2

Review of Optical Principles: Fundamental

Electromagnetic Theory and Description of
Light Sources

This chapter provides an in-depth theoretical description of how electro-

magnetic waves are physically generated and what the theoretical descrip-
tion involves. It also elaborates on wha t laws electromagnetic waves obey,
and the different classifications of electromagnetic waves ranging from tele-
vision waves to ganuna radiation. at also briefly illustrates the physical
application of electromagnetic radiation in medical applications, which will
be described in detail in the later chapters.
ln add ition, various sources of electromagnetic radiation are discussed.
Moreover, the rules that were developed over the centuries regarding the
modeling of light and image formation are presented and explained. From
this view the quantum theory of lig:ht is also outlined. At the end of this
chapter follows a compend ium of the common terms and definitions in the
arena of optics principles as they apply to biological interaction.

2.1 Definitions in Optics

Even though we consider our knowledge of light to be su fficient to explain
everyday observations, there is more to light than just vision. ln some cases
light may be described as the motion of partic:les, but light may also be con
sidered as a \.Yave phenomenon. Ho\-vever, the true description of light is a
combination of the wave and particle concept, and light is often referred to
as a wavicle, which is a particle with zero rest mass. The particle-wave dual-
ity as recognized by Albert Einstein in 1905, resulting in a Nobel Prize in
1921, is stiJJ adhered to as U1e most accurate model for light. This particle-
wave duality assigns light as packages of energy called photons. Light in
general is considered as the visible !Part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
ranging from blue to red. The electromagnetic spectrum describes the
24 A11 illtrod11ctio11 to Biomedical Optics

changing combined electric and magnetic fields emanating from a positive

or negative electricaJ charge in an e>scillatory motion. To begin with, the
electromagnetic spectrum spans far beyond our daily perception, and
ranges from very high-energy cosmic rays to x-rays, u.ltraviolet light, visi-
ble light, infrared radiation (near-, mid-, and far-infrared), microwave radi-
ation, television waves, and at the other extreme, low-energetic radio
waves.
The mathematical description of the propagation of waves relies on the
fact that a description of amplitude as a function of position will repeat
itself over a fixed distance. If we consider the amplitude A of a wave
phenomenon to be represented by a function of position, the following
generic description of a function can be posed: A = Jtx), when the position
xis replaced by (x-a) the same function has moved to a distance "a" in the
positive x-direction, even so for (x+a), the function has moved a distance a,
but in the negative x-clirection. Thus, A = f(xa) describes the amplitude as
a function of position.
Consider now that distance traveled is velocity times the elapsed time; i.e.,
a= Vt; the equation can be seen in the form A = fl.x!:. Vt), where V>O, and the
negative sign indicates a wave traveling in the positive direction and a pos-
itive sign for propagation in the negative x-direction. The velocity v is the
phase velocity of the wave. The phase velocity of a wave is defined as the
speed at which a phase of the periodicity of a wave propagates through
space. Since the amplitude is a function of time and space, the equation for
a wave traveling in one dimension can be written as A(x,t) = ftxvt), or a
combination of the sum of a wave moving in the positive a.n d negative
x-direction as A(x,t) = J(x-vt)+g(x+vt).
To find the general wave-equation function A(x,t) will be differentiated
twice with respect to both time and position; however, first the substitutions
x'= x- vt and l" = x+vt are introduced, giving A(x,1) = J(x')+g(x").
The first differentiation with respect to time yields the following equation:

iJA of iJx' iJg ox iJf i!g (2.1)

- = - - + - - = - v-+v-
i!t iJx' iJt iJx" ot iJx' ax

The first differentiation with respect to position yields

oA _ of ox' iJg ox" _ of og (2.2)

- - - - +--- -+-
OX ox' ox ox" OX ox' ox"
Review of Opticnl Principles 25

And similarly for the second differentiation with respect to position for
Equation (2.2):

(2.4)

After equating Equations (2.3) and (2.4) the general wave equation follows:

o2A(x,t) 1 B2A(x,I)
(2.5)
iix2 = v2 iJt'

A special case is defined when the amplitude is sinusoidal or oscillatory; the

following expression for the a mplitud e as a function of time and position can
be derived:

A(x,t) = J\osink(x-vl) (2.6)

Equation (2.6) is for a sinusoida l wave traveling in the positive x-direction,

where k is a scaling factor and will be defined later. For a sinusoidal function
the periodicity is also 2n, and x can be replaced by x+(2n/k); the equation is
rewritten as

2n ) = Aosmk
A ( x +k,t . ( x +-;-
2n vt )
(2.7)
= A0 sin(kx -vl + 2n)

The periodicity in the x-<lirection (2n/k) is referred to as J., the wavelength.

The waveform repeats itself after every distance J.. The variable k indicates
the number of wavelengths over a phase difference of 2n and is called the
wave number.
Rewriting Equation (2.7) with a substitution for the linear velocity of the
moving particle we obtain

2
A(x,I} = Ao sink(x-vt) = Ao sin n (x-vt) (2.8)
).
= Ao sin(h-wl)
26 An /11trod11clio11 to Biomedical Optics

Every traveling wave can be described by a sine or cosine "'!Uation where

the a.m plitude depends on the phase of the position, either in time or in
space. Both the time and space information provide the phase of the wave,
and thus tie position and time together.
A Ao sin (wt-tr) thus can also be written in complex form as

A= A,, exp[i(wl - tr)] (2.9)

where k designates the wave number of the medium. Then wave number k
and the angular wave fr"'!uency w are related by the expn.>ssion (w/k)=c.
The phase of the wave ' (x,t) is the entire argument or the sine or cosine
term, or, ns shown in the following equation:

A(x. t) A,, exp{i(wt -kx)) =A,, exp(i</>(x,tl) (2.10)

The distance over which the sine (or cosine) funcl.ion repeats itself is the
wavelength l.
The angular fr"'!uency w relates to the oscillatory froqu<'llcy (the number
of repetitions of the oscillatory motion per second) by the circumference of
one revolution 211# as cu- 2nr.
Both dCliCliplions are a solution 10 the wilve equation given by

(2.11)

where v equals the speed of propagation of the wave, and for light Equation
(2.11) is rewritten us

a''!' 1 o''I'
-e-- (2.12)
iJX2 c' 012

with c being the speed of light in vacuum. In general, this wove "'!Uation will
have a solution satisfying'!' = 'l'(d- x) .
From Equation (2.12) we can derive the solutions for the electric field
!nlveling in the x-<lirection as expressed by

Another property of electromagnetic waves is lhe fact that they have all the
characteristics found in other waves. As a result on electromagnetic wave
carries both energy and momentum.
Review of Optical Principles 27

For any ordinary wave function, the square of the amplitude is caHed the
intensity of the wave; however, since electromagnetic waves are a combination
of nvo 'vaveforms, the electric and the magnetic 6eld, this requires an entirely
different approach.
For electromagnetic waves the "intensity" is regarded as how much
energy is flo\ving in or out of a surfaoe:e. This is some\vhat in contrast to the
general definition of intensity, which is the square of the amplitude of the
'''ave. Ho,vever, there is no single amplitude iJ'I electromagnet'ic radiation
tllat requires the introduction of several ne\v definitions \Vith respect to the
concept of intensity. Additionally, the surface the electromagnetic radiation
Aows throug h can be a plan e or have a spherical geometry. This leads to a
range of definitions with respect to the concept of "intensity."
So1ne or the concepts in the nomenclature of eJectromagnetic energy trans--
port are defined as follows:

lrradiance I: a t a point of a surfoce, the radiant energy Aux incident

on an element of the surface divided by the area of that element
(W / cm').
Radiant energy W: energy cmi tted, transferred,. or received as radi-
ation 0).
Radiant energy nux Cl> : power emitted, transferred, or rece.ived as
radiation (W).
Radiant energy Auence rate 'l' : at a point in space the radiant energy
flux incident on a smaU sphere divided by the cross--scctional area of
that sphere (W /cm2).
Radiant energy density n: radiant energy in an element of volume
divided by the volume of that element O/cm').

These terms \viii be discussed in detail in the following scctio1\S.

2.2 Kirchhoff's laws of Radiation

The radiation emitted from specific sources was empirically derived by John
William Draper (1811-1882) and published by Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
roughly in the year 1860. The findings are earmarked as Kirchhoff's laws of
radiation, and are staled as follo\vs:

Kird'lhoff's first la\v states that a hot, opaque, incandescent body,

or thermal radiator emits radiation over a continuous range of
\\,avelengths. The continuous ra_nge of \Vavelengths is called a
"continuous spectrum." The brightness as a fu_nct-ion of \vave-
length will only gradually cha.nge in this form of radiation.
 An Jntrod"ction to 8io111t'tlicnl Opt;cs

Kirchlloff's second law states that when the radiation emitted by

the th11rmal source is viewed through an almost transparent cloud
of cool gas, the continuous spectrum of the source is experienced
as narrow, dark lines. Those dark lines in the transmitted spec
trum att the ttSult of discrete absorption at selected wavelengths
due to the specific chemica.1configuration of the gas.
The third law is related to the emission of radiation b y a heated
gas, which in tum only exhibits a discrete narrow line spectrum,
of only a few spectra.I lines. These lines are specific and well
defined for the state and molecular composition of the particular
gas. 1r the chemical composition or the gas is same as used when
deriving the second law the emission lines will occur at exactly the
same wavelengths as the absorption lines in the cool gas.

A more specific description of the emission or electromagnetic rad iation is

given by the Planck law of radiation, which is discussed next.

2.2. 1 Plandc Function for Bladdlocty RadJ.,tion

Photons are emitted from any object that has energy, which can be converted
into light <>nergy. The emission is described by blackbody radiation 'n\l llli<:$
the premlse of quanti2ation of photon energy.
The energy (W) of a photon can be described by

W ; hv (2.14)

w here Ir is Planck's constant, after the German physicist Max Planck

(1858-1947), derived from the work by Wilhelm Wien and the Second Law
or Thermodynnmlcs. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the
entropy or a system in equilibrium is always a t its maximum value.
Experimental observations showed that Wien's law was capable of describ-
ing the energy distribution of light for high fttquencics, but broke down al
low fttquencics. After ttvising his perception of the Second I.aw of
Thermodynamics as an absolute law of nalutt, and incorporating Ludwig
BoltzmaM's statistical expla.n ation of the second law, he succeeded in deriv-
ing his formulation of the energy distribution or electromagnetic radiation in
1900, revealing the mom<?ntum of a photon, and the discreteness of the
energy distribution of light (photon) energy. This phenomenon became more
apparent when analyzing the energy d.i stribution or black bodies, and the
analogy with harmonic oscillators was proposed to explain the emission
curve as a function of wavelength. The classical mechanics descriptions
apparently foiled at the atomic dimensions, and quantum mechanics was
introduced.
Rt'Vicw of Optical l'ri11ciplfs 29

The Planck function, derived by Max Planck in his tht'<lry of Lile black
body, is dcfint'd as

2Jiv3
B,<n- c2 -e1-..~"';.,1-_-1 (2.15)

where K b Boltzmann' s constant, t the speed ol light, the frequency, and

T the temperature in KcMn. This equation describes the energy distribu-
tion ol the different frequencies ol light emitted by a blackbody at
temperature T.
The di reel ion of the oscillatory motion o( lhe 'vave motion is \Yhat is called
the polarizntion of the \vavc; to be more precise, for electromagnclic 'vaves,
it is the dln.>ction ol Uie p lane o f oscillation of the elc.:tric fleJd that deter
n'incs the polnri1.11tion. For a single ._,,avefront \Ylth all electric fields oscil-
lating in a single plane, we refer to this as linear polarlznlion. In the case
'vhcre l\YO electric fields arc at an angle '"ilh respect to e..1ch other, the com-
bint>d effc.:t can be thn.oelold. Since both the electric and the magnetic field
arc vcc1ors1 vector addition of the respective fields is allowed. In the case
where the electric fields of lhe two respective electromagnetic waves are
perpendicular to each other, have the same amplitude, and are 90" out of
phase with each other, the net result will be circular polarization. ln this
situation, both the net electric and the net magnetic field rotate around the
direc1ion of propagation in a harmonic fashion. Under similar rooditions,
with electromagnetic waves o f different amplitude, the net result will be
elliptical polarization. Finally. when there is no p;irticular correlation
between the phase and amplitudes of the two or more respective electric
fields, the combint'd effect is random polarization.
The absolute index of refraction of a meruum (11) is defmed as the ratio of the
spe<.'CI of light in vacuum (c) divided by the speed or light in the medium (v):

11 = -
c (2.16)
v
When lighl travels fron1 one medium (mediurn 1) into lhc n~xt medium
(mt'Clium 2) the speed of propagation of the ek'Ctromngnetic radiation will
most likely be different. As a result the wavefront will change its course and
produce an angle with the normal (right angle locally to the interface of the
two media) to the boundary(&), which is different from the incident angle
with the normal. This phenomenon was described by Willibrord Von Ro4jen
Snell (1591- 1626), who made his observations on the refraction of light beams
at larger angles and proposed his empirical Law of Refraction in 1621 as

Snells' law =
sjnO
sin01
~ ..... 11,

"
{2.17)
30 A11 l11t""lllctlo11 to l)lometlicnl Optics

2.3 Electromagnetic Wave T heory

In the case of electromagnetic radiation the waves propagate in all three
dimensions with no particular p~, which warrants the wave equa
tion (2.12) to be written in a Cartesian three-<limensional repn!$Ct1talion as

- + o''I' o''I'
a''I'
- + il''I'
- - =12 - - (2.18)
ox' ily' Di' 2 c i11

which can be rewritten in vector formal by using the vector r as the indica
tor or position in three-dimensional space as follows:

(2.19)

This can be proven with the help of Gauss's law, Faraday's law, and Maxwell
equations for an electric field oscillating in the y-din.-ction and magnetic
field perpendicular to the electric field oscillating in the zdirection. Both the
electric and the magnetic field then propagate in the t-direction with f(t,1)
= E,,sin (wl- h) and B(x,I) = 80 sin (<lll-h), respectively. With E, =O, E, =O,
,E, and B,O, B,- o, B,=B, Figure 2.1 illustrates the electric field E in the
x-direction perpendicular to the magnetic field B in they-direction for an
electromagnetic wave moving in the z-direction.

2.3.1 Gauss's ~w

Based on the existence or an electric field several experimental and lheoreti

cal observations can be made. Consider that an e lectric field is in motion; an
e lectric nux (<l>e) can be defined as

<!>=EA (2.20)

FICUllf 2.1
E~ .and l'Nlgrwtk r~lds per
pendi<ul>r to ..rn othtt one! the
dl~Uon of propa.g..tlion for ...,
elc<t~tk W<l\'f',
 31

where the electric field E is passing through an area A. In the situation lhot
the field makes an angle 0 with the area ol choice, only the field passing
through the perpendicular projection of the area with the electric field
migration contributes lo the electric flux <1>. Tiie equation becomes

<l>t EA._ EAcosO (2.21)

This can al.so be \Vrittcn in vector format as the vector dot product:
<PE= E A (2.22)

The only restriction is that the electric field E needs to be uniform over the
entire area A. In case the electric field is not uniform, the area '"ill need to
be split in to 11 number ol sections where the electric field may be consid
crcd unifonn, nnd subSt.~uc ntly all U1e electric fields 1 through each indJ-
vldual subarea Al\ 1 will need to be added together to provide the total Oux
defined us

(2.23)

When we let the individual areas approach a surfa<e of 0, i.e., M ,-O dA,
the summation can be replaced by an integral over the total area keeping the
electric field distribution in consideration:

(2.24)

1Ns was first postulated by the German mathematlcia.n and p hysicist Carl
Friedrich Gau ss (1777-1855} aroundl 1821, and tics in with the Coulomb
li\V.
Gauss's h1\v considers the situation for a closed surface, such as a
sphere, and the enclosed electric flux represents the c harge Q from which
this clt'Ct-ric nux emanates. The e1ec:lric field distribut-ion can now be writ
ten as

(2.25)

A moving charge pro.,ides a current and will generate a m.ignetic field as

d<Seribcd by Ampere's law:

(2.26)
32 An J111roductio11 lo Biomedicnl Optics

Also consider this motion to be over a. distance dt. Gauss now postulated the
fact that magnetic field lines do not run between points, but are closed. This
also means that there is nothing like a magnetic charge. This condition is for-
mulated as
(2.27)

Gauss's law in differential form gives the following two conditions for the
electric and the magnetic field, respectively. When the electric field is prop-
agating in a Cartesian coordinate system in the positive x-direction. with the
field direction in the positive y-direction, and the magnetic field perpendi-
cular to the electric field., also propagating in the positive x-direction,
Gauss's postulates yield the following expressions for the electric and the
magnetic field, respectively:

(2.28)

08 =O (2.29)
ih

2.3.2 Faraday's Low

Similar to Cau55's derivation of the electric flux. Michael Faraday (1791 to
1867) proposed a definition of the magnetic flux around 1820/ 1821 a.s

(2.30)

A magnetic flux changing over time was found to induce an electrical poten-
e.
tial or "electromotive force" which is equal to the work done on a positive
test charge of I C magnitude, as expressed by

_ d<l>o = c =jt.dt (2.31)

di

Again. consider a Cartesian coordinate system with the electric fieJd in the
positive y-direction, and the magnctic field perpendicular to the electric
field, in the z-direction. also propagating in the positive x-direction.
Faraday's law in differential form gives the following two conditions for
the electric field and the relationship between the electric and the magnetic
field, respectively:
of:= o (2.32)
ih
Rcvitw of Optical Pri11cilos 33

and

- ---
0
Ox
oB
Ct
(2-33)

2 .3.3 M.uW1'11 Eqwtions

From Equation (2.31),f Edl - d <l>1 / di; the following app roximation can be
made when soMng this integral in in fini tesimal steps:

y(x, I) = A sin 2 [ ~ n(t + x)J (2.34)

Assumin.g time to remain constant during this infinitesimal step, n.nd using
Farnday's law of ind uction, the left-ha nd side o f Equa tion (2.31) can be writ-
ten as

--d<ll.
dJ =
(2.35)

Then Equation (2.33) can be rewritten as

(2.36)

ttnd

d<I> =
di
e(dB)d
di
x
by using the modified Ampere's law:

po..ic ,I (B(.r,l)]t- [B(.r+ dx,l)]t - - t ( : )dx (2.37)

The Maxwell extrapolation of Ampere's law, including the eJectrk 6eld in

free sp.1ce in an open circuit, is given by

(2.38)
34 A" /11troi/11ctio11 to Biomedical Optics

After substitution of Equations (2.37) and (2.38) into Equation (2.31) this
yields

08 cE
- -:-
ex = """ -i't (2.39)

where r., Is the electric permiltivity and., lhe magnetic permeability.

1llc magnelic field follows Lenz's law with respect to the charged particle
in oscillatory motion, representing an alternating current as expressed by

8=&
2nr
(2.40)

When differentiating the Faraday equa.tions with resp<.>ct to the d isplacement

x and the Max,vcll equations \Yith respcc-t 10 the thnc I, lhc follo,ving con..
rormity can be used:

giving

(2-41)

and

giving

(2.42)

EqU4tingEqualions (2.41 ) and (2.42) gives

o2E e'E
(2.43)
a'r = <ol'o iil 1

or
Review of Oplicnl J'ri11ciplrs 35

with 1IV' '<Ol'o> the reciprocal of the speed of light in vacuum squared,
c' = l /t<Ql.. Or
(2.44)

Equation (2.43) has as a solution E f,,sin(mt- .tr).

Similarly, differentiating the Faraday equation with ~peel to time and
the Maxwell equation ""th respect to direction of propagation x, gives a sim-
ilar solution for the magnetic field:

(2.45)

This also shows that E c8.

Mal<\VCll cquntions in differential form give lhe following l\YO conditjon.s for
the magnetic field and the relation between the magnetic and the electric
field, as illustrated in Equations (2.46) and (2.47) respectively:

~=O (2.46)
Gy

Or in three-dimensional vector form v. B=O in f1"" ~

And vice versa the correlation between the spacr derivative for the mag-
netic field to the time derivative of the electric field is given by

CB cE
- - ioo- (2.47)
ox at
2.3.4 Ene rgy a nd Momentum of Electwomagnelic Waves
The energy density of the electric field of an electromagnetic wave is given
by

(2.48)

Analogously for the magnetic field the expression is given by

1
w = --B' =- 1-E' .!.toE' (2.49)
4'o 2,,r 2

The totul energy density of the electric and magnetic field~ combined is
given by
(2.50)
36 An /11trod11ctiou lo Bio111edical Optics

The time average is obtained by

w,..,." r.o(E'} (2.51)

The intensity can now be written as

(2.52)

where
(2.53)

which gives for the intensity

I
I -ct.o~ (2.54)
2

"The cross product of the electric and maS"etic fields, which are perpendicu
lar to each other, is perpendicular to the wavefront and in the direction of
propagation; thus,

(2.55)

The vector c'r-o(EXB) thus hos the m.ngniludc of energy flow density, with
the direction of the wave propagation. This vector expression is called the
Poynting vector. The energy Rux through a surface per unit time belonging
to this Poynling vector is defined in

(2.56)

where e" is the un.it vl'Ctor perpendicular to the surface.

2.3.S Coherence of Electromagnetic Waws

Coherence of an electromaS"etic wave is usually divided into two classifica-
tions: temporal and spatial.

2.J.S.1 Tmiponl CoMretlce

"The average lime interval during wltich the light wave oscillates in a pre-
dictable way is known as the coherencr time llJ, of the radiation. "The longer
the cohe1ence time, the greater is the temporal coherence of the light. Since
Rt'Vir.w of 011ticnl Printi/llcs 37

temporal coherence is given by the inverse or the frequency bandwidth or

the source tu, a large temporal coherence correlates to a small frequency
bandwidth, and hence is a manifestation or spectral purity.

2.3.S.2 SfMlidl C<>Mrm~

Spatial coherence relates directly lo a light wave's finite extent in space. A
bellcr way to think o( spatial coherence is to find ir the phase of the light
wa<e al two laterally spaced points is corl't'latcd. 11 the phase al these two
points is precisely correlated, then the ~adiation is spatially coherent. Spatial
coherence is ortcn mc;.1sun..--d using You_ng's experiment in \vhic,h light is
shown a t lwo pinholes in an opaque screen and the resulting interference
pattern obst>rvcd. The more uncorrela ted the light, the more cl05Cly the
product or the hvo pinhok.-s '"ill average to zero.

2.3.6 Interference of Electromagnetic Waves

Owing to the foci thal light is made up or electromagnetic waves another

phenomenon O( importance \'\ilJ need to be considered. When t\VO \'\aves
with different phase but identical frequency meet, the wave pallems will
add up. 11le addition will include the entire sine-wove function description,
and not just the individual amplitudes o( the respective waes.
In c.ise wave I has the expression A(I) = ~in(al), and wa.c 2 satisfies
8(1) S.,..in(/lt). and using the trigonometry fact that

o r in complex nota tion.cl' cos(t)+ isin(I), A(l)= l~c(A'c""'), A'-<:0mp lex,

A Ac1, nnd cl(~ 1 blc"e'b, '''c obtain the follo,ving expressions:

c~"'I = cos(a+b)+ isin(a+b} (2.58)

and
exp(i.:)- exp(- iz}
~n (z) 2i (2.59)

From this '''e c~n see thc1t \Vhcn 'vaves 1and2 have thesamcph.'\Se 2 /J and
the same amplitude A, then the combined effect will be a wave with phase a
and amplitude 2A, i.e.. A"" 2Asin(a). When '"aves l and 2 are 180" out or
p hase, {I. then sin (a- <z)/2= sin(0) will ensure total extinction or the
combined crrect.
38 An /11trod11clio11 to Bio111edicnl Optics

Complicau!d wave structures will result anywhere in between these two

extremes.

2.3.7 ~Velocity

As mentioned previously, the phase of the electromagnetic wave ~x.J)

(wl- tr) is contained in the exponential term Jle Jloexp[i(wl- trJI. If we look
at the partial derivative of the phase with respect to the time t, holding the
position x constant, we obtain the rate of change or phase with time, or
("'! ,,), OJ, which is simply the angular frequency of the wave. Likewise, the
rate of change of phase with distance, holding the time t constant, is
C"l.,J, k, nnd we obtain the wave number of the medium. Now, for the
phase velocity v,,. we are interested in the speed or propagation for the con-
dition or constant phase, which can be rewritten as follows:

(2.60)

This is the speed at whkh the profile moves and is commonly known as the
phase velocity.

2.3.8 Croup Velocity

The medium in which the electromagnetic wave propagates determin<>s the
relationship among w, k, and v. U in vacuum, the only truly nondispersive
environment, the relationsrup is as in Equation (2.60), i.e., v w/k. In a dis-
persive medium, every wave propagates at a speed that depends on its fre-
quency. When a number o f different frequency h\'lrmonic \Yaves
superimpose to form a composite wave, the resulting \YT1ve envelope will
travel at a speed d ifferent from that of its constituent waves. This introduces
the concept of the group velocity of trne envelope v and its relationship with
the phase velocity. The group velocity v is the rate at which the n.'Sultant
wave envelope propagates, and v,e v e cufk applies specifically ton nondis
persive medium in which the phase velocity is independent of wavelength
so that the waves could have the same speed. In a dispersive medium, w is
dependent on ~ or equivalenUy on k. The dispersion relation for w is given
by 0> w(k), and if the frequency range is small and centered about the car-
rier w,. then the group velocity is approximately equal to the derivative of
the dispersion relation evaluated al ....

(2.61)

The resultant wave envelope propagates at a speed v, that may be greater

than equal to, or less than v, the phase velocity of the carrier.
Rt'View of Optical l'ri11ciples 39

2.3.9 Cauchy Theorem

Complex analysis is the study of functions of complex variables. Complex
analysis is a widely used and powerful tool irt optics, esp<?Cially with regard
to the index of refraction:
n=Jt: (2.62)

w here Equation (2.62) represents t.h e definition of the complex index of

refraction as the square root of the rela tive dielectric permittivity c,, or in
general. the square root of the real part of the relative d ielectric permittivity
fo r the real index of refraction. The full expression for the complex index of
refraction is
n = 111 - in, (2.63)

The real and the imag.inary parts of the index of refraction are defined as
the index of refraction n, and the index of extinction (i.e., absorption) " i
respectively. The complex part of the ;ndex of refraction is considered to
describe the attenuation of e lectromagnetic radiation.
In optics the French mathematician Augustin Louis Caudiy presented a
mathematical treatment under the hypothesis that ether had the mechanical
properties o( an elastic medium. He fornlulated several theoretica_I analyses
on \\1ave propagation in Uquids and ela'Stic rnedia.
The Cauchy integral theorem is primarily us..>d in complex analysis and is
an inlportant statement on path integrals for holomorph_ic functions in the
complex plane. The Cauchy theorem states that if two different paths con-
nect the same two points, and a function is holomorphic in the mathemati
cal space in behveen the hvo paths, then the two path integ.rals of the
function \\1i_ll esse.ntiaUy be the same.
Technically, the Cauchy theorem defines the parameters under which it is
permitted to integrate or differentiate a conlplcx function.
Applying this criterion to the real and imaginary index of refraction, and
substituting a suitable representation (or the dielectric permittivity, the index
of refraction (real part 11,) and the index of extinction (imaginary part 111) can
n
be expressed, respectively as a function of the real and imaginary tri parts
o( the relative permi ttivity using the fo l:Jo,ving equations :

"r = Jt~ +~
2
+trt (2.64)

and

J~ +,~ - tn (2.65)
Iii =
2
40 An /11trod11ctio11 to 6io111edical Optics

We define the relative permittivity as.

i::,=l+i0 (2.66)

where Xo signifies the dipole rontribu lion of the medium, which becomes an
int~ part of the light-tissue interaction for anisotropic media. Here we
have introduced the dimensionless variable

w'
xo= -t (2.67)
"'
\Vhere
(2.68)

is the natu.ral frequency of the mediwn.

We further introduce w'0 as

(2.69)

where the resonance frequency w,, of the medium is derived from the time-
avcrngcd mechanical energy E., as follows:

(Elrl )=.!.mw'a'
.2 0 M
(2.70)

w here m
is the dipole amplitude and m the dipole mass.
The final dimensionless variable

w 2.n c
.O=-. =- . - (2.71)
a>o 'o ;-o

Combining all the definitions, the relationship between the rel.olive dielectric
permittivity and the introduced dimensionless variables yields the following
expression for the real relative permittivity:

I+ Co (t-.O') - I
... (1- n'>' + P'.O' (2.72)
+z0 (1- n'l[1 - <P' - 2)(111 - 1
+zo[I - (fl' - I)!l' ]
Review of 011tical l'ri,,dples 41

Equation (2.72) C<ln be rcdua!d to

' (I+ x.>[1- CP'(~ :;:;n') (2.73)

with
I
fl =-. (2.74)

""''
\\'here fJ is a dimensionless variable 'vhich uses the characteristic interaction
time t .
Thus, the index or nafrnction under the Cauchy theorem is expressed as

11 JO +x0 i[1- <JJ'-iJx.n' ] =Jc1+x0 )+<1 - P'>x.n' (2.75)

2(1+xol 2Jc1+xo)
The obtained relation is caUed the Cauchy's relation M~ with

A = l (l +zoJ

and
(1- Jl'Jzo 4,.r
8
2J(1+ Xol oii
The introduction or the dimensionless variables in Equations (2.67), (2.71),
and (2.74) allows the phase velocity and group velocity lo be rewritten,
respectiveIy, as rollows:

(2.76)

and

(2.77)

The Cauchy theorem is used in Chapter 5 lor the Taylor expansion or the
light propagation. Additionally in Chap ter 8 the Cauchy theorem is used in
the description or index o( refraction d isparities resulting from tissue inho-
mogeneities and th4'rmal effects applied to Sch lieren imaging.
42 A11 /11trad11ctio11 to Bioml'dicnl Optics

2.3.10 Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum

Moving electric chaiges produce magnetic fields, and possess an electric
field or their own. Oscillatory motion of a charge is of special interest, since
this produces. reproducible occurrence for an extended period or time. The
oscillatory nature of the electric 6eld as a function of both time and place
provides an identical oscillatory generation of a magnetic field. This is
known as an electromagnetic wave. The electroma~ic spectrum ranges
across a wide spectrum, and is categori2ed by the source and the sensation.
The convention is the following seven classifications: television and radio,
microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays.
These subcategories will be described in the following sections.

2.3.10. 1 Television and Radio Waves

Television and radio waves operate in the long, mid, and short-wave range,.
with wavelengths in kilometers down to meters and frequencies ranging
from tens of kilohertz to JO' kHz, these waves are not only generated in tele-
vision and radio transmitters, but also ocrur naturally in the emission of stars.

1.3.10.1 Microwaves W-
Thio part of the electromagnetic spectrum is used in rador and communic
lion. In addition, it finds applications in investigating fundamental proper-
ties of atoms and molerules. Last but not the leas~ it is used to heat food. The
wavelengths for m.icrowaves range from approximately J m down to J mm
and frequencies between 10' and 1ou Hz. The photon energy over this band
runs from Jo-s to 10- eV.

2.3.10.3 lnfr.1red Waves

Infrared radiation can be subdivided into far-, mid-. and near-infrared, with
respective wavelengths ranging from 10-J to 3 x Jo-s m, from 3 X 10- to 3 x
10- m, and for the near-infrared from 3 x 10- m to the visible 7.8 x 10"' m,
or 780 nm. Overall the infrared spectrum spans from 10-3 m to 7800 A. The
energy levels of infrared light range from 10-> eV at the longt'St wavelength,
up to 1.6 eV approoching the visible spcct:rum. The frequency range is from
3 x 1011 to 4 x JO" Hz.
This is radiation recognized predominantly as emitted by black bodies or
hot artifacts, such as slllrs or incandescent-tight bulbs.

2.3.10.4 V'nibll' Liglrt Waves

This is electromagnetic radiation where the human eye is the most sensi
live. The wavelength range spans roughly one octave from 780 nm down
to 380 nm. This oonesponds to a frequency range of 4 x 10"- 8 x JO" Hz,
respectively. The photon energy in the visible spectrum increases from
1.6 eV in the rc<I to 3,2 cV in the blue-violet. Table 2.1 lists the color
spectrum with respect to wavelength and frequency of the electromag
netic radiation.
Color vision is made possible by sensors in the eye caUed t'Or\C$, while the
eye also has bla<:k and white sensation by sensors reforttd to as rods. Both
names arc due to the ccllular shapes of these respective sensors. 'The maxi
mum spectral sensitivity of the eye is due to the rods and is at about 540 nm.
All colors combined pro,ide the perception o f white, while the lack of
colors or the lack of light in general is qualitatively represented as black.
This P"l1 of the electromagncHc spectrum is generally dealt with in the
science of optics,

2.3.10.S Ultraviolet Waves

This part of the electromagnetic spectrum runs from wavelengths of 380 nm
down to 600 pm, and spans frequencies from 8 X 10" to 5 X 1017 Hz. The
photon energy of ultraviolet radiation is in between 3 and 2000 eV. The u ltra
violet energy fits the nuclear energy of many atomic bonds nnd chemical
reactions.

2.3.10.6 XRay Wa-

X-rays, or Rllntgl'll radiation, form a Stion of the elertromagnetic spectrum
ranging from approximately 10~ to 6 x 10- 12 m or 6 pm. The mechanism to
produce x-rays was first discovered by Wilhelm C. Rontgen (184$-1923) in
1895. The Xray frequencies arc in between 3 x 10' and S X JO" Hz, with
energies from 1.2 X to> to 2.4 X 10' eV, X-rays are generally produced when
last-moving electrons hit a metal anode target and rapidly decelerate.
Examples of mctol targcts arc Cesium (Ce) and Tungsten (W).

2.3.10.7 Camm.1 Radiation Waves and Cosmic Rays

Ca1nnla and cosmic rays originate from the charge nlOtion in the nucleus of
clements. As o rule there is no sharp d e marcation between the high-energy

TABU 2.t
Electromagnetic Spectrum in the V1Sible Ught with Colo<
Arranged with Respect to Wavelength and Frequency

-
co1 ..

01...
Crttn
,.,..low
Or;tni;t
w~nlr-ngth

~
~92
492-577
577._m
597-622
.t (nm) Fttquotney
1~
~10
6.1~
t., o- w

5.21).5.0J
5.~Jll
RA.-d 622-780 .82-3.84
 Arr lntrod11clion to Biomedical Optics

~
1 pm I nm 1.m 1mn Im I km

1o'' 101 1011 10 12 1ot

FIGURE 2.2
Frequency (Hz) Electrom.ogMtk tptrum.

x-ray and the beginning of the gamma-ray spectrum. Gamma rays have
waveleng th between 10- 10 an d 10- 14 m, with the resptlve frequency sp-
trum of 3X1011 to 3X l 0'2 Hz. The energy band runs from 10' to HJ' eV.
Cosmk radiation ca.n be attribu ted! to fast-moving elementary particles
(mesons) from within the nucleus. Cosmic rays have even higher energy lev-
els, and associated extremely short wavelengths. Cosmic rays cannot easily
be stopped under ordinary conditio ns. Both gamma and cosmic rays are
investigated in astronomy research.
Owing to the short wavelengths in the x-ray and gammaray groups the
risk of ionization of organic materials is a serious cona!m. These are the
wavelengths that people need to be shielded from to avoid cancerous expo-
sure.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the range of the electromagnetic spectrum in both
wavelength and frequency domain. The visible spectrum is colored with a
few representative colors; however, the real visible spectrum is a continu-
ously changing color array.

2A Light Sources
In general, light is emitted by an accelerating charge; the acceleration can be
derived from many different sources.
When an atom or a molecule is in its ground state, all the energy levels of
the particle are filled up from the lowest energy state, cl0$CSt to the nucleus,
upward to the energy level that can be filled with all the electrons present
in the orbit around the nucleus in the Bohr atom model, after applying the
Pauli exclusion principle. and the de Broglie orbital restrictions. The Pauli
exclusion principle, devised by Wolfgang Pauli (1900 to 1958), states that at
most two electrons can simultaneously occupy an orbit around a nucleus
with the same energy; however, they will both have opposite spin. The de
Broglie restriction will be discussed in Section 2.5 in greater detail, but
RView of Optical l'ri11ciplts 45

summari1.<'S to the following doctrine: All moving particles display a wave

p a ttern, and for an electron in orbit, the wave pattern needs to form a closed
'vave to sueSs(u11y OCC'Up)" an orbit. This means that the \o\1ave pattern is a
resonance, with energy correlating to the valenre energy o( that electron.
When subjecting the elce1r0ns to an external energy field, one or more
electrons may be excited to higher energy states with respect to the nucleus
within the electron orbit model.
Once the elce1r0ns are in a higher energy state, they will only remain in
that state for a finite Ufetime, before returning to their ground state. Once the
electron returns to its g.r ound state it is accelerated to facilitate the transition
between the energy levels. The accelerated charge carries a n electric field
\Yith it, and during accclcralion_. it produces a changing cll'Ctric field in time
ar'ld space. Based on the principles o utli1'cd in Ampere's law and the
Maxwe ll interpretation of Ampere's finding. this changing e lectric field will
induce n changing magnetic field, thus giving a combined chang ing ek."Ct:ric
and ntagnctic nclds, cll'ctromagnctic radiation. 11,c cxtcmal cn~rgy ri<!ld can
thus be used to gene rate light. The energy delivered by the extemal field is
in this '''ay converted into photo1' energy \vhen the excited electron returns
to its ground state, and is lost from the atom o r molecule.
When the external energy is pro,,ided repeatedly or continuously, there is
a steady replenishment or the energy lost due to the emission o( the photon
~'llY This principle provides tlw pot~tial for light generation, and, under
appropriate conditions, for the generation or laser light.
Temperature is linked to heat transport, and heat under dasskal mechan
ical conditions is directly proportional to the kinetic energy o( an object such
as a n a tom or a molecule in motion Til<' kinetic energy or elementary parti-
cles can be in lranslationat rotational,. and vibrational motion. The rotallonal
and vibrationnl motion both cause an O&illatory field to be generated when
observed from the outside of the medium that holds llK'SC particles (fur-
field). This is where the blac kbody radiation of Planck's functio n makes its
intrnduction. Every object that is at a temperature above absolute wro (0 K )
will emit lig ht; thus, the highe r the temperature, the more is the energy in the
emitted lig ht, u ntil the visible spectrum, and even the u ltraviolet, are
reached. EIL"Ctrical energy \viii raise the temperature as \Yell '''hen passing
through n rnediun1 due 10 conversion into mechanical energy.

2,4.1 Broadband Light Sources

The initial light sourn.'S used in biomedical optics applications were inro-
herent, broodb.11id sourre; such as sunlight, incandescent lamps, and noble
gas arc lamps. E.irlier to that only candlelight and oil lanterns were available
for inspection or people suffering from medical afflict ions. Th<.'SC light
sources offcn.'<I no re,11 potential for dia goostk and treatment device devel-
opment, because much or the broad spectrum was not useful. Once mao
learned to manage the sunlight and cre.1te high-output artificial light
sources, lhc gatC\\ny for biomedical optics opened. Even still, ii took tl good
46 An /11trod11clio11 lo Oio111edic11/ Optics

part of two centuries to reach the point from the initial discovery of lenses to
the development of medical apparatus based on light. All the light sources
mentioned so facr are called broadband sources. These sources emit light
ranging across a wide band of the electromagnetic spectrum. They typically
illuminate with the entire visible spectrum, including infrared. For the sun,
the ultraviolet and shorter wavelengths are also integrated. TI>ese broad-
band sources have wavelengths that are not useful in visualiZJtioll, and in
the case of incandescent light or sunlight, there is a significant amount of
infrared radiatioll, which simply adds heat energy. This heat mergy was
responsible for b urning patients, and was one of the main reasons for the
slow acceptance of mdoscopes at the tum of the twentieth century. Later on.
sou m.>S such as nuorcsccnt light and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were
added to the spectrum of light-emitting devices, and in the invisible short-
wavelcngth spectrum, the X-ray tube. The light emission bandwidth of these
sources was norrowcr than what was available before then. EsJ'<'Cially the
LEDs offer a relatively narrow spectrum, howeve r with only low ava.ilable
output power. In 1960, the LASER (l.ig ht amplification by s timulatt'CI emis-
sion of radiation) was invented, offering high output and extremely narrow
bandwidth, lmding itself ideally for medical applications.

2.4 .2 Luer Operation

There are thttt possible mechanisms for an atom to interact with light:

1. Spontaneous emission
2. Stimu4ited emission
3. Absorption

All three interactions are involved in the description o f the production o f

the monochromatic light produced by the L..'ser.
With the advent of the Laser the selection of treatment or diag.n ostlc wave-
length bt>came much more specific a n d selective.
Laser is produced by excitation of energy levels i.n the laser medium with
external energy sources such as light or electrical current, where an electron
is excited to a higher energy level when the appropriate external energy is
delivered to an atom. The excited electron will return to its ground energy
state after a finite time has elapsed, the duration depmding on the stability of
the excited state for that particular atom. When the excited electrons revert
back to their original stable condition, they are accelerated. An accelerating
elec:tron emits on energy packet called a photon that can be explained by the
~retical works of Maxwell and Newton as described in Section 2.2. When
one electron reverts back to its original energetic orbit, the pho ton that is
released then stimulates the excited atoms in its path to revert bock as well,
emitting a photon that is identical in every aspect to the instigator of the
p rocess, and thus each photon has the same wavelength and phase.
Review of 011tical l'ri11ciples 47

Laser light is what is caUed a coherent light source of a single wavelength.

Coherence is a relative concept A single source, such as an oscillating single
charge, will by dcAnition produce a stable, single-wavelength clectromag
netic wave with a perfect sinusoidal waveform with a single phase for an
indefinite duration. In contrast, inrohe>ence occurs when multiple oscillating
charges produce electromagnetic waves that are not nec<SSarily of the same
frequmcy, and whoee phase relations are completely random with respect to
each other. Perfect coherence corresponds to an electromagnetic beam of
waves of light each with perfectly identical frequencies and all waves travel
ing with indistinguishable phase of the sinusoidal expll!SSion of the wave.
The light emerging from the output mirror of a laser is monochromatic
(single wavelength), coherent (in phase), and parallel.
For a laser light source, the photon e.nergy emitted needs to be replenished
on a continuous basis ror the laser to continue to operate. For the laser to
maintain stimulotcd emission there is a need for t"I continuous supply of
excited electrons in the laser medium, ready to emit p hotons of equal fre-
q uency and p hase. To L'Stablish the conditions for laser action to occur the
following thl'l'C conditions need to be '5atisfied:

I . There must be more atoms in an excited state than in the ground

slate. There must be more emission of energy. in the form of pho-
tons, than absorption of eneigy in the laser medium. This is called
population inwrsioo.
2. 1he excited state of the laser medium must be stable enough to
maintain excit;ition before spontaneous emission can occur. This is
what is referred to as a 111tasloblt slolt. Under these conditions the
lifetime of the excited metastable state will exct'Cd the typical
excited state li_(ctimc or 10"8 s. In this case stimulated emission \YiU
occur before spontaneous emission occurs.
3. The photons tho! are released under s timulated emission will need
to remain confinL'<i to the excite d medium long enough to provide
stimulated emission of neighboring excited a toms.

The major components of a laser are an active medium \vhere electrons

can be excited, a resonant cavity \vhere the excitt-d energy is temporarily
stored,, and a pumping soum? to create the excited state of the laser medium.
We will begin by describing the roncept of reaching on excitoo ..iate level
population that will be capable of generating the laser conditions.

1.4.1. I Einsttin Populiltion lnVPrsion

The Einstein theory of population inversion describes the phenomenological
relations concerning the interaction of an external electric or magnetic field
with a group of atoms. This interaction is of interest in the generation of a sit-
uation where laser' conditions can be accomplished. The primory condition
to be s.1tis ficd to achieve laser action is population inversion. To establish
48 An Jntrod11ctio" to Biomedical Oplics

this situation where there are a greater- number of excited atoms in the l3Ser
medium than atoms in the ground state the following conditions need to be
considen>d:
A minimum amount of energy will be requin>d to raise the majority of
atoms to the excited state if all energy injected into the laser medium when
the pumping process of raising the electrons to the excited state is 100%
effective. ln that case only the energy lost due to radiation of light by stimu-
lated emission will need to be replaced.
The excited state may not be a single energy band, but most likely it will
be several bands thut can be excited. Those multiple excitation bands can be
further spl.it into various modes. Each energy mode will have its own char-
acteristic lifetime. When we call the energy modes within one single energy
band Nm and the average lifetime of these individual modes (), the fol-
lowing rela tion for the minimum energy required for pumping the laser
medium to excited slate can be derived.
Consider the idealized situation of a system with just two energy levels,
the ground stole and the excited state. Figure 2.3 illustrates the input of
energy on a two-level system raisillg the ground-state condition to an
excited state.
This system is subjected to an external electromagnetic field. The energy
of a photon is expressed by the Planck relationship

c (2.78)
W s h J1 7,_

The pho ton energy Wis the difference in energy between the excited energy
level E,, a.n d the ground energy level E,, and formula ted as

(2.79)

Since this is n f\\l<>--energy level system only one single \vavclcngth Ao or

frequency 10 will be generated in the transition.
This gives the conditions for the pumping power as ><pressed by

P= N~ht
(2.80)
)"Otc

flCURf 2.3
Energy addt>d to<1 ground IITT!te r.nl.k'f 1~ 5round 11tate to
an excited sl!te.
Review of Oplic11/ l'ri11ciples 49

where P N,,/r, with N. being the necessary number or excited-state atoms.

The rate or stimulated emission now is directly proportional to the
absolute dirlel\.>nee between the number or atoms in excited state N, and the
number of atoms in the ground state N,; i.e.,. N 1 - N 1
This diffen.>nCC between the excited and the ground states is directly
proportional to the ratio or the average lifetime or the emission ... to the
average lifetime or the excited state as

IJ.N=N2 -N1 = N.r, (2.81)

"
For spontaneous cnli.ssion the rate of decay is dircct.ly proportional to the
nunlbcr o( <.'xcitcd atoms as
dN
~=-A21 N, (2.82)

where A,, is the probobility or spontaneous emission, or the Einstein cocffi

dent A,,. and has the dimension of time- . Absorption or energy will take
place according to the same principles as

dN
:::.:.J. = - R12N , = -B,,U(1 )N1
di (2.83)

where 8 12 is called the absorption coefficient, and has the dimension or time- .
Similarly, in s timulated emission the equation can be rewritten as

dN,
- - - R21 N 2 = - B,1U(10 )N2 (2.84)
di

where 8 12 is called the stimulation prob~bility, and again has the dimension
or time 1
The coerlkicnt 8 11 depends only on t he energy-level transition, and is a
function of the atonl ln question. The decay of the populallon N 1 and N2 also
depends on the magnitude or the flux or the incident electromagnetic wave,
the stimulus photons, and additionally the cross-sectional area or the stimu
lation target.
The stimulated emission can be fonnulated as

(2.&5)

where R21 is the stimul11tcd emission rate. <I> the photon flux, and a11 the
slinlulatc..od emission cross-section.
The coefficients A12, Bw and 811 arc caUt'<l the Einstein coclfidents.
so A" llltrod11ctio11 to Biom,./ical Optics

2.4.2.2 Adtieving a Mrt..table State

A laser medium needs to be constructed on the basis or the knowledge or the
interaction or various elements in the presence or other elements, and how
this atomic matrix will affect the energy structure or the neighboring atoms.
The decay or levels N1 and N2 as a function or time can be described by the
roUowlng rate equations:

(2.86)

dN1 =- dN2 (2.87)

di di

This can be done purely o n the basis of the assumption that this system only
has two energy levels.
Utilizing Planck's blackbody radiation equation for a b lackbody at tem
perature T, emitting electromagnetic radiation \Vilh a SJX'Clral content of
U(v) is given by

(2.88)

where e' is the eigenvalue for the resonance energy density per photon, and
(n) the average number or photons in each resonance energy density. The
Planck's law will be described in detail in Ch.1pter 14, section 14.12, under
Thermographic imaging.
The occupation of lhc levels N1 and Nz in thermal equilibrium sotisfies the
expression
N, - g,
~ - -exp
[-/- 11] (2.89)
N 1 g, kT

where g, and g1 are the radiation weights or the respective energy levels.
Under thermal equmbrium the decay rate from level I <'qUals the decay
rate from level 2, and they both will n ot experience decoy. This condition is
formulated os

dN, =c:IN' = O (2.90)

di di

This boundary condition results in the expression

(2.91)
Review of Oplicnl Pri11ciples 51

Now,
(2.92)

from which the conditions for the electromagnetic field can be solved as

U(ol (N)
s,, N - a,, (2.93)
'
Using the conditions for the ratio of occupation of the two IC\'Cls in them>al
equilibrium, in combination with the blackbody radiation, the Einstein coef
ficicnts c~n be cor'l"elatcd to each othc.r as follo\vs:

g,- --B21
B1 2 (2.94)
g,

and
(2.95)

where U,(r,) n'/<' represents the spectral energy density of one photon per
eigenvalue oscillation when the average number of photons in each eigen
value oscil!.ltion is one single photon..
Thls indicates that the stimulatl emission in an extcm.11 fleld equals the
spontaneous emission, under conditions of a single photon in each energy
configuration. This condition is satisfied due to the Pauli exclusion principle
and the de Broglie orbital restrictions.
The fuel that the energy levels are split up due to orbital restrictions in the
Bohr atom model, the emission will not consist of a single narrow wave
length, but rather a spectrum with a linewidth. This linewidth will be dk
taled by the elements used to generate the loser medium.
When the Average number of photons in each resonance energy density
(n) < I spontaneous emission will dominate, and when (n) > I, there is pre-
dominantly stimulated emission.

2.4.2.J Harnessing the Photons in the Laser Mffium

A laser is a cavity, ,..,ilh sphe.rical or plane mirrors on opposite sides,
which is filled with a laser medium. The medium is any material (glass,
gas, crystal, dye, or semiconductors) that has atoms, which can be excited
to a semJstablc ~ncrgy state with g:reater energy content than their ground
slate. The mirrors or opposite sides of the laser medium reflect the emit-
ted photons back and forth, creatin$ an oscillation, and in some cases a
52 Att /11lroli11clio11 lo /Jiomrdlcal Optics

resonance. While the fl ux of photons travels between these two mirrors

with only a small portion allowed to escape through a single mirror of
renectivity < I (the output mirror), tile number of photons inside the cav-
ity continually increases, if the gain is larger than the losses of the cavity,
stimulating additional excited atoms to release th<>ir energy as identical
photons.

2.4.2.4 Amplification
As a laser beam passes through an active medium, the rate of change of pho-
ton nux <!> is given by

where
(2.97)

is the population inversion.

In Equtions (2.96) and (2.97) sponlilnCOus cmb:slon is ncgl~cd and for
noodegcnerate laser levels the cross-sections are equal, i.e., "u ">
The solution is
d<I>
- oANdz (2.98)
4>

yielding
<!> <l>(O)e'"'' (2.99)

where I is the leng th of the laser medi um.

In thermal equilibrium, AN is negative. The negative population change
leads to the following expression:

!'N!tii..,..,.._ =exp-[~)
1 kT
(2. 100)

In the laser oscillato r the pumping process makes the popullltion inversion
positive and the amplification of the photon nux can be deterrnined on the
basis o r the threshold condition expressed by

R1R2 exp{2" A NI) = 1

(2.101)
Review of 011tic11I Pri,,cipks 53

where R1 and R, are the respective reflectance of the mirrors on both sides
of the cavity when intcmal losses are neglected.
The critical population inversion is OO\V given by

AN = _ ln(R,R2 ) (2.10'2)
< 2ol

2.4.3 ~r L.ight Sources

1...iscr light- tissue intcrttction and distribution o( light energy in I.issue
depend on both laser characteristics and tissue properties. Lasers are avail-
able in the ultraviolet, visible, and near and mcdium-infr(lrcd regime of the
elcctromugn clic spectrum. Light is scattered and absorlx.>d in the tissu e.
When light is nbsorbcd, it is converted into another for1n or energy,. n\ostly
into heut, nnd to a snlaller extent into Light or another \\lavclcngth. Since con-
version of light into heat occurs \Vithia tissue areas that the photons have
managed to reach,, heat generation by laser follO\\fS a patlcm of the light dis-
tribution. In many cases, the incoherent nature and brood spcct.rum were not
necessarily a dis;idvantage, since eithe r merely the photochemical or pho-
tothermal effects were desired, or the wide bandwidth was tiken in stride,
wllJle 11Uli1ing the ~ici<!I s~- The f~ct l!l;lt la$<1rs arc coherent light
sources is still not necessarily used to its full potenlia~ since the user is often
generally interested in the photothennal capacity of the irradiation. In cer-
tain diagnostic opplications only, the coherence properties of laser are capi
lalizcd on lo deliver the unique pcrfonnance of the inslrumenlation.
As far os the availability of laser sources is ronccmed there are generally
five distinct types of lasers, in alphabetical order: chemical lasers, diode
lasers, dye lasers, gas lasers, and solid.,;tate lasers. A doss by itself is the free.
electron laser (FEL).

2.4.3. I Chemical Laser

Chemical losers arc lasers that generate laser light from a chemical reaction.
They typically operate on molecular tr.ansitions, although there is one that
operates on an atomic transition~ namely atomic iodine. Common chemical
lasers are hydrogen fluoride (HF) and deuterium fluoride (OF). These lasers
operate al wavelengths in the mid-infnred of 2.6-3.3 m and 3.5-4.2 m,
respectively. Other chemical lasers include the hydrogen bromide (HBr)
laser al 4.()..4.7 m, the carbon monoxi<le (CO) laser al 4.~.8 m, and the
carbon dioxide (CO;) laser at 10.~ll.O m. Atomic iodine produces laser
irradiation at 1.3 m, and is obtained ''i the generation of excited molecu-
lar oxygen by reacting molecular chlorine with hydrogen peroxide. The
excited molecular oxygen lransfers its energy to produce an e>edted state of
atomic iodine. Table 2.2 lists several chemical lasers and the infrared
cn,jssion \'\ avclcngth.
1
54 All /11trod11ctio11 lo 8iomtdica/ Optics

TABLE 2.2
Various Chemical Lasers and the Emission
\\lovelenglh
W1vt:length (Jun)
Hf 2.6-33
DF 3.54.2
Hlk 41>-4 '
co...ico, 4.9-S.l!nd 10.0-11.0
lodint (Cl'JI) 1.)15

2.4.3.2 Diode laf'!r or Semiconductor Laser

The class of !K!mkonductor lasers is also a fairly new generation of light
soun::es. A sc1niconductor is a material that has a resistnnce lhnt (alls \x?hv~n
the resistance of the class identified historically as conductor, and that of the
group of insulators. The semicon d uctor or dlode lasers ore made of semicon-
ductor materials that emit light at the pn ju nction when a current is forced
through this junction. The pn junction is the result of a contact between a
semiconductor material doped with atoms carrying an excess of valence elec-
trons (ntypc semiconductors, due to the inherent surplus negative charge)
and a 5<'11\iconcluctor material with a toms lacking va..,,_ electrons <p-typc
semiconductors, due to the inherent deficient negative charge, thus carrying
a positive charge). The charge depletion results in a charge migration, creat-
ing an electric field. An external current will force the recombination of
charges, resulting in the emission of energy in the form of light as photons.
Some examples are the gallium-aisenide (GaAs) laser emitting ot 807-840 nm
bands, aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AIGaAs) laser emitting at 7~790 nm,
gallium-indium-arsenide-phosp horus (CalnAsP) laser emitting at 1300 nm,
and the gallium-indiumarsenide-ph osphorus (CalnAsP) laser emitting at
1550 nm. These diode lasers are primarily running o n sta ndard nel voltage,
and do not require elaborate cooling equipment. These sp<:cifications make
them very desirable tools; in addition, they are at least nn order o f n1agnitude
less expensive than the other catego ries of lasers, and have a significantly
longer lifetime than most. One of the d rawbacks of diode lnsers, however, is
the fact that the output power is often less than a comparable laser from any
of the other class<5. Other disadvantages are that they cannot be coupled into
small fiberoptic core diameters, nor can the coupling to the fiber be accom-
plished at small numerical apertures. Also, the diode laser wavelengths .,..
spotty on the spectral scale, often requiring sacrifices in operation modality
compared with lasers in the other categories. The spectrum ol diode lasers is
expanding daily, with emissions gradually moving from the mid- to the near-
infrared into the visible red and SJ'!"O and recently into the visible blue. The
new wavelengths become accessible when new combinations of semicon-
ductor materials are combined to produce efficient laser conditions. Another
emerging ol age of diode lasers is the introduction of tunable diode lasers