Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is

a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although
this modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its
main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially
to inertial loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal
algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers,[1] the other being maximum
power point tracking.
The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the
switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on
compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.

Three types of pulse-width modulation (PWM) are possible:

1. The pulse center may be fixed in the center of the time window and both edges of the
pulse moved to compress or expand the width.
2. The lead edge can be held at the lead edge of the window and the tail edge modulated.
3. The tail edge can be fixed and the lead edge modulated.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) uses digital signals to control power applications, as well as
being fairly easy to convert back to analog with a minimum of hardware.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ( Using IC-555 )

1. IC-555
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as
a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing circuits in one package.
Introduced in 1972 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use due to its low price, ease of
use, and stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and in low-
power CMOS. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units were manufactured every
year. The 555 is the most popular integrated circuit ever manufactured.
The 555 timer IC is an integral part of electronics projects. Be it a simple project
involving a single 8 bit micro-controller and some peripherals or a complex one
involving system on chips (SoCs), 555 timer working is involved. These provide time
delays, as an oscillator and as a flip-flop element among other applications.

Introduced in 1971 by the American company Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread
use due to its low price, ease of use and stability. It is made by many companies in the
original bipolar and low-power CMOS types. According to an estimate, a billion
units were manufactured back in the year 2003 alone.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2

diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package
(DIP-8). Variants consists of combining multiple chips on one board. However 555 is
still the most popular. Lets look at the pin diagram to have an idea about the timer IC
before we talk about 555 timer working.
 Pin diagram and description

Pin Name Purpose

1 GND Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)

The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts when this input falls below 1/2 of CTRL voltage

typically 1/3 Vcc, CTRL being 2/3 Vcc by default if CTRL is left open). In other words, OUT is high
2 TRIG
the trigger low. Output of the timer totally depends upon the amplitude of the external trigger voltage

this pin.

3 OUT This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V below +Vcc, or to GND.

A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but the timing does not begin again un
4 RESET
rises above approximately 0.7 volts. Overrides TRIG which overrides threshold.

5 CTRL Provides control access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 Vcc).

The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage at threshold is greater than that at CTRL (2/3 Vc
6 THR
is open).

7 DIS Open collector output which may discharge a capacitor between intervals. In phase with output.

8 Vcc Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3 and 15 V depending on the variation.

Some important features of the 555 timer:

555 is used in almost every electronic circuit today. For a 555 timer working as a flip flop or
as a multi-vibrator, it has a particular set of configurations. Some of the major features of the
555 would be,
 It operates from a wide range of power ranging from +5 Volts to +18 Volts supply
voltage.
Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals
can be made into several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several
hundred kilo hertz.
The output of a 555 timer can drive a transistor-transistor logic (TTL) due to its high
current output.
It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change
in temperature which is equivalent to 0.005 %/ C.
The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable.
Also, the maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW and its trigger and
reset inputs has logic compatibility.

555 timer working

The 555 generally operates in 3 modes. A-stable, Mono-stable and Bi-stable modes.

Astable mode

This means there will be no stable level at the output. So the output will be swinging
between high and low. This character of unstable output is used as clock or square wave
output for many applications.

Mono-stable mode

This configuration consists of one stable and one unstable state. The stable state can be
chosen either high or low by the user. If the stable output is set at high(1), the output of
the timer is high(1). At the application of an interrupt, the timer output turns low(0).
Since the low state is unstable it goes to high(1) automatically after the interrupt passes.
Similar is the case for a low stable monostable mode.
Bi-stable mode

In bi-stable mode, both the output states are stable. At each interrupt, the output changes
from low (0) to high(1) and vice versa, and stays there. For example, if we have a high
(1) output, it will go low (0) once it receives an interrupt and stay low(0) till the next
interrupt changes the status.

2. Diode 0A79
3. Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current
flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that
only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented
within integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The
nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the
component.

4. Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in
an electric field.[1]The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While capacitance
exists between any two electrical conductors of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a
capacitor is specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect for a variety of
practical applications by consideration of size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced
conductors, and the intervening dielectric material. A capacitor was therefore historically
first known as an electric condenser.
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor
types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often
in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor
may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting
dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as
dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors
are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike
a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.