 32 beds of size 30 m x 8 m each.

6|Page
22.7 Incineration
Biosolids incineration is the complete destruction of biosolids by heat. It is not actually a means
of disposal, but used as a volume reduction to ash. Incinerating biosolids is not only a beneficial
process; it produces a beneficial reuse product: biosolids ash. Compared to several other
biosolids management options (especially land filling or lagoons), biosolids incineration presents
some obvious advantages:
Considerably reduces area required for the sludge management as compared to lagoons or
land burial
reduces biosolids volume and weight
provides immediate reduction of sludge volume
avoids transportation costs when it is on-site incineration
A key factor in incineration is the solids content of the sludge. Before incineration, the sludge
must be dewatered (often by centrifugation), because even though the heat value of sludge is
relatively high, excessive water content consumes auxiliary fuel to maintain incinerator
combustion.
22.8 Final Disposal of Sludge
Final disposal of the sludge from the treatment plant generally involves some form of land
disposal. The most common methods of land disposal include spreading on land, lagooning,
dumping, and landfilling.
Spreading on land: Dewatered and composted sludge can be disposed off by spreading over
farm lands, and plowing under after it has dried. Wet dewatered sludge can be incorporated into
soil directly by injection. The humus in the sludge conditions the soil and improves its moisture
retentiveness.
Lagooning: It is an economical mode of disposal in remote area. A lagoon is an earthen basin

into which untreated or digested sludge is deposited. Stabilization of untreated sludge can be
carried out in a lagoon which gives objectionable odours. The stabilized sludge settles to the
bottom of the lagoon and accumulates. Excess liquid from the lagoon, if there is any, is returned

7|Page
to the wastewater treatment plant at PST. Sludge may be stored indefinitely in a lagoon, or it
may be removed periodically after draining and drying.
Dumping: Dumping in an abandoned mine quarry is a suitable disposal method only for the
sludges and solids that have been stabilized, so that no decomposition or nuisance condition will
results. Digested sludge, clean grit and incinerator residue can be disposed off safely by this
method.
Landfilling: A sanitary landfill can be used for disposal of sludge, grease, grit and other solids,
whether it is stabilized or not. The sanitary landfill method is most suitable if it is also used for
disposal of the other solid wastes of the community. In a sanitary landfill, the wastes are
deposited in a designated area, compacted in place with a tractor or roller and covered with a 30
cm layer of clean soil. With daily coverage of the newly deposited wastes, nuisance condition
such as odour and flies are minimized.

8|Page
Questions
1. What are the means by which the nuisance conditions associated with untreated sludge
can be eliminated?
2. Describe advantages of sludge thickening and explain gravity thickening.
3. Describe sludge thickening by air floatation unit.
4. Why it is necessary to digest the sludge generated from sewage treatment plant before
disposal?
5. Explain anaerobic and aerobic digestion of the sludge.
6. Stating necessity, describe sludge conditioning.
7. With the help of sketch, explain two stage digester.
8. What are different types of anaerobic digesters? Describe it with sketch.
9. Design a low rate digester for waste sewage sludge generated from aerobic secondary
treatment of sewage generated from 40000 persons. The fresh sludge has 0.13 kg dry
solids/capita.day (VS = 70 % of ds). The dry solids (ds) is 5% of the sludge and specific
gravity is 1.01. During digestion 2/3 of VS are destroyed and fixed solids are remaining
unchanged. The digested sludge has 6% ds and a wet specific gravity is 1.03. Operating
temperature of digester is 320C for which the digestion time of 25 days is required.
Consider sludge storage time of 50 days. Determine the digester volume required.
10. Design a sludge drying bed for drying 400 m3/d of sewage sludge. Provide detail
specifications for the bed.
11. Describe various options available for final disposal of the dewatered sludge.
12. Design high rate digester for ASP for a city of total population of 30000 generating
sewage. The feed to the digester (primary and secondary sludge) is 56.1 m3/day for the
operating temperature of 34oC. Determine the volume of the digester.
Answers
Q. 9: Volume of digester = 7663.78 m3
Q. 10: Provide 56 beds of size 30 m x 8 m each.
Q. 12: Total volume = 561 m3

Wastewater Management Ghangrekar

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Course : Wastewater Management

Prof. M.M. Ghangrekar

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The advantages offered by the water carriage system are:

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Sewer: It is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a point of

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Stormwater: It indicates the rain water of the locality.

1.3 SOURCES OF SEWAGE

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1.4 SEWAGE DISCHARGE

1.5 EFFECT OF UNTREATED WASTEWATER DISPOSAL

If the untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate, it will lead to highly unhygienic

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1.6 OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

1.7 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

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1. Describe advantages and disadvantages offered by the water carriage system.

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Module 2 : System of Sanitation

Lecture 2 : System of Sanitation

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2.2 TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM

The sewerage system can be of following three types:

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2.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of combined system

In an area where rainfall is spread throughout a year, there is no need of flushing of

2.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of separate system

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2.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of partially separate system

2.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE TYPE OF SYSTEM

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2.4 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM

1. The topographical and hydrological features of the area.

Figure 2.1 Perpendicular pattern of collection system

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Sewers are intercepted with large size sewers (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 Interceptor pattern of collection system

It is suitable for land disposal.

Figure 2.3 Radial pattern of collection system

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Figure 2.4 Fan pattern of collection system

More numbers of interceptors are provided in this pattern (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Zone pattern of collection system

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Module 3 : Sewer Material

Lecture 3 : Sewer Material

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3.1 Important Factors Considered for Selecting Material for Sewer

c. Strength and durability

d. Weight of the material

f. Economy and cost

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3.2 Materials for Sewers

3.2.2 Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete

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Advantages of concrete pipes

3.2.3 Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers

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